Alien insect species affecting agriculture and natural resources in Sudan

Transcription

1 AGRICULTURE AND BIOLOGY JOURNAL OF NORTH AMERICA ISSN Print: , ISSN Online: , doi: /abjna , ScienceHuβ, Alien insect species affecting agriculture and natural resources in Sudan Abdalla Abdelrahim Satti Environment and Natural Resources Research Institute (ENRRI), National Centre for Research (NCR), Khartoum, Sudan Phone number , ABSTRACT Agricultural crops in Sudan are usually attacked by different local pests at variable levels based on the prevailing climatic and ecological conditions. However, with the modernization of agriculture coupled with the rapid movement of global trade during the last decades, new species of insects were accidentally introduced to the country. Unfortunately, most of these insects are potentially harmful species, hence imposing serious threats to agriculture and/or natural resources. This paper sheds light on the important established alien insect species, their original homes and the main host plants affected. More than twenty five species believed to be exotic were listed, and brief accounts were given on important ones. They include devastating pests on field and horticultural crops, store products and natural flora, among which are species of stemborers, bollworms, leafminers, fruitflies, scale insects, beetles and others. The paper stressed the steady increase in the frequency of introductions as a consequence of trade globalization, and warned from the entry of some new invasive species in the near future. Finally, the paper emphasizes the importance of cooperation in combating alien pests, particularly through biological approach, and asks for upgrading of quarantine measures in our countries so as to keep pace with the accelerating world trade. Key words: Alien pests, invasive species, fruitflies, bollworms, leafminers, stemborers, green pit scale. INTRODUCTION accidentally to the country at different times in the Exotic or alien species may include animals 20 th century (King, 1908; Cappizzi, 1986; Beje, 1996). (vertebrates and invertebrates), plants or However, the problems of alien pests appear to be microorganisms, which introduced accidentally or aggravated during the last decades in various intentionally to an area outside their original home. countries including the Sudan. The acceleration of They cause variable impacts in the new area, international trade and progress in transport facilities depending on the species and the environmental among different countries in this era were suggested conditions of the invaded area. The absence of as the main factors. Moreover, the intentional natural enemies of an alien pest outside its native importation of agricultural products and plant habitat is one of the important factors enhancing seedlings, especially of fruit trees, from several rapid colonization and establishment of exotic countries has also contributed badly in bringing invasive species. Therefore, established pests are several exotic pests to the country (Abbas and El generally difficult to control and may cause serious Nasr, 1992; Ibrahim, 2006; Dawoud, 2008; Mardi et ecological and/or economic implications (Porter et al., al., 2010). Hence, very devastating species of alien 1997). pests were reported inflicting serious economic Scientific records of important insect species relevant to agriculture in Sudan were started earlier in the 20 th damage on various field and horticultural crops and store products. Most of these pests, including species century with the establishment of research of fruitflies, bollworms and the green pit scale insects laboratories and large scale agricultural projects such of date palm, still exert heavy economical impact and as the Gezira scheme. These records indicated that financial burden to the country. This occurred as a there were several indigenous species adapted to result of the heavy insecticides applications, besides local habitats of the country since immemorial times yield reduction of several crops and limited exports (Pollard, 1955; Schmutterer, 1969; Burgstaller et al., restricted by quarantine issues. 1984). On the other hand, such records also revealed that there were numerous alien species introduced

2 This paper sheds light on the established alien insects, their original homes and impacts on local plants, giving brief accounts on important ones. It also highlighted some invasive pests which expected to enter the country in the future, and encouraged a collaborative approach in combating established species. Notably, beneficial insects introduced intentionally as natural enemies of pests are outside the scope of this article. However, due to insufficient published research data on alien pests, this review article also make use of information obtained from technical reports of the Ministry of Agriculture especially records of the Quarantine Unit, data and documents of FAO on exotic pests, besides some unpublished information reserved from general field observations or personal communications. ALIEN INSECT PESTS IN SUDAN Species, origins and establishment: Table (1) listed the important alien insect species in Sudan, showing scientific and common names, origins, affected hosts and detection times. They were grouped in the table according to their host plants, starting with pests of field and vegetable crops, then fruit trees, store products and lastly some pests of natural flora. These included stemborers, bollworms, serpentine leafminers, fruitflies, scale insects, store pests and others. Nevertheless, this list neither implies the absence of missing or undetected exotic species, nor negates inclusion of mistaken ones due to the fact that the entrance of some recorded pests has not yet been clearly confirmed. According to the table, 26 species of insects believed to be exotic were recorded in this study. They originated in different regions, with the majority (>57%) being native to, especially countries of Southeast like India. Also, an appreciable number (ca. 19%) of the recorded pests are originated in the new world, while very few species known to be of Australian and African origins. However, excluding Tuta absoluta which is still under investigation, about twenty-five species of insects listed in the table were known to be established at different times in Sudan. Routes and dates of entrance: Almost all the listed insects were introduced accidentally from several countries, mainly with agricultural commodities. They entered either with imported food grains/ crop seeds (e.g., khapra beetle), seedlings (green pit scale and mango gall midge), fruits (fruitflies) or vegetables (serpentine leafminers) (ARC, 2004; Kabbashi, 2004; Ibrahim, 2006). For instances, the khapra beetle was thought to be introduced through grains shipments brought from India to feed the soldiers during the World War II, while the presence of the pink bollworm (PBW) in Sudan was attributed to infested cotton seed imported from Egypt during 1910s (Kisha, 1978). The latter, seems most likely to be originated in Australia. Literature suggested that it was taken by humans to Indonesia and then distributed to several countries in, Africa and America. The pest has been described from India in 1843, and from there it probably moved to Egypt around Most African countries are now invaded by the pest, especially those lie in the eastern strip of the continent including the Sudan. Since the larvae always diapauses in seed capsule, this help in spreading of the pest in cotton seeds. However, the first record of the PBW in Sudan was in Tokar cotton during 1913/14 season, thenceforward detected in all cotton areas. Also, the green pit scale of date palm was said to be introduced with date palm seedlings from Saudi Arabia in 1974, but discovered for the first time in 1985 in El- Goled area, Northern Sudan (Abbas and El Nasr, 1992; Elhassan, 2007). More recently, the mango gall midge was introduced with mango seedlings imported from South Africa. The pest was firstly recorded in the Gezira area, and then distributed very fast to colonize the mango orchards in Southern Kordofan State (ARC, 2004; Mardi et al., 2010). Regarding Liriomyza leafminers, the first record of L. trifolii was in mid 1980s (Sharaf El-Din, 1986; EPPO, 1998), while L. sativae (Martinez and Bordat, 1996) and L. congesta (Ibrahim, 1999) were detected in 1990s. The exact time and route of entry of these pests were unknown. According to Neuenschwander et al. (1987), L. trifolii had entered Kenya on infested Chrysanthemmum cuttings brought from U.S.A. (Florida). However, L. congesta is prevalent in Egypt (Hammad, 1955), hence it was expected to be transported accidentally with passengers through the northern border. On the other hand, some insects were reported to find their way to invade the country through hitchhike in trade containers and equipments. The dwarf honeybee (Apis florea) was introduced in a container in 1985, and now distributed in almost all parts of the country (Lord and Nagi, 1987). Although, the detection times of some species were unknown, nearly half (>42%) of the reported pests were encountered during the last three decades. This also proved by the fact that, frequent interceptions of various pests (e.g., Trogoderma granarium, Tribolium sp., Rhizopertha dominica, Callosobrochus sp., Cryptolestes sp. Sitophilus sp., Oryzaephilus surinamensis and Liposcelis sp.) were reported by the Quarantine Unit during last decades (Anon., ). This may illustrates the serious relationship between the development of world trade and the introduction of 1209

3 exotic pests during this era. Therefore, the paper emphasizes the importance of cooperation and upgrading of quarantine measures for successful protection against invasive pests. 1210

4 Table 1. Lists of the important alien insects introduced accidentally at different times and detected as noxious pests on agricultural crops or natural resources in Sudan. Scientific name (Order: Family) Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) Schizaphis graminum (Rondani) (Homoptera: Aphididae) Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) Earias insulana (Boisd.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Earias vittella (Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Liriomyza sativae Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Liriomyza congesta (Becker) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae) Bactrocera invadens Drew, Tsuruta & White (Diptera: Tephritidae) Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) Ceratitis cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae) Procontarinia matteiana Kieffer and Cecconi (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) Parlatoria crypta McKenzie (Homoptera: Diaspididae) Parlatoria blanchardii (Targ.) (Homoptera: Diaspididae) Asterolecanium phoenicis Rao (Homoptera:Asterolecaniida e) Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) (Homoptera: Diaspididae) Icerya purchasi Maskell (Homoptera: Margarodidae) Common name Spotted stemborer Wheat aphid (greenbug) Cotton whitefly Spiny bollworm Spotted bollworm Pink bollworm potato tuber moth Serpentine leafminer Vegetable leafminer Bean leafminer Tomato leafminer Origin Presumably southern USSR Possibly in India Australia 1211 Affected hosts Detectio n time Reference Sorghum and Enter Schmutterer, 1969 maize Africa in 1930s Wheat? Schmutterer, 1969; Kranz et al., 1977 Various plants Malvaceous plants Malvaceae (mainly okra) Malvaceous plants Early 20 th Fishpool & Burban, 1994 century Schmutterer, 1969; 1908 King, s Cappizzi, Schmutterer, 1969; Kisha, 1978 South America Various Solanaceae e.g., potato? Siddig, 1988 New World Various plants Mid Sharaf El-Din, s EPPO, 1998 New World Various plants 1990s Martinez & Bordat, 1996 Europe/ Western South America Various plants 1999 Ibrahim, 1999 Solanaceae,e. g tomato & potato Melon fruitfly (India) Various cucurbits Invader fruitfly Mediterranean fruitfly Mango/ Marula fruitfly Mango gall midge/fly Mango white scale Date palm white scale Green pit scale insect California red scale Cottony cushion scale (Sri- Lanka) 2010 /not Almatni, 2010 confirme d 1980s Beje, 1996 Various plants 2004 EPPO, 2005 PPD, 2010 Africa Various plants 1955 Venkatraman & El Khidir, 1965 Africa Various plants 1996 Kabbashi, 2004 Ibrahim, 2006 (India) Mango 2004 ARC, 2004 Mardi et al., 2010 South East Mango and neem? Schmutterer, 1969 Mesopotamia Date palm? Schmutterer, 1969; (Iraq, Iran) Siddig, 1975 Date palm 1985 Abbas & El Nasr, 1992 South East Citruses and guava? Schmutterer, 1969 Australia Citruses? Schmutterer, 1969; Venkatraman et al.,1969

5 Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) Trogoderma granarium Everts (Cleoptera: Dermestidae) Chrysobothris dorsata (F.) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) Heteropsylla cubana Crawford (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) Apis florea F. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Citrus leafminer Khapra beetle Jewel beetle; mango bronze beetle Leucaena psyllid Dwarf honeybee (India) Citruses? Badawy, 1967; Schmutterer, 1969 (India) Cereal grains 1940s Kranz et al., 1977;? Forest trees (broad leaf) South & Central America Forests e.g., Albizia, Mimosa Indigenous flowering plants? FAO, 2007? FAO, Lord and Nagi, 1987; Mogga & Ruttner, 1988 Impacts and control measures: Brief accounts were given below on the important alien insects recorded, showing their impacts on agriculture or natural resources, the current status of control measures and the future outlook. Cereal stemborers: Among cereal pests in Sudan, two stemborers, viz., Chilo partellus and Sesamia cretica are dominant species (Laoata, 1996, and Satti, 2007). The latter is thought to be an indigenous pest, as it distributed primarily in northeast Africa and other neighboring countries in Mediterranean and Middle East regions (Tams and Bowden, 1953 and Schmutterer, 1969). On the other hand, the n originated C. partellus occurs in several n countries (e.g., India, Pakistan and Sri-Lanka). It is an exotic pest in Africa (e.g., Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi) where it seems to displace other indigenous stemborers and to display the greatest damage to cereals especially sorghum and maize (Laoata, 1996; Overholt et al., 1996, and Mathias, 1997). Therefore, biocontrol measure was attempted many times against this pest in some African countries through importation of natural enemies from southern during the second half of the 20 th century (e.g., Kfir, 1994; Overholt, 1993 and Overholt et al., 1996). However, more than 70% sorghum damage was found to be inflicted by stemborers, predominated by C. partellus, in the Gezira scheme of central Sudan (Laoata, 1996). Such predominance of C. partellus was also recorded in Khartoum State (Lat N), but going northwards the population of the pest decreases gradually to be surpassed by S. cretica in Northern State (Siddig, 1991). This fact may suggest that the C. partellus could be accidentally introduced to somewhere in southern or central Sudan, and then distributed northwards outperforming the other pest 1212 species (Schmutterer, 1969; Siddig, 1991, and Satti, 2007). It is surprising that, in spite of the high damage inflicted by the pest, insecticidal control is very rarely applied, if not at all. Moreover, it was found that indigenous natural enemies induced negligible impact on C. partellus (Satti, 2007), a factor contributing positively to such prevalence and injuriousness experienced by this pest. Therefore, adoption of biocontrol measures through importation of potent natural enemies from the pest s home region may represent one of the future strategies of control. Whitefly: The original home of Bemisia tabaci seems to be a debatable issue globally. This may be due to the widespread distribution of B. tabaci throughout the world, besides the fact that the pest is a species complex with a number of biotypes which are morphologically indistinguishable as only known recently by modern molecular techniques (Byrne and Devonshire, 1991; De Barro et al., 2003; Viscarret et al., 2003). For instances, A, Q, An, Nauru and cassava biotypes are distributed in America, Mediterranean, Australia, Pacific region and Africa, respectively. However, because many sources indicated that B. tabaci is more likely originated in India (e.g., Fishpool and Burban, 1994), the species has been listed here among exotic pests, but this does not negate that it may be an indigenous one. The topic awaits more future clarification with modern research techniques. The cotton whitefly (B. tabaci) was detected earlier in Sudan Gezira cotton as minor pest before the era of pesticides application. The resurgence of B. tabaci as major pest since 1960s was attributed mainly to the wide application of broad spectrum insecticides which

6 affected the prevailing natural enemies in the cotton area. As pointed by some scientists, it was also thought that the use of the DDT in particular had potentiated the breeding of the cotton whitefly (Gameel, 1972; Sharaf El-Din et al., 1986). Anyhow, since 50 years ago B. tabaci represents a big threat to the cotton production and causes serious problems to hundreds of cultivated and wild plants in several parts of the Sudan. This manifested mainly through sucking of plant nutrients, secretion of honeydews and transmission of plant viruses especially the cotton leaf curl virus. However, the application of IPM in Sudan Gezira during the second half of the 20 th century proved that the alternative measures of insecticides adopted in the program were enhanced the buildup of natural enemies, hence suppressed the whitefly populations to densities below that of the economic threshold level (Abdelrahman and Mohamed, 2002). Bollworms: Two Earias spp. are known in Sudan, the spiny bollworm (Earias insulana and the spotted bollworm (Earias vittella). The former was detected very early about a century ago (King, 1908) and known as one of the major cotton pests in most agricultural schemes. This pest has many other host plants besides cotton including mainly Hibiscus esculentus, H. sabdarifa, H. rosa-sinensis, Abutilon spp. and Sida spp. (Hassan, 1994; Hassan, 2002). However, the other species (E. vittella) was discovered more recently before three decades (Cappizzi, 1986). It attacks okra (H. esculentus) as the major host, followed by cotton, and very rarely Abutilon weeds. An incidence of >85% infestation was recorded by E. vittella on autumn okra in Khartoum area (El Nour, 1998; Hassan, 2002), reflecting how deleterious effect this pest imposed on the production of this vital and stable vegetable crop in the country. The pink bollworm (PBW), Pectinophora gossypiella, was established in several African countries, where it causes tremendous economic loss on cotton. It was considered as one of the major cotton pests in Sudan (Kisha, 1978). The larval stages feed upon the buds, flowers and capsules of different malvaceous plants causing serious drop in crop yields. Insecticides application failed to solve the problem of this pest all over the world. In the U.S.A. the cost of pest control in cotton was increased following invasion of the PBW, from about $ 375.6/ ha to $ 460/ ha, in spite of which the cotton value reduced to less than one third. However, average cotton losses reported in some countries ranged from 15 to 25 in India and Egypt, 20 to 25 in Brazil and 34 to 80 percent in United States (Kranz et al., 1977). In the Gezira scheme of Sudan, prior to the enforcement of strict phytosanitary and cultural control measures in 1935, the pest recorded 13% damage on cotton bolls (Kisha, 1978). Serpentine leafminers: Different leafminers were found to occur worldwide, with the members of the genus Liriomyza (>300 species) are widely distributed, including 23 economically important species. Liriomyza spp. are believed to be of Neotropic origin which contain some highly polyphagous and invasive species such as L. sativae and L. trifolii. These species managed to invade several countries in Africa, Europe and, and appear as economic pests since 1975 (Minkenberg and Van Lenteren, 1986). They generally cause serious damage to various economic crops particularly among Solanaceae, Cucurbitaceae and Fabaceae, and can also transmit a number of plant viruses (Zitter et al., 1980). Moreover, Liriomyza spp. are difficult to control and showed high ability to develop resistance to several commercial insecticides. Johnson (1987) reported that leaf miners can cause severe damage to the extent that daily pesticide application over 2.5 months was required to control L. sativae and L. trifolii on watermelon in Hawaii. Liriomyza trifolii and L. sativae are prevailing in central Sudan, especially in Gezira and Khartoum areas (Martinez and Bordat, 1996, Sharaf El-Din et al., 1997, Salah et al., 2006 and Salah et al., 2008a), while L. congesta was only detected in northern Sudan (Dongola area) as an important pest of faba bean (Ibrahim, 1999). The three species were established as major economic pests on various field and vegetable (e.g., tomato, potato, okra, eggplant and cucurbits) crops and also attacking wild hosts. Field experiments in central Sudan showed that Liriomyza infestations on faba bean (cv., Shambat and SML) induced yield losses ranged between 22.8 and 42.2%. Plant heights and number of pods were significantly affected and negatively correlated with leaf infestation (Salah et al., 2008a). Such finding came in consistency with Spencer (1982) who reported 30% defoliation on tomato crop in U.S.A. as a result of L. sativae infestation. Life cycle studies of both Liriomyza species conducted under fixed conditions (25±1 C; 75±5% R.H.; 12:12 LD; LUX) in growth chambers revealed significantly shorter duration by L. trifolii (18.03±049 days). This species also caused significantly higher numbers of hatched larvae and adult feeding punctures (Salah et 1213

7 al., 2008b), which may suggest its economical superiority. On the other hand, a lepidopterous pest suspected to be the tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta, was thought to be distributed recently in Khartoum and Gezira States attacking tomato and potato crops. But, the real insect identity was not yet scientifically confirmed or officially declared. Some field entomologists said that the pest was appeared during 2010, while others dated it back to However, following its first detection in Spain in 2006, T. absoluta has invaded several counties in Europe and Africa, especially in Mediterranean region (e.g., Spain, Greece, Italy, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Gaza strip, Syria and Turkey) and causes economic loss on tomato and other solanaceous crops (Almatni, 2010). Therefore, urgent studies are needed to identify the present species, and to recognize eradication possibilities before spreading to new areas. Fruitflies: About 950 species of fruitflies in 150 genera were recorded in Africa, most of them are native but some were exotics. However, among species thought to be of African origin are Ceratitis capitata and Ceratitis cosyra. The former species is one of the old fruitflies in Sudan, detected earlier in mid of the 20 th century. This pest was firstly reported from northern Sudan where it shows its dominant abundance till now. Though C. capitata was said to be originated in sub-saharan Africa, it was suspected to be introduced to that area of the country largely from the Mediterranean region through Egypt, where it ranks among economically most destructive fruit pests. The higher occurrence of C. capitata in the northern than in the southern part of Sudan may support what have been pointed by some authors that this species is less serious in equatorial belt of Africa compared to other Ceratitis spp. (Copeland et al., 2006). In contrast, Ceratitis cosyra was recently introduced, showing its dominant prevalence in central (particularly in Sennar and Blue Nile States) and Kordofan regions as a serious pest of mango fruits (Ahmed, 2001; Ibrahim, 2006). The genus Bactrocera (ca. 500 species) forms a very large group of highly destructive pests, native to and also in Australia and Pacific region. Four invasive species of these (viz., Bactrocera cucurbitae, B. invadens, B. latifrons and B. zonata) were accidentally invaded Africa at different periods, and now spreading in a number of countries. Among such pests, two species (B. cucurbitae and B. invadens) were introduced recently into Sudan. They cause extensive damage to cucurbits and fruit trees, 1214 respectively. The extents of damage on cucurbits by B. cucurbitae vary between % depending on crop species and the season. On the other hand, B. invadens is spreading very fast and now almost recorded from all parts of the country in eastern, central, western and northern regions. Evidences reported from some African countries including the Sudan showed that B. invadens is largely displacing other fruitfly species like C. capitata and C. cosyra in infestation of some fruits like mangoes. Thus, in Sennar area of central Sudan, the prevailing fruitflies which dominated by B. invadens were reported to cause 80% damage on mango fruits. Consequently, in the 2007 the problems of fruitflies was aggravated to the extent that these pests were listed among the major national pests receiving considerable attention in control by the Plant Protection Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture (Ahmed, 2001; Dhillon et al., 2005; Ibrahim, 2006; Gassmallah et al., 2008; Mohamed and Ali, 2008, and De Mayer et al., 2009). Mango gall midges: About 25 species of gall midges/flies are known as pests of mango (Mangifera indica) trees worldwide, distributed mainly in several n countries like India and Iran (Srivastava, 1997, and Raman et al., 2009). However, the mango gall midge (Procontarinia matteiana) which was firstly described in Sicily (Kieffer and Cecconi, 1906), is one of the important species that assumed to be of n (India) origin. From there, this pest has been distributed to other parts of the world, including for instances Trinidad, Oman, Mauritius and South Africa. In the latter country two generations per year (i.e. February-March and October-November) have been shown by the pest (Raman et al., 2009). Another economical problem associated with P. matteiana is the transmission of the bacteria causing black spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae) on mango leaves, as this disease agent generally exists in gallfly lesions (Van Zyl et al., 1988). During the last years increased attention has been given to mango production in Sudan, therefore, certain cultivars have been brought from South Africa (Dawoud, 2008). Regrettably, in this way P. matteiana was believed to be accidentally introduced with the mango seedlings, e.g., cv. Tommy Atkins. Notably, this pest was not known in Sudan before 2004, when firstly reported in the Gezira State (ARC, 2004). Afterwards, P. matteiana seems to be distributed and established very fast in the country. A survey during 2007 in orchards of southern Kordofan State revealed that all inspected mango trees were

8 attacked, with the fresh leaves being more affected. Field observations on the midge life cycle manifested that periods of egg-larval and pupal durations were 7-10 and 5-7 days, respectively (Mardi et al., 2010). This assured the pest establishment and favorability of local environment for its growth and multiplication. No control measures were yet recommended for this pest. Therefore, as stressed by Mardi et al. (2010), the current situation and the expected impact of this pest should be thoroughly assessed in view of the recent trend involved expanding mango production in the country. Scale insects of date palm: Two species of scale insects were reported on date palm in Sudan, the date palm white scale (Parlatoria blanchardii) and the green pit scale (Asterolecanium phoenicis). The first one seemed to be introduced earlier and distributed in all date palm growing areas particularly in the Northern and Kordofan States. This pest is now found in several parts of the world including India, Australia, Turkey, Europe and most Arabian (e.g., from Syria to Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Egypt, Morocco) and African countries. It has been reported from the U.S.A. and eradicated many times during early twentieth century (Boyden, 1941; Schmutterer, 1969, and Siddig, 1975). According to Schmutterer (1969), P. blanchardii was a major pest of date palm in northern and central Sudan during the second half of the 20 th century, but currently its importance seems to be declined. The long history occurrence of the pest in that region seemed to enhance gradual buildup of certain indigenous natural enemies attacking the pest. It appears from observations that predators dominated by the larvae of lacewing Chrysoperla species, are among the main bioagents combating the white scales. The second scale insect, the green pit scale (A. phoenicis), though newly introduced, is now surpassing the former species in its population densities and damage inflicted on date palm trees and fruits. This pest is found infesting date palms especially in like Iran and some neighboring counties, but now is distributed in other regions including certain Arab (e.g., Saudi Arabia) and African (Libya and Sudan) countries. Within few years following its discovery in Sudan (1985), the pest was spreading along large stretches to the south and north of the original point, causing severe infestation and complete drying of the plant leaflets. More than one million trees were said to be infested, recording very high yield losses (ca. SDG250 million annually). Yield of an individual tree was reduced due to infestation from 40kg to only 15kg in an average. In an attempt to eradicate the pest during 1990s, quarantine regulations and pruning of infested leaves followed by chemical sprayings were the main control measures adopted. These measures mitigated the damage for a while, but neither succeeded to eradicate the pest nor stopped its progress to new areas. Consequently, the first appearance of the pest in Khartoum State was noticed by the author in this year (2011). Since A. phoenicis is under natural control in its original places, biological control through importation of suitable natural enemies can be attempted (Abbas and El Nasr, 1992; Elhassan, 2007). Cottony cushion scale: One of the most famous pests attacking citruses worldwide is the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi) which originated from Australia and distributed in all continents. It caused serious damages especially in many tropical and subtropical countries. But, the deleterious effect of the pest is greatly suppressed in several countries in America, Europe and Africa through biological control using the Australian predator, Vidalia beetle (Rodolia cardinalis). However, this pest seemed to invade the Africa very early as it was firstly detected in South Africa in In Sudan, I. purchasi is not a well known pest because it confined to a limited area in Jabal Marra as a minor pest of tangerines. No information is found regarding its first introduction to that area of the country. Outside this limit, the pest was reported only one time (1960s) in small numbers on grapefruit trees in Shambat experimental orchard. The climatic conditions and the presence of a local predatory Rodolia species were recorded as the main factors limiting the population buildup and distribution of the cottony cushion scale in Sudan (Schmutterer, 1969; Venkatraman et al., 1969). This situation should be greatly considered whenever pesticides are required to be used in this area. Store pests: Although several storage pests were recorded at different times in Sudan, data regarding their historical background in the country and original homes are very scanty. However, among these pests the khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium) is of prime importance as a general primary pest causing severe damage on cereal grains (especially sorghum, wheat and maize), oilseeds and pulses in Sudan as well as in most tropical and subtropical countries where drought (low humidity) and high temperatures favoring its multiplication and damage. It was listed as EPPO A2 pest, and recorded amongst 100 of the worst invasive alien species in the world (Lowe et al., 1215

9 2000). This beetle is now distributed in most parts of the country as a major pest of store grains. As a national pest, T. granarium is controlled mainly through insecticidal sprays and fumigation in storage houses (Anonymous, ) Exotic honeybees: Different subspecies of wild honeybees, Apis mellifera, are widely spreading in Sudan since ancient times (El-Sarrag et al., 1992), but largely due to their aggressiveness new exotic bees (e.g., Carniolan, Italian and Carnio-Egyptian) were brought from outside either for research studies or honey production (Aballa, 1996). The frequencies of imported bees were tremendously increased during last decades as a result of expansion in commercial beekeeping (Abdelrahman and Satti, 2009). Moreover, an invasive species of dwarf honeybee (Apis florea) introduced accidentally in 1985 (Lord and Nagi, 1987), is now distributed in almost all parts of the country. It is worthy to state that, such introductions of foreign A. mellifera races may have their negative consequences on local honeybees in various ways. These may include the effects on genetic constituents and local biodiversity, besides the introduction of exotic honeybee pests and diseases (Abdelrahman and Satti, 2009). Recent studies have proved the accidental introduction and establishment of some serious exotic species (e.g., the small hive beetle and Varroa mite) with the imported bee colonies (El-Niweiri et al., 2005, 2008). On the other hand, A. florea was reported to prefer foraging on mesquite (Prosopis spp.) flowers, hence contributes positively in the production and buildup of such exotic plant. This noxious invasive tree has colonized vast areas of agricultural lands and competes with several indigenous plant species in the country (Ballal, 1986; Ahmed et al., 2004; Laxen, 2007; Abdelrahman and Satti, 2009). However, the effects of exotic honeybees on plant biodiversity were documented in several countries (Krend and Murphy, 2003). Species expected to invade the country: Based on the accelerating international trade and transport movements during this era, more and more exotic pests are expected to enter the country in the future. Table (2) showed the important alien pests invaded some neighboring countries (Kranz et al., 1977; Agounke et al., 1988; Willink and Moore, 1988; Ivbijaro et al., 1992, and EPPO, 2008, 2009, 2010) and expected to reach the Sudan. Most of these pests such as the western corn rootworm, mango mealy bug, some fruitfly species and red palm weevil are highly destructive and difficult to control. The 1216 former can cause serious destruction to the maize roots and complete failure of the crop. Following Europe invasion during the last decade of the 20 th century, the pest spread very fast to several countries in the region (EPPO, 2010). Although, it is not yet detected in Africa, importation of soil or maize parts from infested countries should be done under strict quarantine measures. Fruitflies expected to enter the country may include; Bactrocera zonata (found in Egypt, Libya and the Arabian Peninsula) and B. latifrons (in Tanzania and Kenya). Bactrocera zonata was listed by the EPPO as an A1 quarantine pest in 2002 (EPPO, 2008, 2009). It was intercepted in Port Said of Egypt since 1912, and firstly identified on infested guavas near Alexandria in Thenceforth, the pest becomes widespread in Egypt, and even has invaded the borders to Libya in the west and Rafah area in the east. The ability of B. zonata to replace other fruitflies (i.e. Ceratitis capitata) has also been reported in Egypt, where serious damage and fruit losses of $US177 million per year were estimated (Elnagar et al., 2008; NERC, 2010). The large quantities of fruits imported annually from Egypt, besides the frequent movements of passengers between the two countries represent clear risks that this pest may enter the country sooner or later. Great concern should also be given to such deleterious exotic pests like the mango mealy bug which established in West Africa, where more than 80% losses have been recorded (Agounke et al., 1988; Willink and Moore, 1988; Ivbijaro et al., 1992). Moreover, the red palm weevil represents another very serious exotic pest of date palm which has been distributed very fast in the Middle East region since 1980s. After being established in the Arabian Peninsula where the greatest damage occurs, it moved towards the Mediterranean region and invaded Egypt, Syria, Spain and lastly Libya (Eldangaly and Karra, 2006, Amir, 2010). The high trade links between these countries and Sudan put heavy burden on quarantine units to prevent the entrance of such horrible pest. However, the importance of the listed expected alien pests came from the fact that they largely threatening the production of such economic crops like sugar cane, date palm, mango, citruses and various vegetables, which grown widely in the country. Therefore, upgrading of quarantine measures should be emphasized as the first step in protecting our country from such invasive pests.

10 Table 2. Lists of the important exotic invasive pests Scientific name Common Origin (Order: Family) name Aulacaspis tegalensis Zehntner (Homoptera: Diaspididae) Diabrotica virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) Liriomyza bryoniae (Kaltenbach) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Bactrocera latifrons (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae) Bactrocera zonata (Saunders) (Diptera: Tephritidae) Rastrococcus invadens Williams (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) Chrysomphalus ficus Ashmead (Homoptera: Diaspididae) Batrachedra amydraula Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Cosmopterygidae) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) Sugar cane scale Western corn rootworm Tomato leafminer Solanum fruitfly Peach fruitfly Mango mealy bug Florida red scale Lesser date moth Red palm weevil Larger grain borer CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Probably Southeast North America 1217 expected to invade the country in the near future. Neighboring countries Main target hosts invaded Madagascar and East Africa (Kenya and Uganda) Most European countries (first detection in 1990s) Sugar cane and other Gramineae Maize roots New World Egypt and Morocco Various crops Southeast Southeast Southeast Kenya and Tanzania ( invaded Africa in Tanzania, 2007) Egypt, Libya and many countries in Arabian Peninsula West Africa e.g., Ghana, Benin, Togo, Nigeria (appear in 1980s)? Some countries in Europe and Mediterranean, including Egypt? Gulf (UAE) and Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Libya and Egypt Tropical, probably India Meso-America About twenty-five species of insects were recorded in this paper as alien pests established in Sudan, causing variable economic problems on different crops. Nearly half of these were detected during the last three decades, showing great link with the rapid movement of world trade and passengers among different countries in this era. Based on such situation a list of some important quarantine pests expected to enter the country was prepared. Since many introduced insects are not causing economic problems in their home countries, biological control should be Iraq, UAE, Qatar, Jordan, Oman Kuwait, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya and Morocco Kenya and Uganda (entered Africa in late 1970s) Various crops (mainly solanaceous) Various fruits Mangoes, citruses, banana and Ficus spp. Citruses, eucalyptus, guava and mangoes Date palm (young fruits; inflorescences) Date palm, oil palm and coconut palm Mainly maize attempted against some species, such as the green scale insect of date palm, through importation of potent natural enemies from their original places. Quarantine tools and measures especially in poor countries should be supported and upgraded so as to keep pace with the accelerating world trade to minimize entrance of harmful species. Such countries can also prepare comprehensive lists for their quarantine pests to support in this direction.

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