COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION

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1 COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION o Attribution You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. o NonCommercial You may not use the material for commercial purposes. o ShareAlike If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original. How to cite this thesis Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: (Accessed: Date).

2 -.. --~, ~.\~-~> \ (:1. \ ", '-..- -~.- THE APPLICATION OF FACILITATOR TRAINING IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE by RODOLFO PIERO FRIGENTI DISSERTATION Presented in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree MASTERS IN INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY in the FACULTY ECONOMIC AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES at the RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY SOPERVISOR : MR F. CROUS NOVEMBER 1993

3 (ii) FOREWORD My sincere appreciation and thanks to the following Dissertation: person's on completion of this Mr F. Crous, my study leader, for his theoretical insights and guidance, his time and interest, and his constructive criticism. Professor Frans Cillier for sharing his theoretical knowledge and patience, and his care and support in facilitating a never ending process of learning in my life. Director Psychology (Brigadier A. Jansen van Rensburg) for his contribution and permission to undertake my studies. My colleagues in section Psycho-strat for their patience and support. My mother for her unconditional caring and support.

4 (iii) CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES PAGE (viii) ABSTRACT (ix) OPSOMMING (xi) CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND INTRODUCTION MOTIVATION General Specific PROBLEM STATEMENT AIM OF THE STUDY General aim Specific aim METHODOLOGY SUMMARY CHAPTER 2 : THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE INTRODUCTION DEFINITION OF TERMS Change Change agent Change intervention., Levels of change 14

5 (iv) 2.3 PRESSURES FOR CHANGE Global change Emerging trends Trends in leadership and management MODEL FOR UNDERSTANDING CHANGE SUMMARY 21 CHAPTER 3 : DIAGNOSING THE EFFECT OF CHANGE ON PEOPLE INTRODUCTION DIAGNOSIS OF SITUATION Force field analysis Areas of organization change People supporting change "People" methods THE EFFECT OF CHANGE THE EXPERIENCE OF CHANGE DEALING WITH RESISTANCE SUMMARY CHAPTER 4: THE FACILITATING PROCESS INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT THE FACILITATOR ROLE DESCRIPTION OF FACILITATION THE NATURE OF FACILITATION 41

6 (v) 4.6 RATIONALE FOR FACILITATIVE TRAINING Practical implications ' Theoretical implications SUMMARY 47 CHAPTER 5 : PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMALITY INTRODUCTION THE MANAGERIAL ROLE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMIZATION Self development Description A refocus from the abnormal to the optimal Optimality as purpose within management development Definition CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMAL FUNCTIONING PERSON Intrapersonal Characteristics Physical characteristics Cognitive characteristics Emotional characteristics Conative characteristics Interpersonal characteristics Interpersonal characteristics summary A description of sensitive relationship forming The core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming Work-related characteristics SUMMARY 62 CHAPTER 6: THE STIMULATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMALITY AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS TRAINING INTRODUCTION 64

7 (vi) 6.2 STIMULATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMALITY The self-read and do method.. ; The interpersonal learning method THE GROWTH GROUP Definition of a group Types of growth groups Core concepts in growth groups Here and now focus Self-Disclosure Feedback Climate of experimentation Stages of the T-Group Process Trainer as facilitator / member INTERPERSONAL SKILLS TRAINING Helping Skills A Model for managing problems Rationale of the model The purpose of the model Description of the model Application of the model SUMMARY CHAPTER 7: THE APPLICATION OF FACILITATOR TRAINING WITHIN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE INTRODUCTION CASE STUDY Purpose Reaction to change Diagnosis Remedial Strategy The facilitation model Evaluation and feedback 95

8 (vii) 7.3 DESIGN OF A SHORT-TERM TRAINING PROGRAM FOR THE FACILITATION OF SENSITIVE RELATIONSHIP FORMING AS INTERPERSONAL SKILL IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE PROCESS Formulation of a programme Content of the programme Self-disclosure and behavioural feedback Listening Skills Modelling Role play Transfer of learning Video feedback The role and characteristics of the facilitator in the development of sensitive relationship forming SUMMARY ISSUES IN FACILITATOR TRAINING Change and the use of facilitation The effectiveness of Organizational Development (OD) Competence ali a facilitator Functions of group facilitation Appropriate Standards and Criteria General characteristics and interpersonal skills of the facilitator CONCLUSION SUMMARY 108 CHAPTER 8: THEORETICAL RECONSTRUCTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS THEORETICAL RECONSTRUCTION RECOMMENDATIONS SUMMARY LIST OF REFERENCES 115

9 (viii) LIST OF FIGURES PAGE 2.1 The concept of change Levels of change Pressures causing change in organizations Model for managing change Forces acting on organizations Change objectives of organizational development programs Continuum of client-consultant relationships Focus change from abnormal to optimal The helping model The process of individual change 85

10 (ix) ABSTRACT THE APPLICATION OF FACILITATOR TRAINING IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE by RODOLFO PIERO FRIGENTI SUPERVISOR : MRF. CRODS DEPARTMENT : HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY : RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY DEGREE : M. Comm. Change is one of the foremost issues in organizations, if not the foremost issue in people's everyday life. Organizational change involves any substantive modificationto some part ofthe organization. This change may be prompted by forces internal or external to the organization. Typically organizational change involves the restructuring or elimination ofjobs, found in actions such as reorganization, automation, rapid growth, downsizing, job redefinition, a physical move, the effects of competition, or a shifting market. Whatever the "trigger" for the change, people are experiencing confusion, worry, anger, numbness or all of the above. The cumulative effect of change on people is the same, and is manifest in resistance. Even though people know change is imminent and even though they understand it intellectually, it still has an emotional impact that they do not quite expect and that they find difficult to cope with. Many different change techniques or interventions are used for managing change. The most common ones involve changing organizational strategy, structure and design, technology and people. The focus of this study is on people, and illustrates the general inability of managers and subordinates to cope with organizational change, and to discuss a suitable training technique to overcome the inability to cope. A literature study was undertaken to determine the suitability of introducing facilitator training for managers in the management of change. It seems that managers are not taught or possess the skills necessary in dealing with the emotional content of subordinates reaction to change.

11 Against this background it was determined that managers lacked the necessary skill of facilitation and as (x) a result subordinates are not helped to cope during the process of organizational change. Facilitation training equips managers to function more effectively as managers and as persons. As a result managers are able to assist subordinates to cope with their emotional reaction to change. Results obtained from ----_.., _..,._-"---_..._."-.._---_..~_ research on the application of facilitator training within management, indicate positive growth in the trainee on both the inter- and intrapersonal level. This growth resulted in the acquiring of certain characteristics within the manager which were of benefit in his interaction with his colleagues and subordinates. It is deduced that managers acquiring these characteristics will be able to facilitate a process -----_.--~ _..._ "'_.- of helping whereby subordinates are helped to help themselves during an organizational change process.

12 (xi) OPSOMMING DIE TOEPASSING VAN FASILITERINGS VAARDIGHEDE OPLEIDING IN DIE BESTUUR VAN VERANDERING deur RODOLFO PIERO FRIGENTI STUDIELEIER : MNR F. CROUS DEPARTEMENT : MENSLIKE HULPBRONBESTUUR UNIVERSITEIT : RANDE AFRIKAANSE UNIVERSITEIT GRAAD : M. Comm. Verandering is een van die belangrikste faktore binne organisasies en dit het verrykendc implikasie op die mens in sy daagliksc bestaan. Oraganisasieverandering behels enige substansiele aanpassing binne 'n gedeelte van die organisasie as geheel. Hierdie verandering kan te weeg gebring word deur kragte intern of ekstern tot die organisasie. Tipies behels organisatoriese verandering die herstrukturering of eliminering van werk, soos dit in aktiwiteit soos herorganisering, outomatisering, versnelde groei, inperking, posherdefiniering, fisicse verandering. die effek van kompetisie of 'n verandcrcnde mark voorkom. Wat ook al die rede vir die verandering, mense ervaar verwarring, kommer, woede, gevoelloosheid of 'n kombinasie van al die bogenoemde. Die kumulatiewe effek van verandering op mense is dieselfde soos dit manifesteer in weerstand. Alhoewel mense die belangrikheid van verandering besef en op intellektuele vlak verstaan, het dit steeds onverwagte emosionele impak wat moeijik is om te hanteer. Verskeie veranderingstegnieke en tussenredes vir die bestuur van verandering word gebruik. Die mees bekende behels die verandering van organisatoriese strategic, struktuur en ontwerp, tegnologie en die mens like hulpbron. Die fokus van die ondersoek is op die menslike hulpbron en iliustreer die algemene onvermoe van bestuurders en ondergeskiktes om met organisatoriese verandering te kan tredhou. Tweedens bespreek die ondersoek 'n toepaslike tegniek om die onverrnoe om verandering te kan hanteer, te bowe te kom.

13 (xii) 'n Literatuurondersoek is ondemeem om te bepaal of die opleiding in fasiliteringsvaardighede toepaslik is vir bestuurders binne die bestuur van verandering. Dit blyk asof die bestuurders Die die vaardigheid geleer is of daaroor beskik, om die emosionele inhoud van ondergeskiktes se reaksie op verandering, te hanteer Die. Teen die agtergrond is vasgestel dat bestuurders Die oor die vaardigheid van fasilitering beskik Die, en gevolglik word ondergeskiktes Die gehelp om die proses van organisasieverandering te kan hanteer Die. Fasiliteringopleiding stel bestuurders in staat om meer effektief as bestuurder en as mens te funksioneer. As 'n resultaat hiervan is bestuurders daartoe in staat om hierdie emosionele reaksies op verandering te kan hanteer. Resultate uit navorsing oor die toepassing van fasiliteringopleiding by bestuur, dui op positiewe groei in die opleiding op beide die inter- en intrapersoonlike vlak. Hierdie groei het gelei tot die verwerwing van sekere kenmerke binne die bestuur wat hulpverlenend in sy interaksie met sy kollegas en ondergeskiktes was. Dit word afgelei dat bestuurders wat hierdie kenmerke verwerf, daartoe in staat sal wees om 'n proses van hulpverlening te fasiliteer waardeur ondergeskiktes gehelp word om hulleself te help, gedurende die organisasie-veranderingsproses.

14 Page 1 CHAPTER 1 : CHANGE 1.1 INTRODUCTION. Currently, a topical issue concerns the rapid changes taking place allover the world, and more specifically the impact of this change in South Africa. Change is inevitable as a new South Africa is dawning and people are no less exposed to political, social and economic change than are organizations. Change, it seems, is_tb~_()ee issue that is a certainty within today's society. These changes may be relatively small....~.-_._.~..._--_.-- and insignificant, large and important, temporary or permanent. a detrimental effect on people with a resulting loss of ability to cope. But because of these changes, there is The phenomenon of change is not only apparent in South Africa, but has deep seated roots in the rest of the continent. It would seem more prominent in South Africa, as she has been isolated politically for many years, and as a result has difficulty in adjusting to the main stream of international trends. To understand the phenomenon of change from a psychological viewpoint one needs to address two major elements of the current situation, i.e. change and its corresponding effect on organization's. Both these elements are discussed within the motivation of this study. Thereafter the problem statement and aims of the study are discussed. Lastly the methodology and structure are presented. ( 1.2 MOTIVATION General. As change is so prevalent in South Africa, its impact is relevant and central to the continued existence of organizations at present. I This can tie seen in three distinct but interrelated aspects of the environment, namely the social, the economic, and the technological spheres. Change within these three aspects daily present new threats, new opportunities, new problems, pres~ures and possibilities. It follows then that conditions are always changing, and that change has become the norm.l.:l~sl1 as itmay sound, success and survival depend on being able to anticipate change, arid possibly to avoid being swallowed up by its negative effects. More often than not, coupled to change, one all-important organizational dimension is overlooked, namely, that of human reaction to change. Faced with lay-offs of their co-workers or the introduction of new people, policies and procedures, employees often feel helpless and disenfranchised in the midst of sweeping change. At the very worse, management has adopted the all too familiar attitude of "adapt or die", within their O\\-TI particular management style. While a tough stance would seem to sort out the

15 Page 2 "winners" from the "losers", the long term prospects for a changing organization, harbour deep resentment, fear, and anger amongst surviving employees. This situation arises as a result of managers not always being in contact with the emotional content of human reaction during sweeping change. This means that the implementation of change, how one actually goes about the process of bringing about the conditions for effective change, how one gets people's commitment to it and involvement in it are all important issues to be examined. More specifically, it is important to understand and recognise that organizational change impacts on people emotionally Specific. Plant (1987, p.l3) says that the values, attitudes and responses of individuals and groups of people toward change have altered. People are no longer prepared to accept being manipulated, influenced, or pressured into accepting changes which they don't understand or agree with. As such, the willingness by people to articulate their feelings against any form of change has become increasingly acceptable. These feelings are not always overtly displayed. and are often manifest within certain behavioral reactions. Woodward & Buchholz (1987, p.93). identify the following four basic behavioural reactions by people to organizational change: Disengagement. This typifies the reaction of people who withdraw or pull back, and will not let you know what they are feeling. Disidentification. Some people are very honestly worried or sad about the change. Disorientation. Others are confused and lack a clear sense of direction. Disenchantment. Some people are angry and develop resentments against the organization for this change. From the above it can be seen that organizational change has an effect on subordinates, resulting in differing behavioural reactions. The effects of change can best be explained by referring to the Kubler Ross model (Woodward et al. 1987, p.66). The death and dying model of Kubler - Ross (Golan, 1978, p.193), is used to explain the four behavioural stages of development within people when loss is experienced. The stages are exhibited as follows through the : denial of the loss or reality of the situation in the form of resistance. expression of anger toward the loss or the situation, process of bargaining with ones self, others and the situation in order to rationalize the change, experience of depression once the reality of the situation becomes apparent, followed by, acceptance of the loss and that which is changed.

16 Page 3 Similarly it could be said that people experience feelings of loss within a changing organizational environment. The importance of the model indicates that a person experiencing change as a loss must be helped to move through the stages to eventually accept the loss.~xa.,cceptance of change that is forced will result in the person accepting the change intellectually. but emotionally the person has not worked through the change and will find himself in a stage of denial or resistance (Coch and French p.512). From the above it can be seen that change has an effect on people. but more importantly. change has become the norm within organizations (Nicholson, 1990). Given the fact that change is the norm and that it has a corresponding effect on people. one can assume that leaders and managers alike need to anticipate the changes that will affect them in the future and develop interventions whereby people are helped through the process of change (Tearle. 1991). The problem however is whether managers are equipped to deal with the emotional reaction to change. Lawrence (1969) points out that the most baffling and recurring problems which managers face is employee resistance to change. Claasen and Backer (1989) also indicate from research findings that employees are generally unhappy with the way in which change is introduced or handled. More specifically. Van Rooyen (1991) points out a lack of knowledge and skills. within management, on how to deal with potential disillusionment. frustration and dissatisfaction amongst professional, managerial. technical, skilled and unskilled workers resulting from organizational change. It can be surmised that organizational change brings about change in the individual with an emotional reaction to the loss which will require a skilled intervention aimed at helping a person to cope. Any change or loss caused by natural or manmade disasters (e.g., floods and train wrecks). by developmental events (e.g., divorce and widowhood), or by situational events (e.g., organizational change). are temporary periods of extreme stress which can produce feelings of disequilibrium and helplessness in the lives of normal individuals and families. as explained in Brammer & Shostrom (1968). Golan (1978). Ivey, Ivey, Simek & Downing (1978). The change or loss is a crises which requires special skills on the part of the psychologist and other helping professionals. whereby an immediate intervention is employed, designed to alleviate the distress quickly. and aimed at helping the client improve his ability to cope constructively with this and similar situations in the future (Golan, p. 3). Such an intervention is therapeutically based, whereby people in crises situations are helped to cope. A similar intervention which can be used during an organizational change process. is based on the skill of facilitation. whereby the facilitator helps the person to help ----,._- Yet, facilitation is not therapy, where the therapist makes behavioral interpretations from a _~imself. specific therapeutic model and works remediably (Cilliers, p.j). The skill of facilitation is also a more viable alternative to therapeutic interventions, which are costly and time consuming. The skill of facilitation is based on the interaction between the fist person (facilitator) and the second person (client) whereby the second person (within a group situation) is allowed the ---opportunity to grow. formulating own -' --_.-... _---,-... -

17 Page 4 ( If~s an~ m~t!i~?s, and accepts full!~spqnsibili~fqrlj.isli~tions (Cilliers, 1988a). Through facilitation then, it would be possible to re-establish control for the individual within the process of organizational """--"-'---" -'-.",--. change. In summary, the motivation of the study indicates the following: change is a norm within organizations and leads to an emotional reaction within people; the emotional reaction to change is overlooked in favour of technical issues during the management of change; the latter point occurs as a result of a lack of skills and an appropriate intervention in dealing with the emotional reaction; the skill of facilitation is introduced within this study as a viable intervention to be used by management in assisting people through the process of change. The motivation for the study provides a basis for discussing and formulating the problem statement. 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT. In South Africa, change is inevitable and necessary. Because the environment is changing rapidly, organizations cannot afford not to resist change (Lindeque, 1992). As a result change and the management thereofare important issues within organizations (Manning, 1990), and by definition implies the following activity: Change management can be defmed as a deliberate effort with a stated objective on the part of an individual or group to bring about a modification to the current state of a system which requires its members to learn how to perform new behaviours and organizational roles (Pansegrouw, 1991). Change can be defmed and irnplimented from many different paradigms. From the following three main streams in psychology the following can be reasoned: the psychodynamic or psychoanalytic model of abnormal behaviour developed by Freud and his followers (Morris, 1979, pa90). According to this model, behaviour disorders are symbolic expressions of internal conflicts. This approach is not popular in organizational application, as it is complicated because of unconcious material and its effect on the individual or organization; behaviourism which concentrates on stimulus - response behaviour, which denies the dynamics of change as well as the potential for growth. Thus, behaviourism does not concentrate on matters such as "psychological movement" or "helping people see the point of organizational change" (Bigge, 1982, p.74); the third force in psychology (humanistic, existentialism / phenomenology) serves as paradigm emphasising the dynamics in organizations such as human change and growth and the realization of human potential (Rowan, 1988, p.19).

18 Page 5 The above definition, as an end result, requires people as individuals and groups to change their work behaviour and habits by learning new skills, developing new values and attitudes and following different procedures (Adams and Spencer, 1988; Etzioni, 1972). Manning (1988, p.55) and Plant (1987, p.12) point out that the implementation of change, how one actually goes about the process of bringing about the conditions for effective change, and how one goes about gaining peoples' commitment and involvement to change are important issues to consider. This implies that an important task of a manager is to implement change, but more importantly being able to overcome the resistance to change experienced by people (Coch and French, 1978), Adams and Spencer (I988) and Kotter and Schlesinger (I979) point out that managers should be able to diagnose and be aware of the following reasons people resist change: First, a desire not to lose something of value; Secondly, a misunderstanding of the change and its implications; Third, a belief that the change does not benefit anyone; Lastly, a low tolerance for change. The above indicates that change impacts not only on organizational structures but has a definite effect on people and their emotions. Megwa (I992) says that change can be perceived by people as being either a destabilising or uniting factor. Megwa also points out that to be sensitive to those perceptions, communication needs to be an interactive process involving the exchange of ideas and feelings between the manager and subordinates. This means that communication needs to be facilitated amongst organizational members as concerns their feelings toward change. In this regard literature indicates that various strategies are implemented by managers in ways they can positively influence and help specific individuals and groups cope during change (ref, Adams et al.; Pansegrouw, 1991; Tearle, 1991; Walton, 1989). Although there are numerous strategies and interventions Kotter et al. (979) notes that utilising a process of facilitation and support is the most helpful when fear and anxiety lie at the heart of resistance during the implementation of change. The literature indicates that facilitation has an important function during an organizational change process, and by its very nature implies a process of "being available" or "helping" within different situations (Dick, 1991, p.243; Gauthier, 1989; Rees, 1991a). The facilitator within the process of facilitation is broadly defined as a helper and refers to the psychologist, the sociologist, the process consultant, the interventionist, the instructor, the third party consultant and the cultural integrator (Rees, 1991). Additionally the literature indicates that the process of facilitation does seem to be predominantly associated with working groups rather than individuals (Stroul, 1988; Walton, 1988). Within the process of facilitation there is an interaction between the facilitator and the individual or the group (Cilliers, 1984). This interaction places certain specific demands on the first person (facilitator / psychologist) to avoid

19 Page 6 providing only mechanical information during the process of change. and to concentrate on the dynamic behavioural aspects in which the second person (individual I group) learns how to learn and help themselves cope with change (Cilliers, 1988a). According to Cilliers (1984) the learning of the skill of facilitation is not covered within the traditional academic training of the industrial psychologist, and within managerial development. Callahan, Fleener and Knudson 0986, p.si8) point out that the use of facilitation as an intervention during the process of organizational change is the least implemented, as it is one of the skills least acquired by managers. It would seem from the above that during an organizational change process managers tend to concentrate on technical issues, and place lesser emphasis on the emotional reaction of subordinates. Woodward and Buchholz 0987, p.6s) point out that if this is the case, any change implemented will be met with resistance which has a negative effect on organizational effectiveness. Woodward and Buchholz further indicate the importance, for both managers and subordinates. of gaining an understanding of the emotional reaction to change so that people are able to cope with the technical issues of change. From the above it is clear that any organizational change has a corresponding emotional reaction on people. This emotional reaction is typified by a loss of control by the individual, which impacts negatively on organizational effectiveness. A suitable intervention in helping people to cope during organizational change is based on the skill of facilitation, but is rarely employed as it is a skill not covered within either academic or managerial training. From the above discussion, it is possible to formulate the following problem statement and thereafter discuss the aim of the study. Does the management of organizational change have any negative effect on the human resource element. and if so. is the skill of facilitation a viable intervention to be employed in assisting people cope with their emotional reaction to change? 1.4 AIM OF THE srudy General aim. The general aim of the study is to examine the management of change and propose facilitation as a means whereby growth amongst organizational members is stimulated during the process of organizational change

20 Page Specific aim. The specific aim of this study is two-fold:- 1. To indicate that there is a lack of a specific mechanism or programme whereby managers possess the facilitation skills necessary to help themselves and subordinates cope with the emotional reaction to organizational change. 2. To introduce the skill of facilitation as an intervention to be used during the management of organizational change, whereby the facilitator creates an opportunity and climate for leaming and growth wherein the person is helped to cope with the effects of change. 1.5 METHODOLOGY. Chapter two has as specific aim to investigate the management of change in order to present a conceptual framework for understanding change and the management theroef. Of particular importance, is the type of change intervention employed and the different levels of change i.e. technical versus people. Chapter three has as aim to discuss the effect of change on people and the management thereof. this chapter people's experience of and reaction to change are examined. Within Chapter four discusses the facilitating process as an alternative approach and suitable intervention to be used in the management of change. Within chapter five the interpersonal nature of management is examined, and the application of facilitation skills training ensures that the manager, in order to be effective as manager and person needs to develop certain characteristics. Chapter six examines alternatives whereby facilitator characteristics and skills are acquired through the method of stimulating psychological optimality. Chapter seven examines the practical application of facilitation training within a specific case study illustrating the process involved between manager's and subordinates during a process of organizational change. The latter part of the chapter discusses issues such as the competence of the facilitator in facilitation. Chapter eight looks at a theoretical reconstruction and appropriate recommendations for the study.

21 Page SUMMARY In chapter 1 the problem statement of and motivation for the study are discussed. Second the general and specific aims of the study are formulated. Thirdly the method of research is discussed based on a division of a theoretical literature study and the application of this within a practical case study, as well as the division of chapters. Chapter two presents a conceptual framework for understanding change and the management thereof, according to a model which also indicates how the change agent needs to manage the process of change.

22 Page 9 CHAPTER 2 : THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE. 2.1 INTRODUCTION. Change management is an accepted concept in management practice which refers to a planned process for implementing organizational change. In this regard Pansegrouw (1990a) defines change management as a deliberate effort with a stated objective on the part of an individual or group to bring about a modification to the current state of a system which requires it's members to learn how to perform new behaviours and organizational roles. The definition emphasises that change management: is a conscious, goal directed activity, may be performed by either an individual or a group, internal or external to the organization, aims at a modification of the structure and processes which currently characterises the organization, as an end result, requires people as individuals and groups (termed as the "target of change") to change their work behaviour and habits by learning new skills, developing new values and attitudes and following different procedures. Based on the above points of the definition certain key concepts involved in the management of change can be defined. 2.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS. Providing a more concise description of the processes and terms involved within the definition of change management (point 2.1) facilitates an understanding for discussing the reasons for change and how managers can become more effective in coping with and managing change (as discussed in point 2.3) Change. In explaining change as a conscious, goal directed activity, Robbins (1989. p.527) defines change ali making things different. The Oxford dictionary (1983) provides a more abstract explanation by defining change as follows: an alteration; a substitution of one for another; a renewal; going from one to another; adopting a new plan or option: making or becoming different. and

23 Page 10 "putting on new clothes." Although change as a concept and by definition may seem easy to explain, it becomes quite complex if one takes into account all the factors surrounding it. explanation to change as a simple starting point: Crafford (1992) provides the following model as Control x Conflict A B Change Figure 2.1 : The concept of change (adapted from Crafford, 1992). Based on the above model, change is a transition state, which implies that some movement has taken place (A ~ B). Although there may be various reasons for the movement, a common denominator is that B will always bedifferent to A. The implied contrast may be defined in terms of a form of conflict, from which universal resistance to change originates. If one takes the conflict position as a starting point it becomes clear that two routes towards change may be followed, namely (a) change through conflict (A ~ B) e.g. the war in the Persian Gulf, or (b) change through the control of conflict e.g. what politicians are trying to achieve through negotiations in South Africa. Having defined change, it is necessary to examine the person or group responsible for the change Change agent. The literature provided similar descriptions on the definition and role of the change agent, and is discussed below.

24 Page 11 According to Robbins (1989, p.527) this term is defined as "the person (or persons) who act as catalyst, and assumes the responsibility for managing the change process." Crafford (1989, p.2) sees the role of the psychologist primarily as that of a change agent. First he deals with a subject that develops physically and mentally throughout his life, which implies a continuous set of changes. Secondly he deals with an individual or group that requires change in some form or another in order to terminate an uncomfortable situation. Similarly to the latter, Eisenberg and Patterson 0979, p.2) state that the ultimate purpose of the psychologist in counselling"... is to help the client achieve some kind of change that he or she will regard as satisfying. tl Manning 0990, p.10) sees the main role of the change agent in being able to foster the necessary desire for change. Subsequently, the successful change agent must sense carefully the moment when people are unhappy enough to let go of the past, but not so negative that they can't think about the future. Tichy (in Callahan et al. 1986, pa12) identifies four types of change agents: Outside pressure types who work to change systems from outside the organization. They are not members of the system they are trying to change and use such tactics as mass demonstrations, civil disobedience and violence to accomplish their objectives (Van der Merwe & Meyer, 1987, p.79-81). People-change-technology types who work to change the way people behave through various behavioural science technologies. They are concerned with worker motivation and morale, including absenteeism, quality and quantity or work turnover. The methods used include job enrichment, management by objectives and behaviour modification (Orpen, 1981). Analysis-for-the-tup type focus on changing the organizational structure or technology so a'i to improve output and efficiency. This approach relies primarily on the rationality of individuals and might include introducing computerised information - processing systems and developing new task groups to operate the innovations (Blignaut, 1988, p.3-12). Organization development type focus their attention on internal processes such as intergroup relations, communication and decision making. Their diagnosis includes a strong focus on organizational culture and their intervention strategy is often referred to as a cultural change approach. This approach to the change process grew out of such areas ali sensitivity training (Schein, 1972; Shaffer & Galinksy, 1974). The application of facilitator training within this

25 Page 12 study, for the purpose of clarity and definition would resort under the auspices of the organization development (ad) type of agent. From the above it is concluded that the change agent is responsible for initiating, leading and managing the change process. From this it is also gathered that the change agent develops skills (discussion, chapter 5) and has sufficient knowledge in adopting a suitable intervention aimed at a modification of the structure and processes currently characterising the organization Change intervention. A change intervention is "a planned action to make things different" (Robbins, 1989, p.527). From this one can deduce that an intervention is a technique or method employed primarily for helping other people through the change process. Callahan et ai. 0986, pa14) describes intervention as a method or means to manage change more successfully. These means may include either responding to forces for change or creating forces to help prepare organizational members to accept the change. This means that the intervention can focus on the individual, the work group. several groups, or the total organization. According to Callahan et aj. (1986, pa14), Camp, Blanchard & Huszczo 0986, p l), Kepner and Tregoe 0981, p ), Orpen (1981, p ). Schaffer and Galinksy (1974) the following are the most widely used intervention methods in organizational change: life planning which consists of a series of activities to help individuals look at their values, life experiences, goals and action steps to prepare them to achieve their objectives; job design as an intervention which involves examining the current structure of the worker's activities for the purpose of restructuring them for performance improvement; team building is a series of sessions to improve effectiveness and performance of individuals who work together on a continuing basis; process consultation, which is a variation of the latter and consists of a set of activities on the part of a consultant to help the manager and the work group understand and act upon their own processes to become more effective; conflict resolution focuses on getting conflicting groups to bring to the surface the real and imaginary sources of tension occurring between them; organizational mirroring is a variation of conflict resolution and requires that each group indicate how it views its own behaviour and the behaviour of the other groups involved, and how it thinks the other groups view their behaviour; survcy feedback involves systematically collecting analysis. interpretation, and corrective action so that the group is able to pinpoint findings, problems and solutions;

26 Page 13 management by objectives is a process integrating goals at various levels through the goal setting process and developing realistic action plans and systematically measuring the resulting performance; sociotechnical inputs referring to a series of interventions aimed at changing the relationship between social and technical aspects of a job so that the resulting work is more efficient for the company and more satisfying for the worker. While all of the above are important, the intervention oflaboratory training is the most suitable within the management of change process, especially when dealing with emotions such as fear and anxiety at the heart of the resistance to change (Kotter & Schlesinger, 1979, p.ll0). This type of training is synonymous with experiential learning and, allows for a process of growth, releasing the vast human potential for actualizing and fulftlling one's capabilities and fmding a deeper meaning in life (Schultz, 1977, p.1). Laboratory training forms the basis for acquiring and learning facilitation skills, which is proposed as a suitable intervention to be used within the management of a change process. By defmition, laboratory training or also known as sensitivity training (Shaffer & Galinsky, 1974, p.189) is an intensive workshop for an individual or work group whose major goals include: the development of a spirit of inquiry and willingness to experiment with one's role in the organization and the world, an increased awareness of other people and expanded interpersonal awareness, improved sincerity in relationships with others, greater ability to collaborate with superiors, peers, and subordinates rather than to use authoritarian approaches, and greater ability to resolve conflict through developing alternatives and problem-solving techniques, as opposed to manipulating, coercing, or compromising people into accepting change.,/ From the above it is gathered that laboratory training is conducive to experimenting with and learning of new behaviours, similarly change as an end result requires people as individuals and groups (termed as the "target of change") to change their work behaviour and habits by learning new skills, develop new values and attitudes and follow different procedures. In order for people as individuals and groups to change it is necessary to be aware of the different levels of change that exist.

27 Page Levels of change. The effectiveness of change management is dependant on the effort and time involved relative to the level of change. In this regard Pansegrouw (1990a) says it is important to understand that change may occur at different levels of individual and group functioning, namely: knowledge; attitudes; individual behaviour; group behaviour. The following diagram illustrates the relationship between these levels of change and the time and difficulty involved in bringing about change at each level. TIme and difficulty involved in making various changes High Group behaviour Individual behaviour Difficulty Involved Attitudes 1low Knowledge Short t-( Time Involved :) long Figure 2.2 : Levels of change (adapted from Pansegrouw, 1990a) The diagram illustrates that both the time and difficulty involved in communicating change in knowledge to people is short in comparison to implementing behavioral change at both individual and group level.

28 Page 15 Watzlawick, Weakland and Fisch (in Whitlock 1984, p.i) use the terms, first and second order changes to explain the levels of change and the learning involved. They cite a behavioral illustration of the difference between the two types of changes as provided by the example of a person learning to drive an automobile. A person is able to assimilate as much theoretical knowledge on how to drive an automobile, and such a change in knowledge is a first order change, but it is not sufficient in itself in ensuring competence behind the wheel. The second order change is illustrated by changing from having knowledge on how to drive to physically sitting in the automobile and experiencing the operational side of doing and driving. In terms of learning, it refers to a significant change within persons, and not simply an increase in the amount of conceptual knowledge regarding the change. When a person makes a connection between what he or she experiences and the related thought patterns, genuine learning occurs (Whitlock, 1984, p.2). In summary the fundamental implications of the concept of levels are: the time and difficulty involved in effecting change differs depending on the level of human system functioning involved; bringing about change at one level, e.g. knowledge, will not necessarily and of itself provide a flow of change to other levels of functioning; the objective of change management, namely, individual and or group behaviour changes are usually not easily achieved (Pansegrouw, 1990a, p.7). The last point indicates the ease of effecting change through cognition (knowledge) rather than affective responses (individual and group behaviour). This study deals with the application of facilitation skills whereby individual and group behaviour are positively influenced during the management of change. Emphasis is placed on dealing with people's reaction to change (chapter 3), and not so much on managing change purely from a technical perspective (tasks and technology). The above definitions provide a basis for understanding and discussing change as a concept, which is achieved by first examining pressures for change, and second by discussing a model for managing change. 2.3 PRESSURES FOR CHANGE Global change. It is clear that people live in historic times, if one has to consider the changes that occurred in the first year of the 1990's. The reunification of Germany, the decline of Communism, the release of Nelson

29 Page 16 Mandela, the unbanning of the ANC, PAC and the Communist Party, the economic changes in Eastern Europe (Tearle, 1991, p.i). Van Rooyen (1991) describes South Africa as God's crucible where representatives of many races of the world are melting, changing - hopefully in a process of renewal - and in the creation of a new society and a better country for all its people. Recently a multi-disciplinary team analyzed the changes that South Africa was undergoing (Mont Fleur Scenarios, 1992) and concluded that South Africa's current crises has three main dimensions i.e., political, economic and social. These three elements are locked in a downward spiral of mutual cause and effect and the team argued that if the trends of the past ten to fifteen years cannot be changed, South Africa's problems are likely to be insoluble before the end of the decade. As response it is given that a political settlement and a new growth path are pre-requisites for progress. A new growth path implies change, yet it would seem that organizations are ill prepared for the future. Manning (1990) says that managing change is hard at the best of times, but managing change in what can at best be called a time of crises, with the very ground shifting under one's feet is an awesome task. From the above global forces for change certain trends are apparent that have relevance for organizations and ultimately the individual Emerging trends. Viljoen (1987) indicates that since the 1970's, the increasing volatility of the business environment has caused a dramatic shift in the philosophy and practice of management as a result of the emergence of a "new society". The "new society" would appear to be characterised by: high levels of expectation and the stubborn belief that these can and should be met by government, church and business; a greater emphasis on human rights, self-development and expression; the development of an educated, questioning society concerned with human dignity and searching to interact on the basis of mutual respect and voluntary co-operation rather than submission and self-sacrifice; trends towards individuality with members of society placing personal goals above those of their organization, social group or nation; a desire for bottom-up participation in society: concern for the conservation of physical resources; a technological revolution; reduced stability and predictability in all elements of the human environment;

30 Page 17 greater specialization and the resulting need for individuals. societies and nations to depend on others (for specialized skills) in order to accomplish tasks. From the above list one can see that change is not a periodic evil. organizations must face before things return to "normal". Rather. change itself has become the norm and is depicted within the following diagram indicating the pressures causing change in organizations. Organisation - People Tasks Technology Recepient of Change Hil Level Bcpectations Human Rights Structure r Forces of Change r Emerging Individuality Parlidpation Conservation High-Tech ReciJced Stability Specialised Skills Societal trends Figure 2.3 : Pressures causing change in organizations (adapted from Tearle. 1991) Through the restructuring of the "new society" both organizations and individuals will need to cope differently in the future. This means a change in organizational and managerial practice in order to cope with the pressures for change. which is discussed as trends in the leadership and management arena.

31 Page Trends in leadership and management. Pansegrouw and Potgieter (1991) view the above changes and effect on management thought as globalisation, which has radically changed the nature and rules of business and competition, and discuss some important trends in the leadership and management arenas. Additionally the following literature examined clearly indicates a move away from traditional management thought and practice to include a holistic approach toward managing their human resources (compare Brehn, 1990; Georgiades, 1990; Grosman, 1989; Human, 1989; Manning, 1989; Pansegrouw, 1991; Tearle, 1991; Van Uytrecht, 1988; Viljoen, 1987). Based on the above literature the following trends include: the discovery and rediscovery of more lasting sources of motivation at work such as shared visions, career management, empowerment, self esteem and the development of "high order" value systems; the increasing differentiation between leadership and management roles in organizations; the shifting power bases of leaders and managers away from positional power and authority to personal power, political skills and charisma; the rejection of strategy formulation as a purely rational and procedural management exercise and the understanding of the role that interpersonal influence processes (interpersonal dynamics) need to play in both the formulation and the implementation of strategy; the importance of organizational culture in bringing about change and in the implementation of new strategies, structures and systems to accommodate change; the increasing need for teams and development of team effort in organizations to respond to work demands; the necessity of treating the organization as a system or whole, thereby considering both cognitive and affective needs of individuals. in order to achieve real change and effectiveness improvements. The above trends indicate the importance of both the mechanics (tasks) and dynamics (interpersonal processes) to ensure that change and organizational effectiveness are achieved. Pressures causing change in organizations need to be managed. A model for managing and understanding change is next discussed.

32 Page MODEL FOR UNDERSTANDING CHANGE. To understand how change affects the organization and how managers need to manage the process of change. the following model in Callahan et al. (1986. p.397) is discussed: SlEPI SlEPIl STEP III Pressures for Change Managerial Recognition of Problems Problem Definition and Diagnosis of Situation -r. I STEP VI STEP V STEP IV l Alternative Re-evaluation Selection and Alternative -- <c----- of Situation Method of Generation Implementation Figure 2.4 : Model for managing change (adapted from Callahan et al p.397) 1. Pressures for change As discussed in point 2.3. organizations at any point in time face a multitude of forces that have consequences if not addressed. These forces have resulted in the emergence.of certain trends emphasising not only the mechanical aspects of work but also the dynamics (interpersonal needs and processes between individuals) at work.

33 Page Managerial recognition of problem It is the manager's job to recognize these pressures and decide as a change agent whether the resulting problem is significant enough to consider making changes in either structure. technology, task or management processes (Pansegrouw, 1990a; Pansegrouw, 1990b). 3. Diagnosis of the situation If the change agent decides that the problem warrants attention. the next step is to diagnose the situation. The result of the diagnosis should be a clearer statement of the problem, which entails the establishment of specific change goals. If for example. part of the diagnosis includes that the removal of departmental sections and section heads will lead to an improved and cost efficient organization. then attention must be given to internal managerial processes whereby people's feelings concerning these changes are recognised and dealt with. 4. Alternative generation After identifying the problems and the limiting conditions. the change agent can focus attention on considering alternative approaches and techniques to solve the problem. The change agent must stress the importance of carefully diagnosing the organization and its environment and consider the mismatch. if any. between the two. Then the change agent should consider what type of behaviours need to be changed and the techniques available to bring about the changes. In this regard one can consider a series of appropriate interventions in dealing with the behavioural change. 5. Alternative selection and method of implementation Having developed a set of alternatives in step 4. the change agent must decide which technique or combination of techniques to use and what approach to follow while implementing the solution. The approach implies to what extent subordinates arc allowed to actively participate in the change program. 6. Evaluation of change The final step in the change process should be to evaluate it's effectiveness. if the change did indeed result in a more effective organization and more effective employees. /

34 Page SUMMARY. This chapter presented a conceptual framework for understanding change and the management thereof. The definition of change management is used to define important key concepts in the management of change. Among the concepts defined are change, the role of and various change agents, the various types of change intervention and the levels of change. Of particular importance to this study is the type of change intervention and the levels of change. The intervention of laboratory training is found to be the most suitable within the management of change especially when dealing with emotions of fear and anxiety which lie at the heart of resistance to change. Secondly, the level of change is significant within this study, in that change needs to be managed both on a conceptual and emotional level within individuals to minimize the resistance to change. Pressures for change were discussed and their role in shaping trends which in tum forced organizations to adapt their managerial and leadership styles to maintain a balance between people, tasks and technology. Last, a model for managing change is presented and indicates how the change agent needs to manage the process of change. The model will be referred to in each subsequent chapter by illustrating how individuals are managed through the process of change. Chapter three discusses ways to deal with change, including methods to diagnose the situation, and the effect and experience of change by the individual.

35 Page 22 CHAPTER 3 : DIAGNOSING THE EFFECT OF CHANGE ON PEOPLE. 3.1 INTRODUCTION. In trying to understand the effect that change has on people one can refer to the following anonymous quote: most people hate any change that doesn't jingle in their pockets. This statement typically reflects people's reaction to change. As a result it is important to understand, within the context of the management of change, the effects of change on people and the management thereof. This chapter deals with the latter problem whereby people's experience of and reaction to change are examined. In keeping with the model for managing change (step three), the first point in examining reaction to change would be to diagnose the current organizational situation. 3.2 DIAGNOSIS OF SITUATION. According to Plant (1987. p.87) the problem in diagnosing a situation is knowing where to start and what yardsticks to use. Being perceptive and seeing signals as a result of change is one thing but knowing what they mean is quite something else. Callahan et al. (1986. p.400) sees diagnosing as the first step to understanding a situation, which is especially critical when a manager is considering changes within the organization. In diagnosing a situation one needs to consider forces both inside and outside an organization which affect system stability. Katz (in McGrath p.226) says that human systems at all levels (individual, group, social) are marked by dual opposing forces. On the one hand, human systems are built on habits, values and feelings and have strongly over-determined forces toward system stability. On the other hand. human systems also contain discrepancies and discontinuities. and they interact with othersystems. These add up to substantial forces toward system change, working along with and against the forces toward system stability, can result in any of various types of system change. as discussed in the next point Force field analysis. Kast and Rosenzweig (1985, p.638) indicate two basic types of forces that pressure an organization. "Driving forces" are those that encourage change. growth, and development. "Restraining forces" are those that resist change and encourage stability and the status quo. Both driving and restraining forces can be external or internal to the organization. The following diagram, based on the force field analysis of Kurt Lewin. illustrates the concept.

36 Page 23 Possible Movement- Restraining Forces Are Stronger Possible Movement - Driving Forces Are Stronger '~ DRIVING FORCES RESTRAINING FORCES People supporting change People hindering change Tasks supporting change Tasks hindering change Technology supporting change Technology hindering change Structure supporting change Structure hindering change Figure 3.1 : Forces acting on organizations (adapted from Kast and Rosenzweig p.638) The force field analysis. as illustrated in Figure 3.1. is a general-purpose diagnostic and problem-solving technique. According to Kast and Rosenzweig p.637) change can be brought about by increasing the driving forces or by reducing the restraining forces. The latter approach is often more fruitful because to increase driving forces without attention to restraining forces may increase pressure and tension in the system. This approach facilitates inclusion of a wide variety of factors - technological. structural and psychosocial (values and feelings. for example). It is particularly important to anticipate antagonism that is likely to be aroused in the implementation of change. Accurate assessment of how people react to the change will allow the change agent to focus specifically on that area of the organization Areas of organization change. According to Griffin paoo) organization change can involve virtually any part of an organization. but most change interventions are focused on the following four common areas of change: i). Changing organizational strategy.

37 Page 24 A change in organizational strategy is a planned attempt to alter the organizations's alignment with its environment. For example, an organization might change its strategy goals and move from a growth into a retrenchment mode. ii). Changing organization structure and design. Organization change might also be focused on any of the basic components of organization structure or on the organization's overail design. As an example the organization might change the way it designs its jobs or its bases of departmentalization, reporting relationships or the distribution of authority. iii). Changing technology. Technology is the conversion process used by an organization to transform inputs into outputs. One form of technological change that has been especiaily important in recent years is change in information systems. This advance in computers has created vast potential for change in most workplaces where new adaptations have become necessary for people (CoIlins, p.29a). iv). Changing people. A last area and the most difficult to change is the human resource area. An organization might decide to change the abilities or skills of its work force. as a result of changes in technology or by a general desire to upgrade the quality of the work force. Thus. training programs and new selection criteria might be needed. Perceptions and expectations are also a common focus of organization change. Workers in an organization might feel that they are not being treated fairly ali concerns their salaries. The change might also be directed at employee attitudes and values. where management might foilow a joint approach to making and implementing decisions. In summary it can be said that change in any of the above areas impacts on the human resource area. This is so because people form an integral part of an organizations strategy, structure and design, and the technology (Connor & Lake p.55-89). Thus it can be said that ~ organization is made up of people. and not visa versa. Therefore it is important for the change agent to be aware of people's role in the change process ali being either a driving or restraining force, by actively focusing on people supporting change.

38 Page People supporting change. Woodward et al. (1987. p.xvi) in substantiating the "driving" and "restraining" forces. indicate that typically when change occurs in organizations. people. particularly managers. tend to hurriedly plan. set objectives. gather information. and "sell" the change. As a result. people tend to focus on the technical issues only. that is. they jump headlong into the mechanics of planning. budgeting. or staffing and ignore their own and other people's feelings and attitudes. Manning (1990. p.12) also points out that successful change management is not a mechanistic process. It hinges around human emotions. It depends upon such intangible skills as awareness. timing. nuances. and the human touch. Woodward et al. (1987. p.xvi) refers to the term people "breakage" which should be minimized during the change process. People "breakage" is the result of resistance - "hanging on". which refers to an inability within people to let go of the past. Woodward. further postulates that in a change situation. however. people problems are much greater than technical problems. This is not to say that the technical problems are not important. But if people are confused. angry. or have misgivings about the change - and their feelings and attitudes are not dealt with - change will not proceed smoothly. Claasen & Backer (1989. p.134) performed an in depth study over a period of three years on the effects of the rationalization of companies on employees. The study analyzed the experiences of employees during the phases of destructive change. The hypothesis the study tested was that significantly more employees will rate the experience as extremely negative and that the main issue at stake is job security. It was found that although a significant proportion of the employees thought that drastic change was necessary. they were bitterly unhappy with the way management introduced that change. It was also found that at the centre of unhappiness. threats to job security caused the most damage. Furthermore. it was proved that during change. a well-planned. pre-programmed exercise. with a definite beginning and end time creates significantly less stress and fear amongst employees than during an unstructured almost open ended process. To substantiate the former point in having a well structured programme to help people cope during the change process. Adams and Spencer (I988. p.6i) state that training and learning specialists are learning to support their clients in understanding change. They also feel that although there are many well developed approaches to managing change (technical approaches). what is missing are equivalent models for helping individuals affected by major changes. to get back on their feet in an efficient and productive way. The next point discusses two methods of effecting change through the people who work in the organization. rather than through procedures. structural relationships. or other impersonal ways.

39 Page "People" methods, Conner and Lake 0988, p.80 discuss two principal methods by which people are the major instrument of change: education I training and organization development (OD) interventions. i), Education I Training programs. In essence this method refers to activities that are aimed at upgrading people's knowledge, skills, attitudes, and even beliefs. The earliest form of such activities is known as "Human Relations Training", and is best illustrated by the Hawthone studies which were intended to make managers more sympathetic to and considerate of worker's needs and wants (Kast & Rosenzweig, 1985, p Today, education and training programs cover everything from managing stress to improving communication skills, and include the following: Effective listening, Speed Reading, Managing in a Changing Environment, Coping with Stress, Presentation Skills, Training for Trainers and Situation Leadership. This type of method correlates well with changing people on the level of knowledge and attitude (refer to figure 2.2) which is primarily cognitive in nature. ii). Organizational Development interventions (OD). OD is a set of concepts and techniques designed to bring about organizational change in service of improved productivity. OD practitioners intervene into individual, group and systemwide processes and practices; the object of the interventions is to improve organizational and employee climate, values, health, functioning, and well being (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1990, p.613>. Organizational development change methods are rooted in a number of assumptions and values pertaining to people, organizations, and performance. The central ones are depicted within the following diagram indicating change objectives of Organizational Development Programs.

40 Page 27 Away from: Towards: l. A view of people as essentially bad l. A view of people as essentially good 2. Resisting individual differences 2. Accepting and utilizing individual differences 3. Walling off personal feelings 3. Expressing feelings 4. Game playing 4. Authentic behaviour 5. Distrust 5. Trust 6. Avoiding risk taking 6. Willing to take risks 7. Emphasis on competition 7. Emphasis on collaboration Figure 3.2 : Chan&e Objectives of Or&anizational Development Pro&rams (adapted from Conner and Lake, 1988, p.85) The above figure suggests that OD programs are based on a conception of people and their organizations as employee and client centred: emphasizing flexibility, openness, and clarity; and valuing competence, compassion. and performance. The aim of such programs within the management of change is best found in the definition of Ivancevich and Matteson 0990, p.613) which states the following: The term OD implies a normative. re-education strategy intended to affect systems of beliefs. values. and attitudes within the organization so that it can adapt better to the accelerated rate of change in technology, in our industrial environment and society in general. It can be seen from the above thai the usc of OD programs are utilised in bringing about fundamental changes in organizational behaviour. The intervention of laboratory training (mentioned in point 2.2.3) forms part of such an OD program wherein the skill of facilitation is used as a means in helping people to cope with change and adapt to required organizational behaviour. Having discussed the above two methods of effecting change through people and indicating that the skill of facilitation resorts under the organizational development method, the focus will now be on how people are affected by and react to change THE EFFECT OF CHANGE. Griffin (1990, p.396) says that managers are well advised to try to anticipate the reaction of people to directives or requests for changes in their behaviour. The degree of reaction will vary with the significance of the change as perceived by each individual. Kast and Rosenzweig (1985. p.628) point out

41 Page 28 that attitudes may vary from quite negative to quite positive; responses may vary from overt opposition to tolerant acceptance to strong commitment. Plant (1987, P.19) says that resistance to change comes essentially in two forms - systemic and behavioural. Systemic resistance arises from lack of appropriate knowledge, information, skills and managerial capacity. Behavioural resistance describes resistance derived from the reactions, perceptions and assumptions of individuals or groups in the organization. The former is cognitive and the latter is emotionally based resistance, such as low trust which is much more difficult to handle than a lack of information or misunderstanding of facts. It seems that for a number of different reasons, individuals or groups can react very differently to change. Kotter and Schlesinger (1979, p.107) indicate that to predict what form people's resistance might take, change agents need to be aware of the most common reasons people resist change. According to the following literature examined (Callahan et al. 1986, pa07; Griffin, 1990, p.396; Kast & Rosenzweig, 1985, p.625: Kotter & Schlesinger, 1979, p.l07) the main reasons can be divided into four categories: i). Parochial self-interest. The first reason people resist organizational change is that they fear they wiii lose something of value. In these cases, because people focus on their own best interests and not on those of the total organization, resistance often results in "politics" or "political behaviour". Robbins (1989, p.528) says that the more people have invested in the current system, the more resistant they tend to be toward change. They fear the loss of status, money, authority, friendships, personal convenience, or other benefits they value. ii). Misunderstanding and lack of trust. People also resist change when they do not understand its implications and perceive that it might cost them much more than they will gain. Such situations often occur when trust is lacking between the person initiating the change and the employees. Robbins (I989, p.528) says that changes substitute ambiguity and uncertainty for the known. Put simply, the individual has to trade the known for the unknown and this creates uncertainty within the individual. iii). Different assessments.

42 Page 29 Another common reason is that people assess the situation differently from their managers or from those initiating the change and see more costs than benefits resulting from the change, not only for themselves but for their company as well. Callahan et al. (1986, pa08) says that if management initiates new procedures that are viewed as threatening to a group, the group will likely resist the new procedures. This may partially explain what causes "wild cat" strikes by workers when firms introduce changes without proper notification and preparation. iv). Low tolerance for change. People also resist change because they fear they will not be able to develop the new skills and behaviour that will be required of them. All human beings are limited in their ability to change, with some people much more limited than others (Etzioni, 1972, pas). Organizational change can inadvertently require people to change too much, too quickly. In this regard Robbins (1989, p.s82) says that when people are either unwilling or unable to cope with the effect of change, they cling to the familiar or the past. Listed below according to catogories of cognitive, affective, conative and interpersonal, are some additional frequent sources of resistance to change and unwillingness to engage in new behaviour. Plant (1987, p.18) lists the following: Fear of the unknown (affective source); Lack of information (cognitive); Misinformation (cognitive); Historical factors (cognitive); Threat to core skills and competence (affective); Threat to status (affective); Threat to power base (affective): No perceived benefits (cognitive); Low trust organizational climate (affective); Poor relationships (interpersonal): Fear of failure (affective); Fear of looking stupid (affective); Reluctance to experiment (conative); Custom bound (conative); Reluctance to let go (affective/conative); Strong peer group norms (interpersonal).

43 Page 30 Claasen and Backer (1989, p.142) indicates the following sources of resistance where change has been experienced as negative: the individual's job security is threatened (affective): the individual is uninformed or half informed and therefore builds his own illusion around the outcome of his standing after rationalization (cognitive): individuals experience a lack of ownership of the process because no detail or attention was given to his own outcome (affective): individuals lack interest, are low motivated and experience the "chaos" of restructuring as a career - limiting move (affective/conative): there is an experience of a low trust in management (interpersonal): the individuals ego is attacked and a feeling of inferiority develops (affective). In summary, although various researchers and authors provide similarities as to causes of resistance, underlying all of the definitions provided, an experience of loss and an ability to cope is indicated (Golan, 1978, p.193l Further indications are that there is a lack of a formal programme, whereby people are helped to cope within a changing environment (Adams & Spencer, 1988, p.61: Claasen & Backer, 1989, p.134: Kotter & Schlesinger, 1979, p.109: Woodward et al. 1987, p.xvii). Having looked at some of the reasons for resistance during organizational change it IS understand typical behaviours of people as manifested within resistance to change. important to 3.4 THE EXPERIENCE OF CHANGE. When people are either unwilling or unable to cope with the effects of change, they cling to the familiar or to the past. They lose their ability to see change for what it can become and see change only in terms of what it is taking away. One way to understand this reaction is in the terms of Endings, Transitions, and Beginnings (Woodward et al, 1987, p.xvii), To elaborate the last point, when change occurs, something ends. Immediately then, people want something else to begin. They want something to suddenly fill the void that the ending created. Unfortunately, this seldom occurs, and a transition is needed, or a way to bridge the gap from the ending to the new beginning. Superficially the change would seem to progress logically, but it is seldom implemented operationally. Instead, organizations tend to "jump to beginnings". As has already been mentioned in point 3.2.3, the organization places its primary focus on the opportunities and promise of the new organization or plan (technical issues), and neglects the reactions of the employees.

44 Page 31 Another complicating issue is that everybody is not at the same place at the same time. While some are at the ending stage, others are moving into transitions and beginnings. Adams and Spencer (1988, p.60 refer to the latter as backing and forthing. In any particular transition, whether it be the end of a relationship or a major promotion, people oscillate amongst the phases of change. As a first step it is necessary to understand the Ending phase. There are as many changes as there are people. But there are also many similarities in different people's experience of change. Bridges (in Woodward et al. 1987, p.s3) proposes a three - phase process of individual change, with the first phase being the ending. In order to understand these phases it is necessary to examine four basic reactions in the ending phase. Woodward & Buchholz (1987, p.93) provides an explanation on four typical reactions: i). Disengagement. In the workplace, disengagement occurs when an individual reacts to the change issue by drawing back and appearing to lose interest and initiative. It may be that individuals perceive a negative outcome with implementing the change. As a result they decide to do nothing and hope for the best. To illustrate this further, people experiencing disengagement may still put in their time at work, but do not put the energy or drive into their jobs that they once did. Further examples and typical responses arc the following : Disengaged people are the ones who quit and stay or "retire in the place"; They often keep a low profile - possibly engage in passive I aggressive behaviour; They may avoid talking about the change or change the subject; Their withdrawal is often an indication of a deeper fear or concern. ii). Disidentification. Bridges (in Woodward et al. 1988, p.99), suggests that a person experiencing disidentification has lost self-identification. Disidentification occurs in change situations because something or someone that the individual identified with has been removed. Typical things with which people identify strongly are specific tasks, a location, a work team, or a specific position. When one or more of these things are changed or taken away, there is a sense of loss not only of the job or the team, but also a loss of identity. These people's attachment to the past is strong because it gave them positive feedback, comfort or a sense of belonging.

45 Page 32 Typical disidentified behaviour includes : Reminiscing; Sulking; Dwelling on the past; Continuing to do the old job; Associating with the previous work team; Resisting new procedures. superiors or tasks; iii). Disorientation. According to Bridges (in Woodward et at p.i02) disorientated employees are lost and confused. They do not know where they are or what they are feeling. Disorientation happens when an individual reacts to the change situation by losing sight of where he or she fits in. The disorientated employee expends energy trying to determine what to do instead of how. The past is this employee's only understanding of his or her responsibilities, priorities, and goals. Disorientated people do not know the priorities or the direction of the department or company. they are not aware of the goals, their activity may be misdirected. Because Typical verbal responses include : "Now what do I do?" "Now do I have to start allover?" "What do I need to learn?" "What's going on here?" "What do I do first?" iv), Disenchantment. Bridges (in Woodward et al. 1988, p.i05). describes the disenchanted person as being similar to when a person's world is no longer real. Some significant past of the individual's reality was in his or her head for example, the perfect parent, spouse, child, leader, friend - and now it is gone. Bridges points out that the disenchanted person responds with anger to the change. While, they eventually will get over this phase, they will spend a great deal of time and energy communicating the negative.

46 Page 33 Their anger is almost always a smoke screen for one of the other three reactions to change. This means that once the individual has the opportunity to vent his (her) anger, what emerges are feelings of disengagement. disorientation, or disidentification. Typical behaviours of a disenchanted employee include : Raised, intense tone of voice; Walks out; Refuses to talk; Shows self-pity; Tries to get others on his side; Backstabbing: Sabotage. Although the above four reactions are not exclusive or finite within the context of change, they provide some insight into identifying and describing some behaviours that will help answer how change affects people. Woodward et al. (1988, p.lio) states that one can diagnose the reactions to change by observing behaviour and listening to verbal and non-verbal communication. It is also possible that people can have more than one reaction to change i.e. both disoriented and disengaged. Generally, however, there is a gravitation toward one of the four reactions. It is also further stated that once these four distinctions are made, one has a working diagnosis. One will have gained a sense of what others may be experiencing, and, therefore, the first step will have been taken in effectively dealing with the resistance. The result of the diagnoses should be a clearer statement of the problem, which entails the establishment of specific change goals. This means that one now has to examine available techniques that have the potential to overcome the resistance. 3.5 DEALING WITH RESISfANCE. Assessing which of the many possibilities might apply to those who will be affected by a change is important because it can help a change agent select an appropriate way to overcome resistance. From the following literature examined (Callahan et al. 1986, pa09; Griffin, 1990, p.398; Ivancevich & Matteson.

47 Page , p.621; Kast & Rosenzweig, 1985, p.628; Kotter & Schlesinger, 1979, p.109) six general approaches for dealing with the problems of resistance to change have been identified. i). Education and Communication. These provide facts and information through increased communication about the change in the form of one-on-one discussions, group presentations, memos, and reports to educated individuals prior to the change about the need for and rationale of the change. ii). Participation and involvement. This allows those affected by the change to have a voice in how the change will occur by allowing (and encouraging) participation in the change design and implementation. iii). Facilitation and support. Provide training and socio-emotional support for dealing with the change. This can be accomplished by instructional sessions, effective listening and counselling. and assistance in overcoming performance pressures that frequently arise in change situations. iv), Negotiation and agreement. This offers incentives to actual or potential resistors. This may take the form of bargaining over various aspects of the change and making tradc-offs to accommodate the concerns of those affected. v). Manipulation and co-optation. The use of covert attempts to influence individuals and selectively provide information so that desired changes receive maximum support. It should be noted that this approach can lead to future problems if people feel they are being manipulated. vi). Explicit and implicit coercion. This refers to the use of power and threats of undesirable consequences to resistors if they do not comply with changes. This option is risky in that it may result in the formation of undesirable attitudes and subsequent dysfunctional behaviour on the part of those coerced.

48 Page 35 The above approaches form part of step four of the model for managing change (figure 2.4) whereby alternative approaches and techniques have been considered in solving the problem. Within chapters four to six the skill of facilitation is discussed ali a suitable intervention to be used within the above approaches. The intervention of facilitation is particularly useful when dealing with major behaviour change which has a strong emotional content. Kotter and Schlesinger p.ll0) indicate that facilitation is most helpful when fear and anxiety lie at the heart of resistance. 3.6 SUMMARY. This chapter served to highlight important aspects of change and the effects thereof. In diagnosing a situation during a change process it is necessary to acknowledge and identify both driving and restraining forces i.e, both consisting of people. tasks. technology and structure. It was indicated that for the most part people were overlooked in favour of addressing tasks. technology and organizational structure during the management of change. Two principal methods are discussed by which people are the major instrument of change : education / training and organization development intervention. It is also indicated that the use of facilitation during the process of change resorts under the latter method. The reasons for people resisting change and typical behavioural reactions to change are also discussed. A common denominator for the resistance is based on fear of the unknown which causes people to hang on to the past. Research also indicates that while it is important to address strategic and structural issues during the change process. there is a lack of. and equivalent progranune. or model. in dealing with the emotional response to change. In response to this. various approaches to dealing with resistance are discussed. and facilitation is advocated as a suitable intervention to be used - especially where individuals experience a loss of ability to cope. The skill of facilitation is now discussed in Chapter four.

49 Page 36 CHAPTER 4: THE FACILITATING PROCESS. 4.1 INTRODUCTION. In keeping with the model for managing change (figure 2.4) step 4, facilitation is discussed within this chapter as an alternative approach and intervention to be used in the management of change. Griffin (1990, p ) says that to manage change effectively, the content (the aspects that need change), the process (the way in which the change has been effected) and the context (the psycho-social dynamics) of change must be addressed. The latter refers to people's feelings and experience of change as manifested within certain behaviours (resistance) as discussed in chapter three. Veldsman (1993) points out that the non-management or mismanagement of the psycho-social dynamics accompanying change creates fertile soil for a pathological culture to germinate in organizations, making for unhealthy institutionalised ways of thinking, feeling and behaving. Such a culture takes root when management does not support and enable employees to cope with the new realities that the organization has to face up to. The facilitation process is discussed within this chapter as a possible intervention to be utilised by the change agent during the process of change in assisting employees to cope. Facilitation essentially had its roots in Humanistic Psychology, especially the person-centered approach (Rogers, 1983). This implies an optimistic world view and the view of man as having Ihe potential 10 grow beyond his own limitations towards actualizing all human potential. Rogers (1983, p.295) describes facilitation as a process which allows optimal psychological growth, wherein a person is able to function freely in all the fullness of his organismic potentialities. In order to understand the facilitation process one needs to examine the origins and role of facilitation.

50 Page HISfORICAL DEVELOPMENT. The facilitator seems to appear in many guises throughout literature. In this regard Rees (1990, p.ll) provides an indication of the development of the facilitator role within the following table. Table 4.1 : Development of the facilitator role (From Rees, 1990, p.ll) Reference Author Person carrying out Activities of facilitator facilitator role 1948 Lewin 1970 Argyris 1974 Argyris and Schon 1988 Schein Psychologist Interventionist Instructor Process Consultant Change perceptions Group Discussions Participative solutions Change perceptions Creating a learning environment and one of physical safety Helping. Self diagnosis Interventions 1983 Mumford Facilitator Helping people with technical change. 1986a Participative approach 1982 Revans Facilitator Aiding action learning 1986 Blackler and Brown Psychologist Developing interventionist approaches Creating a climate where people can help themselves 1985 Rickards Facilitator Bringing out the ideas of others in creative problem solving Other roles which could be linked to the facilitator role include: (a) The "harmoniser" and the "co-operator", (b) The third party consultant. (c) The company counsellor. (d) The cultural integrator who deals with international companies' operations overseas. (e) The trainer in self development groups and assertiveness training. (f) The action researcher (Foster. 1976). (g) The facilitator in quality circles. (h) The therapeutic role taken on by Tavistock Researchers (Mumford, 1986). Within the above table. the word facilitator, here broadly defined as a helper, appears in many guises. These include the psychologist. the sociologist. the process consultant, the interventionist, the instructor, the third party consultant and the cultural integrator. Rees (1990, p.ll) says that all these roles have overlapping similarities to do with helping. for example - counselling, intervening, fact finding and

51 Page 38 therapy. The common denominator seems, to be helping people to help themselves, whether they be individuals, groups or organizations. The general tendency in the development of the facilitator role seems to be predominantly associated with working with groups rather than individuals. In order to arrive at a definition of facilitation one needs to examine the various roles in greater depth. 4.3 THE FACILITATOR ROLE. From the above (4.2) the difficulty in evaluating such a role is acknowledged, and therefore it is necessary to define the various meanings attached to the word facilitation. According to the literature examined and discussed below, the process of facilitation is found within the following roles: within the training role in management; within the industrial relations field as a third party consultant; within the sphere of leadership; and the trainer in self development groups and assertiveness training. An explanation on each of the above roles follows. i). Facilitation within the training role. Streit and Stern (1986, p.183) defme facilitation within a training role, where the use of a facilitative approach to training, can be more equitably shared, providing an open end policy that recognises participants needs and skills. In this regard one can refer to Hall's theory T and theory L in training (Fact Sheet 155, 1987, p.12). Theory T has as focus the teacher or trainer who is preoccupied with actions such as teaching, explaining, importing and telling knowledge. While Theory L regards the trainer as a facilitator who is concerned with motivating the learners desire and capacity to create, discover and learn for himself. This theory also takes the point of view that people learn best by doing, and that learning is not the same as being taught. ii). Facilitation within the industrial relations field. Keenan-Smith (1986, p.19-21) notes that as interaction between management and employees increases, an additional burden will fall upon the personnel practitioneror industrial relations specialist. In this regard, an equation is made between the role ofmediator and facilitator. Van der Merwe and Meyer (1987, p.79 91) indicate that the mediator is usually motivated by a concern to reach a peaceful solution, while the role of the facilitator is more neutral still. The facilitator is a communication process specialist, who is not involved in the problem under discussion and who has no stake in the outcome. As opposed, the mediator

52 Page 39 would be relatively more concerned with the use made of new insight gained from reliable information, while the facilitator is primarily concerned with the fact that the relevant parties gain accurate information, regardless of what use they make of it. iii). Facilitation and leadership. Within the management arena, power comes not from being the expert and knowing it all, but from being able to tap the resources of others. In this regard one is able to talk of a leader-facilitator (Rees, 1991, p.20) who focuses on creating a workplace that encourages everyone to take responsibility for the success of the company. It can be said that there is less of a "we-they" approach to managing and more of a synergy between management and employees. Rees describes the new role of the manager as a leaderfacilitator, who focuses on creating a work place that encourages everyone to take responsibility for the success of the company (1991, p.20). The following example serves to illustrate the role of the traditional leader's role by illustrating the following functions: tell; sell; direct; decide; delegate; solve problems; set goals; use authority to get things done. The role of the facilitator leader can be described by illustrating the following functions: listen; ask questions; direct group process; coach; teach: build consensus; share in goal setting. iv), Facilitation in self development groups. Laird (1985, p.29) says that within self development and learning groups, the facilitator is less concerned with platform skills, and is more concerned with acquiring skills used in facilitating learning skills in others. Mclagan (I983, p.29) defines the complex role of a facilitator within self development groups as including the following activities: the self development groups are lead to accept responsibility for themselves within the learning situation; the content of the learning programme (curriculum) must bepresented in such a way that learning opportunities are created and are meaningful to the individual's own learning experience; the learning opportunities created should promote personal growth and understanding for the learner: a favourable climate should be established wherein the person has the opportunity to achieve own goals and solve own problems. For the purpose of this study, the term facilitator will be used to refer to those individuals who are in the facilitator role within self development groups and who help adults to learn about themselves and to help themselves grow. Galbraith (I989, p.lo) indicates that helping adults learn is a transactional process in

53 Page 40 which the facilitator interacts with learners, process and content, and other people and material to plan and implement an educational program. To further focus this facilitating process it is necessary to provide a more concise description of facilitation. 404 DESCRIPTION OF FACILITATION. Gouws et ai. (1979, p.84) define facilitation as the increasing comfort of behaviour as a result of another, or making available (Cilliers, 1990, p.z), In this context it refers to growth facilitation within the second person, in a one-to-one as well as in a group situation (Cilliers, 1992, p.19). More specifically facilitating can be defined as the creation of a climate and making available of opportunities for the second person to learn how to learn about his self and to experience himself, with as aim the enhancement of his quality of life, as manifested in the concept psychological optimal functioning (Cilliers, 1988(a), p.i). The concept psychological optimal functioning refers to a process of self actualization within each individual which is discussed within Chapter five. It must be noted that facilitation is not therapy, where the therapist makes behavioural interpretations from a specific therapeutic model and works remediably (Cilliers, 1990, p.j) It is necessary to separate the two interventions. even though both are aimed at helping the individual. Brammer and Shostrom 0968, pa) describe therapeutic psychology as representing a body of knowledge which gathers its data from a number of related professions. all embodying the "helping function". Per definition, psychotherapy emphasizes depth of involvement in the personality. and has as aim to modify existing defenses to such a degree that readjustment is obtained (Brammer & Shostrom, p.b: Ivey, Ivey & Simek Downing, 1987, p.18). Facilitation on the other hand is concerned with establishing a favourable climate whereby the person learns how to help himself. but accepting full responsibility for his actions and needs (Cilliers, 1990, p.3; p.19) Psychotherapy in contrast, is associated with behaviour and thought change, personality reconstruction, and is ordinarily concerned with "clinical" or "abnormal" populations (Ivey et ai. 1987, p.19). To facilitate a better understanding of the concept facilitation, Cilliers 0990, p.j) provides a description in more popular terms; "this means that the first person (facilitator). in stead of giving the second person food daily (as in the traditional training system). rather teaches him to catch fish, whereby he will be able to help himself in future to satisfy his own needs and reach his goals." Derived from the above the process of facilitation has as function a problem - solving approach (Golan, 1978, p.46). where typically. "the client seeks help for some readjustment of himself or some part of his social situation so that he can maintain or achieve the equilibrium needed for his daily pursuits. The main similarities would be the process of helping. and the contrasts would be facilitating growth through

54 Page 41 awareness, as opposed to behaviour change through behavioural interpretations from a specific therapeutic model (Cilliers, 1990, p.3; Ivey et al. 1987, p.19). While the above has provided a description of facilitation, it is now necessary to examine the nature of facilitation and describe the learning process within facilitation. 4.5 THE NATURE OF FACILITATION. Rogers (1973, 1975, 1983, p in Cilliers, 1988(b), p.z), indicates that within facilitation one can differentiate between the following two types of learning. Firstly, the traditional teaching method as in school, comprising cognitive processes, rationalization and problem solving, and is predominated by the left hemisphere of brain activity. From a traditional point of view, the trainer, manager, change agent or teacher, imposes theory and practice in a mechanistic fashion. Camp et al. (1986) and Craig, (1976, in Cilliers 1992, p.19) point out that a methodical fashion of learning is implemented in the use of lectures, textbooks, instructions and exams. From'an interactional point of view, the change agent (teacher / trainer / manager) is the expert in his field and tends to carry the responsibility for the achievement of the students, choice of theoretical content, communication of information, examination and setting of standards for success. The interaction stimulates a dependence on the leader, and from a process perspective, the cognitive aspects (left brain hemisphere activities such as thoughts, rationalization and problem solving) arc primarily emphasized. This process is executed with the purpose of absorbing knowledge and facts accentuating the present and short term memory as values (Cilliers, 1992, p.19). According to the principles of adult learning (Camp et al. 1986, p.88-90) it would seem that the above mechanistic perspective of instruction, leader responsibility and dependence, cognition and short term memory emphasis, can be placed in perspective through the leader functioning from a facilitating role (Cilliers, 1992, p.19). The second type of learning addresses the right hemisphere, and comprises the intuitive, aesthetic and creative aspects of human behaviour. This learning takes place experientially and encompasses the total person involving both recognitions and feelings (Kolb, 1984, p.20; Cilliers, 1988(b), p.2; 1992, p.19). CiUiers (l988(b), p.2) says that this type of learning is self-initiated, the person reacts to a stimulus from outside, and correspondingly understands, discovers and reaches out from within himself (and own capabilities).

55 Page 42 Evaluation takes place through the learner, whereby he experiences meaning for the self, through the whole experience (Cilliers, 1988(b), p.2). This type of learning to learn would seem to be favourable during the change process, as Cilliers (1988(b), p.2) says, it enables the person to act independently in any situation, making use of his own potential to solve problems, and accepting responsibility for his actions. From a methodical perspective, the use of small group activity is made, where the facilitator acts as one of many sources of information (Cilliers, 1992, p.19). This also means that on a behavioural level the facilitator provides attention, is active by responding through objective process feedback to the individual and the group out of their (group / individual) perspective. This facilitation process enables the individual to discover and evaluate his/her situation from own potential and reserves, against the individual's own internalised norms and values (Cilliers, 1992, p.19). This consequently leads to a process where the individual accepts responsibility for the setting of own goals, and the methodology involved in achieving these goals (Cilliers, 1990, p.2; 1992, p.19). Cilliers (1990, 1992, p.19) says that content differs in the facilitating role from that of the teacher, instructor, examiner, chairman, leader and consultant. The latter role focuses on structuring and the taking of responsibility from the teachers frame of reference, as opposed to acccmmodating the student with his or her frame of reference and processes. If one takes this line of reasoning as applicable to change within organizations, we find that the need for attitude change underlines much of the problems experienced with change in organizations today. Von Hirschfeld and Downs (1992, p.27) indicate that the problem with many attempts to change attitudes is that they are based on the "give the person more information" model. This means that people's needs are purely dealt with on a cognitive level and do not address the emotional content of a person's reaction to change. In contrast the role of facilitation does not only deal with purely cognitive processes, but accommodates the person's emotional experience to change. Thus facilitation is based on a process whereby the person learns how to learn to help himself within the process of change. This method of helping people to help themselves takes place within a similar group learning experience referred to as sensitivity training (Schaffer & Galinsky, 1974) or discussed within this study as facilitation skills training (Cilliers, 1984; 1990). The latter process of helping the person to help himself forms the basis for the rationale for facilitative training within the management of change.

56 Page RATIONALE FOR FACILITATIVE TRAINING. Beckhard and Harris (1987, p.71) indicate that in any change there is always a future state - a place or condition one wishes to achieve; a present state - the current condition in relation to the desired state; and a transition state - the getting from the present to the desired state : the period during which the actual changes take place. Woodward and Buchholz 0987, p.147) explain the transition state in the form of the following question; "How do I move myself and other people toward the desired state." Adams and Spencer (1988, p.61) say that when "assisting" or "moving" persons affected by change through the transition state, the concept of self-awareness and personal growth plays an important role in determining how intensely one experiences a transition. Each person has his or her own particular preferences, temperaments and ways of reacting to and doing things. The more in "touch"' or aware one becomes of these aspects within oneself, the better equipped a person is to handle effectively and benefit from the transition state and to accept the growth opportunity that changes have to offer. In order for learning and development to take place within the person, one needs to implement an intervention whereby the person in the transition state is able to move forward to the desired organizational state. In this context, an intervention should be aimed at the process of growth, for example, problem solving, the experience of own feelings, taking responsibility, for one's own actions, and generally helping the person to help himself (Cilliers, 1990, p.j). This approach to growth can be equated to an autonomous development level of training. The literature indicates that this type of training is based upon a existential (Bigge, 1982, p.287) or humanistic educational psychology (Rogers, 1983, p.93, 104, 197, 239). The existentialist trainer (teacher) awakens awareness, freedom and responsibility in each student. But since each person's own feelings are the final authority for the truth that is gained through this process, there is no analysis, prescription, or imposition of the activities of anyone by any other person, including the trainer (Bigge, 1982, p.287; Rogers, 1983, p.93)' This humanistic or person-centred approach (Rogers, 1983, p ) in training is characterised by the following: the leader of a group, possesses sufficient confidence and sincerity within, and toward others, reflected in an essential trust in the capacity of others to learn for themselves; the facilitative trainer shares with the learners the responsibility for the learning process; the facilitator makes available learning resources from within him/herself and from within own experience, from books or materials or from societal experiences: a facilitative learning climate is provided wherein there is an atmosphere of realness, caring, understanding and listening for meaning is evident. The person-centred approach can be formulated into the rationale of helping the person to help himself: of facilitating a process whereby the person is able to cope within a changing organizational environment.

57 Page 44 Based on the above need for people to be helped during the transition state to a desired organizational state the rationale for facilitative training is discussed further by examining first the practical implications and second the theoretical implications Practical implications. Plant (1987) says that in a change situation, people problems tend to be greater than technical problems. This is so, because through the improper introduction of change, people become confused, angry or have misgivings about the change, especially if their feelings and attitudes are not dealt with. In this regard the following references are discussed which emphasise the importance of dealing with people's emotional reaction to organizational change: Viljoen 0987, p.22) indicates that while management has generally been able to keep pace with technology, politics and economics, it has lagged seriously in its understanding of the changing social order which seems to accompany human development. Consequently, over understanding of the organization is sorely inadequate. Similarly, Georgiades (1990, p.14) indicates that change in organizations today place new demands on management, one of which, is coming to terms with a new way of behaving "particularly in managing people..." The IPM (1989, p.13) discusses an alternative approach to be considered in developing individual skills, thereby ensuring that one effectively develops a group of people to be equipped for the challenges they face with organizational change. As Manning (1988) puts it; "... South African managers will have to pay a lot more attention to their people. What's more, they must begin paying attention to the "whole" person - not just the part that turns up at work" (p.55); Pansegrouw (1990, p.b) points out that not all resistance to change is cognitive, and that one needs to address people's emotional reaction to change. Uys 0989, p.152) says: "It is obvious that in management's experience the hard side of management, namely technology, production and science are more important to companies than the human and social responsibility side." While the above literature is indicative of the importance of addressing people's emotional reaction to change, the following indicates the need for organizations to develop suitable strategies and interventions: Adams and Spencer (1988, p.60 advocate that training and development professionals should help make change more understandable and less fearful. In this way employees will have more energy to focus on the growth opportunities that change offers, rather than on resistance and uncertainty.

58 Page 45 Kotter and Schlesinger (1979, p.l07) agree that all people who are affected by change, experience some emotional turmoil. In this regard they indicate that managers all too often apply a simple set of beliefs, and do not apply thought or methodology to human reaction to change. Plant (I987, p.14) on managing change, says that the process of bringing about the conditions for effective change, and gaining people's commitment and involvement, will determine the successful outcome of the organization. The emphasis in this regard should be to move away from tactical plans of "what" you want to change, and focus equally on the "how" of the change. The discussion in indicates the need firstly to address peoples reaction to change and secondly that there is a need for a specific intervention which is focused on the "how" of the management of the change, whereby people are helped to cope from the transition state to an ideal state. The need to help people to cope forms the basis for the rationale of facilitation and is discussed from a theoretical viewpoint Theoretical implications. Within any work situation the employee is involved in the mechanics as well as the dynamics of work (Cilliers, 1990, p.z). Mechanics refers to the process of need establishment, execution and evaluation. Normally employees are trained in these to a satisfactory level in academic as well ali on-the-job training. The literature substantiates this, by saying that the goal of management is achieved by giving people the conceptual tools they need to do the job, a set of methods and techniques they can share as they gather and handle information to resolve problems, make choices, anticipate future concerns, and break complex situations into manageable components (Kepner & Tregoe, 1981, p.220). This is possible through a method of communication within management. Cilliers, 1984, p.io-ii) communication has the following functions within management: According to Muchinsky (in spell out tasks and functions; exercise control; provide information: to motivate, and to express emotions and feelings. While the first four functions are well accentuated via formal and informal channels of communication, the fifth task is sorely neglected: Cilliers (I984, p.l I) says that the expression of feelings and emotions in communication are neglected, as a result of the difficulty and absence of skills within management to deal with this factor.

59 Page 46 Lyons (in Cilliers, 1984, p.ll) says that an absence of expression in emotions and feelings in conjunction with the other functions, tends to lead to a breakdown in interpersonal relationships and ultimately in organizational activities. It seems then that the dynamic aspect in relationships is not emphasized, and that this dynamic aspect, which refers to the person-to-person contact between the first (helper) and second person (subordinate) in the interaction, is not covered within traditional training (Cilliers, 1990, p.z). The importance of this is apparent from research in psychology in general, and therapy and helping behaviours specifically, which shows more and more that the quality of work life is a direct product of the level of self development in the first person (Anthony & Carkhuff, 1979, p.23; Cilliers, 1990, p.2; Rogers, 1983, p.120). It can be said that high self development (within the helper) facilitates growth in the second person (subordinate), while a low level of self development (within the helper) facilitates deterioration within the second person (subordinate). In this regard, research (Anthony & Carkhuff, 1979, p.24) indicates that in order to be effective, helpers must combine their good intentions with helping skills, for it is the helper's skills that make the difference. Concern is clearly not enough. If one narrows the above theory into a work context, it becomes clearer and easier to understand the differing values and orientations between the mechanics and dynamics of work. In accentuating the dynamics in a work situation, this refers to the role of the first person (helper) to facilitate an opportunity for learning and growth for the subordinate during the change process (Cillicrs, 1990, p.2). This learning process is similar to the phases involved in effective counselling and psychotherapy (Anthony & Carkhuff, 1979, p.22), where the helping. processes by which helpee's are facilitated or retarded in their development, involve their exploring where they are in their worlds; understanding their problem and specifying where they want to be; and developing and implementing step-by-step action programs to get there. By contrast, the mechanical work context, (Kepner & Tregoe, 1981, p.220) defines the goal of rational management, as a process to make fuji use of the thinking ability of the people of the organization and to direct that ability toward meeting the organization's problem and concerns. It is obvious that the dynamic aspects focus on the individual and his feelings, whereas the mechanical aspects focus only on work processes. The mechanical side of management implies a rational, cognitive aspect in managing people with a neglect of the emotional or feeling aspect of people. Ever since the publication of Max Weber's prescriptions for the ideal bureaucracy, the emotional dimension of life in organization and management behaviour has been either explicitly or implicity suppressed and dominated by an overriding emphasis on objectivity, rationality and the cognitive aspects of management and leadership and the deliberate exclusion of emotion (Mattheson & lvancevich in Pansegrouw & Potgieter, 1991, p.29). During the management of change

60 Page 47 it is important to emphasise the dynamics in the work context, whereby the individual is helped by addressing his emotions and feelings through a process of facilitation. Anthony and Carkhuff 0979, p.22) state that effective helping processes from the perspective of the helpee is simply a learning or relearning process leading to change or gain in the behaviour of the helpee, which enables him or her to cope with the demands of organizational change. In the work situation this refers to the role of the first person (helper) to facilitate an opportunity for learning and growth for the subordinate during the process of change. For the helping process to take place the helper needs to develop as a person and acquire specific skills in facilitation. From this the following rationale can be formulated (in Cilliers, 1990, p.2) : If the first person (helper) possesses the characteristics of self-development, he will disclose the correlating facilitating skills. Only the selfdeveloping first person (helper) can move beyond his own subjective self, to the subjective experience of the second person (sub-ordinate) to help the person to understand and cope with his or her problem during the process of change. Thus in order for the helper to facilitate growth within the second person (subordinate) it is necessary for the facilitator to possess certain characteristics and skills, which correlate with literature on the nature and characteristics of the concept psychological optimal functioning (Cilliers, 1984, p.46; 1988(b), p.2; p.s). The concept psychological optimal functioning is discussed in Chapter five as a process wherein the facilitator develops and acquires certain facilitative characteristics and skills. 4.7 SUMMARY. The facilitation process is discussed as a suitable intervention to be utilised during the management of change in helping individuals cope with the demands of change. From a historical viewpoint various roles have been attached to the definition of facilitator. The most common role is that of a helper i.e. as in counselling, intervening, fact finding and therapy. The general tendency of the facilitator role seems to be predominantly associated with working with groups rather than individuals. Yet facilitation is not therapy. where the therapist makes behavioural interpretations from a specific therapeutic model and works remediably. Facilitation as an intervention focuses on moving people from a state of transition to a desired organizational state during the process of change. This means that the intervention is aimed at assisting the individual to cope and move forward to the desired organizational state, and hence provides the rationale for using facilitation training during the management of change. The intervention is aimed at the process of growth within the individual undergoing change, as for example, problem solving, the experiencing of own feelings, taking responsibility for one's own actions, and generally helping the person to help himself. More specifically facilitation is defined as the creation of a climate and making available of opportunities for the subordinate to learn how to learn about his self and to experience himself. with

61 Page 48 as aim the enhancement of his quality of life, as manifested 10 functioning. the concept psychological optimal Finally it is important to note that if the change agent is to facilitate a process of helping within individuals undergoing a change process, one needs to acquire certain characteristics and skills, as described within the concept psychological optimal functioning, as discussed in Chapter five.

62 Page 49 CHAPTER 5: PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMALITY. 5.1 INTRODUCTION. According to Kast and Rosenzweig 0985, p.617) individuals within_~ch~g~_process, education and experience. ---=---~-_._-_ _. not necessarily lead to org~izaiionallearning. change through ---_.~._"~._ ~~-"' Groups of individuals have organizational experiences that lead to change. Decisions are made; problems are solved; and opportunities are seized. However, individual learning does not become part of the organization's normal procedures. That is, the lessons learned from personal experience may One way of ensuring that organizational. learning will occur is to address the relationship bet~een. the client (management) and the consultant (Kast & Rosenzweig, 1985, p.625l agents) might be involved in the change process. The following figure describes several ways that consultants (change Consultant-centered Client-centered Use of Consultants' Expertise Use of Organization Members' Knowledge Directive Doctor-Patient Informational Facil~ative Consultant identifies the problems and tells management what to do. Manager reports symptoms; consultant diagnoses situation and prescribes remedy. Management identifies problems and requests ideas and information on how to solve them. Consultant helps managers to sense and solve problems and to become more skillful at diagnosis and action planning. Figure 5.1 Continuum of client-consultant relationships (adapted from Kast and Rosenzweig, 1985, p.359) At the left end of the continuum is the directive approach; the action is centred on the expert consultant who uses his or her knowledge to evaluate the organization and tell it's managers exactly what to do to

63 Page 50 improve. At the right end of the continuum is the facilitative approach; the action is centred on the manager who identifies problems and opportunities, generates alternative solutions, makes choices and develops action plans. In essence the consultant facilitates the organization in the process of helping itself. As a result the more a change process is focused toward the right end of the continuum, the more likely that organizational learning will occur. It can also be said that the manager in conjunction with the change agent (consultant) plays an important role in managing the change process. In this regard Ivancevich and Matteson (1990, p.620) point out that the success of any change program rests heavily on the quality and workability of the relationship between the change agent and managers within the organization. As a result it seems that facilitation is a suitable intervention to be used within the management of change, and should focus on providing management with the necessary characteristics and skills necessary in helping people to cope with the process of change. 5.2 THE MANAGERIAL ROLE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE. Literature tends to emphasise the interpersonal nature of management (Cilliers, 1988(a), p.2; Georgiades, 1990, p.13-15; Uys, 1989, p.152; Viljoen, 1987, p.22-26;), and discusses methodologies and strategies whereby the individual's behaviour can be changed and managed (Brehn, 1990; Cilliers, 1984, p.24-36; Coch & French, 1978; Gauthier, p.5-10; Hersey & Blanchard, 1985; Human, 1989; Kepner & Tregoe, 1981, p.l3-31; Manning, 1990; Stroul, 1989, p.47-51; Van Rooyen, 1991, p.7-12; Von Hirschfeld & Downs, 1992; Walton, 1989). Relatively less emphasis is placed upon the manager as a person. Cilliers (1988(a), p.2) points out that in the field of management training and development, the trainer attempts to influence and make managers within management, and secondly as persons more effective. Management development is usually identified within programmes dealing with management functions and dimensions such as in decision - making, leadership and communication (Cilliers, 1984, p.24-25). Alternatively, the development of people, is discussed separately within self-development programmes (Cilliers, 1984, p.3l; 1988(a), p.2). Pedler, Burgoyne and Boydell (1978) point out that an individual's development as manager and as person cannot be separated, thereby meaning that all types of management development is also self-development. Cilliers (1988(a), p.2) indicates that successful training models for the dimensions of decision-making, leadership and communication are generally used within the field of management. However within the psychology of management, there is no existence of a recognised model for the self-development of a manager, wherein he is appraised as a total person (Cilliers, 1988(a), p.z).

64 Page 51 Crouse (1981) says that the complexity of the human interaction process, increases the potential for destructiveness, and can be seen as the major source of management problems. As a remedial solution to the latter, De Bod and Gardner (1983); Marx (1983); and Schutte (1982), indicate the need for the improvement of self-management, within the psychology of management. This means that the manager should be involved to a greater extent with his subordinates by listening to them, recognize subordinates as individuals with their own thoughts, needs, feelings, skills, potential and shortcomings, and help develop them as total persons. This implies that the manager facilitates a process whereby subordinates are motivated and committed to their work (Cilliers, 1993, p.9). The nature of this interaction puts specific demands on the first person (manager) to place less emphasis on the mechanical aspects of providing information, and to concentrate on the dynamic behavioural aspects, wherein the second person (subordinate) learns how to learn for himself. The leaming of these skills (as discussed in Chapter 4) is not covered within the traditional academic training of management (Cilliers, 1988(b), p.i). In order for the manager to be able to facilitate a development process within a subordinate (second person), the manager as facilitator requires specific characteristics and skills. These characteristics and skills correspond with literature on growth and helping psychology and are referred to as the nature and characteristic of psychological optimal functioning (Cilliers, 1984, p.46; 1988(a); 1988(b): 1988(c); 1989; 1990, p.4; 1992, p.19; 1993). Cilliers (1988(b), p.2) provides the following hypothesis on facilitation : If the first person in the interaction process, possesses the necessary intrapersonal characteristics of psychological optimality, the interpersonal characteristics are positively influenced. This means that the optimally functioning facilitator is able to move, beyond his subjective self to the subjective experience of the second person (subordinate) thereby enabling the second person to understand himself and his world better. The training of facilitators as pre-requisite, is dependant on the facilitating of psychological optimality within the manager or facilitator, or otherwise known as the stimulation of self-development (Cilliers, 1984, p.46). Within the context of this study, this means that during the process of change. the manager, in order to facilitate growth and a process of help within those people affected by organizational change, requires facilitating skills. This skill is acquired through facilitating the process of psychological optimality within the manager. The following section provides a description and examination of the concept, psychological optimal functioning.

65 Page PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMIZATION. Cilliers (1988(a) p.2) points out that the training of facilitators. is dependant upon the facilitating of psychological optimality within the manager. or stated differently: "the stimulation of self-development" (Cilliers, 1990, p.3) Self development. Cilliers (1990) says self development is broadly described in literature as, "any effort by the individual to realize in a balanced way, and to accept all physical, religious, psychological and interpersonal aspects of his being, and to practice this to fitness and growth"; "it follows that the person in totality, is involved in his own self development" (p.s). Literature also refers to this approach as a gestalt, a german word meaning a meaningful whole (Brammer & Shostrorn, 1968, pa6), or a holism (from "whole" as used by the holistic health movement - Cilliers, 1990, pa). Cilliers (1990, pa) says that because the above mentioned descriptions are vaguely conceptualized, for training and operationalisation purposes, the psychological optimization model is chosen as solution and explanation. A description on psychological optimization follows Description of psychological optimization, In an attempt, within psychology, to move away from the medical model of study, diagnosis and treatment of the negative, abnormal, pathology or sick behaviour, as in the psycho-analytic approach of Freud (Maddi, p.29l), the focus of study has moved beyond that of the "normal" or "average" to "positive" or "optimal" behaviour (Walsh & Shapiro, 1983).

66 Page 53 This move from the study of the abnormal to the optimal is best represented within the following diagram: Negative Pathogenesis Positive Salutogenesis / Psychological Abnormal (unhealthy) Psychological Normal (healthy) Psychological Optimal Figure 5.2 : Focus change from abnormal to optimal (adapted from Cilliers, 1984, pa7) A refocus from the abnormal to the optimal. Allport (1955) says that the two extremes of sick and healthy should be seen as a dichotomy, rather than be represented as a continuum. According to Maslow (1954 : : 17-19). the difference between negative and positive is qualitative (in type) and quantitative (in degree). This implies that the personality characteristics of the psychological unhealthy (abnormal) person. differs in characteristic from the healthy (normal) person. This also means that the previous two characteristics of abnormal and normal will also differ from that of the psychologically optimal functioning person. The left hand side of the continuum in figure 5.1. is described within psychopathological literature. where the middle represents the general accepted norm and characteristics of the masses (Cilliers, 1988(a). p.3; Striirnpfer, p.266>' The process of and characteristics of the right h~d side of the continuum. is discussed within a relati vely new area of study known as growth psychology (Schultz Clinebell, 1981; Cilliers, 1988(a). p.j). Also emphasising the right hand side of the continuum is a new paradigm (salutogenesis). which examines how people manage stress and stay well. with its primary concern being the maintenance and enhancement of wellness, in addition to the prevention and treatment of illness (Striimpfer, p.265>. The focus within the training of facilitators is on the positive aspect of people's motivation and need to grow and stay healthy. and to actualize his or her own potential (Cilliers, 1988(a). p.s). This means that the individual is psychologically enriched, and he or she grows in such a way. that

67 Page 54 the growth of others, within his or her interpersonal contact with others, and the development of society at large, are stimulated (Schultz, 1977; Clinebell, 1979). The optimization model finds a parallel in the psychology of management function, within management development (Cilliers, 1984, pa8), and is now discussed where optimality is the purpose of management development Optimality as purpose within management development. Cilliers (1988(a), pa) says that coupled to the above-mentioned refocus ( from left to right, the following dynamic behavioural changes within the individual can also be mentioned : An individual with pathological behaviour (left on the continuum) would be helped by a clinical psychologist to adjust to normality (the middle of the continuum). Within an industrial psychology context, both the manager and the subordinate, are stimulated by the facilitator from a relatively average position (middle) in management and self-development, to a position of optimality (right on the continuum). It can thus be said, that the purpose of facilitation within management and self-development, is to stimulate psychological optimality both within the manager and the subordinate (Cilliers, 1988(a), p.d). This would ensure that the person would function more effectively both as person and manager (Cilliers, 1988(b), p.z). The nature of this effectiveness is discussed in point (5A.3) which deals with the work related characteristics of optimality. The above-mentioned, in more common industrial psychology terms, refers to the stimulation of the universal human need to self-actualize (Johnson, 1981, p.5) and as described by Maslow (1977). This process is also related to motivational factors (as opposed to hygiene factors) as described within the theory of Herzberg (1969). In transactional terms, this refers to a balance between the three ego-states (parent, adult and child), but with the emphasis on the emancipated adult ego-state as autonomous controller (Berne, 1968; Harris, 1978). Having provided a broad description on psychological optimality with a change in focus from "abnormal", to "normal", to "optimal" behaviour, and examining this focus change within the area of management development, it is of importance to first provide a more concise definition, and second a description of the characteristics of the psychological optimal functioning person Definition. It would seem that psychological optimality, as discussed within literature, is termed differently but has a collective meaning. Cilliers (1984, p.49-62) provides the following viewpoints, as is derived from the more traditional classification of theories as discussed within psychological literature : Within the psycho-

68 Page 55 analytic framework, it is described as individualization (lung, 1975), superiority (Adler, 1963), selfrealisation (Homey, 1957) and personality integration (Erikson, 1980); within the humanistic existential framework as maturity (Allport, 1970), productivity (Fromm, 1956), fully-functioning (Rogers, 1973, 1975), self-transcending (Frankl, 1978) and self-actualization (Maslow, 1954, Peds, 1978). Within the relatively new salutogenesis paradigm, reference is made to a "sense of coherence" (Antonovsky, 1979), the hardy personality (Kobasa et al. 1982), potency, stamina and learned experience (ref. Striimpfer, 1990, p ). The above developmental process can be integrated within the concept psychological optimal functioning (Cilliers, 1993, p.20), which can be defined as follows: "Psychological optimal functioning is defined as a natural, dynamic and creative process of growth, wherein the individual develops with a full realisation of his responsibility, through self-definition and the optimization of all physical, psychological and spiritual potentialities, towards a new experience of unity, and transcendence of himself, himself in his work, his interpersonal relationships and in his relationship to his God" (Cilliers, 1984, p.62, 1989, pa). Cilliers (l988(a), p.fi) points out the essence of psychological optimality, as being a natural process. Thereby meaning that psychological optimality is not a fixed condition, as in for example physical and intellectual development within people, where potential deteriorates after sixteen to eighteen years of age. In contrast, psychological optimality is an ever-increasing, process of growth that ends in death (Cilliers, 1988, p.s). 504 CHARACTERISTICS OFTHEPSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMAL FUNCTIONING PERSON. Research conducted on the average South African manager (Uys, 1989, p.152) has brought the following deficits in managerial development to light: an overload of white male manpower, which leads to premature promotion and lack of appropriate managerial training; professionalism within work has the highest priority, while bottom on the list, a lesser orientation toward acquiring people skills; a further analysis reveals that managers indicate their job as first priority, secondly their spouse, thirdly family, and lastly the self. In contrast to the above, literature indicates that for the well being and effectiveness of being a manager and person (Johnson, 1981, p.l-13, Uys, 1989, p.152), there should be a reversal and emphasis on especially the last priority, namely the self (not in the form of egoistic self-achievement, but in the form

69 Page 56 of self-management} or as Nelson-Jones (1986, p.13) explains, "to relate well, I need to develop a repertoire of effective relationship skills". Effective interaction skills, can be defined as helping skills as part of one's job, although the main focus of the job might be teaching; managing, or supervising (Nelson-Jones, 1988, p. 1). Expanding the definition on relationship skills. Nelson-Jones (I986. p.o), emphasises the importance of "communicating effectively" with those with whom you relate or wish to relate. It would seem from the afore-mentioned that the manager, in order to be effective as manager and person, needs to develop certain characteristics. These characteristics are divided between the intra, interpersonal and work related, within the process of psychological optimization (Cilliers, 1984, p.63l The intra. and interpersonal are interdependent, and it seems that the interpersonal flows from and is dependant on the intrapersonal (Cilliers, 1988(a), p.ti). These characteristics are now summarized (from Cilliers, p.63-84; 1988(a); 1988(b), p.3: 1988(c), p.4; 1989, pa; 1990, pa; 1992, p.20) Intrapersonal Characteristics. Intrapersonal refers more specifically to aspects within the self (Cilliers, 1990, pa)' On an intrapersonal level the psychologically optimal functioning person, exhibits the following physical, cognitive, emotional and conative aspects (Cilliers, 1989, p.d). which are discussed below : 5A.l.1 Physical characteristics. The individual does regular exercise, is fit, has sufficient energy and stamina and good general physical health. He is positively orientated towards his body and accepts the nature and working thereof (Cilliers, 1989, p.d). A perfect illustration is the current participation of managers in health clubs as the norm in the 1990's. Research by Frankl (1967, 1969) indicates that physical illness does not need to have a detrimental effect on psychological optimality, provided the person experiences his condition within a positive light Cognitive characteristics. The individual possesses an above average intellectual ability, and is able to think and reason in a disciplined, objective, flexible and imaginative way. He is optimistic in his evaluation, possesses a sound memory and healthy judgement. This allows him to experience change as natural, meaningful and interesting, in spite of stress (Allport, 1970). As a result this means that he does not allow inappropriate

70 Page 57 feelings such as guilt, shame, inferiority / superiority to negatively influence his thoughts (Cilliers, 1984, p.65; 1989, pal Emotional characteristics. The psychological - optimal functioning person displays a high degree of awareness for his own emotions and feelings (thereby meaning, not over-sensitive or insensitive), (Cilliers, 1989, pal He accepts these feelings and expresses them without defence, shame or guilt. This behaviour leads to an understanding of the self, acceptance and trust for ones being (Cilliers, 1984, p.65). This rich and emotionally filled life, leads to a voluntary attachment to a variety of life situations where growth is seeked (Johnson, 1981, p.109). The person has a high frustration tolerance and experiences stress as positive. exciting and adventurous (Cilliers, 1989, p.a). Other characteristics include emotional independence and autonomy from an internal locus of control. characterised by a full acceptance of responsibility for all emotional behaviour, and experiencing feeling as his own choice without blaming others for own thoughts and emotions (Cilliers, pa: Johnson p.o). Taking responsibility for own actions implies not projecting own feelings on to others, a'> in "you make me furious" (Cilliers, 1989, pal Conative characteristics. The psychological optimal - functioning person is self-regulated and self-directional, experiencing a freedom of choice from an internal locus of control, without feeling surrendered to powers from the outside (Cilliers, 1989, p.e). Johnson p.6) describes the outer directed person as one who receives guidance and direction from the people he or she is relating to - or performing whatever is necessary to gain the approval of others. In contra'it Cilliers (1984, p.67) says that the "inner-directed" person, instead of being manipulated as a puppet from without. controls his own actions (strings) according to his own will. In summing up the intrapersonal characteristics within the psychological optimal functioning person, Johnson 0981, pa) says that Western culture seems to be changing its emphasis from materialism to selfactualization. from self-control to self-expression. from independence to interdependence. from endurance of stress to a capacity for joy, from full employment to full lives.

71 Page 58 5A.2 Interpersonal characteristics. The above intrapersonal characteristics serve as prereqursite to effective interpersonal relationships (Cilliers, 1989, pa). Research shows that pure intrapersonal behaviours occupies about ten percent and interpersonal behaviours about ninety percent of the individual's waking time (Cilliers, 1990, pa). This means, that although the intrapersonal looks insignificant, these aspects playa determining role in every interpersonal activity of the individual (Cilliers, 1988(b), p.s). the intrapersonal aspects within the self-development of managers in training. Therefore, it is meaningful to emphasize shows that self development is mainly stimulated by interpersonal contact (1990, p.s). Cilliers says that research This means, on his own the individual grows or develops relatively less than in contact with others. Johnson (1981, p.2) sums the latter up, sayjpkj_~~u!1te~rs9.f.lal_[elatiollshipsat"~essential for one's p~rl'()[la.!.~.t:!~:!>5:!,~jn ----',-_ ', - many ways,)lelpingone to grow and develop cognitively and socially, to build a positive and coherent '---"'..----~ personal identity, to feel one is firmly in touch with reality, and to gain and maintain psychological and physical health. What Johnson says, is well founded in research (Cilliers, 1990, p.5) which shows that the quality of self development is determined between eighty-five and ninety percent by the quality of the interpersonal relationship. This refers to the so called "growth by interpersonal experience" principle (Cilliers, 1990, p.5; Nelson-Jones, 1986, p.14). As a result of their being so many, approaches in the formulation of these characteristics within the various schools of psychology, a summary and interpretation of the most important theorists and thoughts are provided for discussion. 5A.2.1 Interpersonal characteristics. Cilliers (1984, p.76; 1989, pa) says that the following interpersonal characteristics would be typical within the person : An optimistic and unconditional acceptance of and respect towards others.. _,~.. '~'" ''"Y:,,'.'~'_' """"_""._~,...~._..c. _. _.._~...,... - '" A preference for quantitative less, but qualitative more intimate, deeper and richer rewarding interpersonal relationships.,...,..r'.'... '~... "'"""~"':'... "",...-.-r/~ The above is characterised by responsible, spontaneous, natural, open, authentic and real behaviour according to real feelings...._-,." This means thatjb~person...is.also-sensitive, empathetic, considering and loving towards others.

72 Page 59 From within different theoretical models in psychology. where effective communication is discussed (Carkhuff. 1983; Egan. 1990; Schultz. 1977) it seems that this requires special skills. For example. the ability to reach out to the second person as human being. and in so doing helping him to understand himself better. Applied within a managerial situation. the manager can help the subordinate to cope with change. by helping him to achieve maturity. to optimalise his full potential from within his own reserves. and to help him accept responsibility for his own behaviour (Cilliers, 1992, p.19: p.ifl). The stimulation of growth within the subordinate implies that the manager possesses a high degree of maturity (psychological optimal characteristics). together with interpersonal skills, so that the corresponding characteristics can be stimulated within the subordinate (Cilliers, p.ifl). This process is conceptualised as sensitive relationship forming (Cilliers, p.85) A description of sensitive relationship forming. According to Wissing (I978) the core element of sensitivity is a honest and fully responsible conscious. This refers to the person's ability to consciously be in touch with feelings and behaviours in himself and others. and to manage this information with respect. honesty and responsibility (Cilliers, p.10; Jones. 1972; Lakin. 1985; Rogers. 1975: Schaffer and Galinsky. 1974). Relationship forming refers to the potential which exists in each person, to make contact both verbally and non-verbally with a second person. in an effective, genuine. spontaneous. non-manipulative and responsible manner. according to the unique demands of the human situation (Moustakas, 1977; Swart and Wiehahn, 1979; Wissing, 1978). In summary. sensitive relationship forming. can be defined as the formation of facilitative interpersonal processes. or the creation of a relationship climate. that leads to a developmental process and stimulation. between the first person (manager) and second person (colleague or subordinate). during the process of organizational change (Cilliers, p.10. Wissing, 1978) The core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming. The characteristics discussed in 5.4. arc summarized within a person - centredpsycho-therapeutic approach (Carkhuff in Cilliers, 1988(a). p.b: Rogers. 1973). and are integrated in the four core dimensions of respect. empathy. genuineness and concreteness (Cilliers p.92; 1988(a). p.8; 1988(b). p.3; p.5; p.6; p.20; p.10) : Empathy is described as the ability of the first person to reach out without being restricted by own self-consciousness, to the conscious and accurate sensing and understanding of the deepest feeling

73 Page 60 and meaning of the second person, out of his frame of reference, and to communicate this understanding explicitly, especially towards the beginning of the relationship. Respect can be defined as a deep recognition, appreciation and regard towards the worth of the second person as a creation of God, and his right as a free individual. This is revealed in an unconditional positive caring and warmth and in the quality of the attention given to the second person. Genuineness can be described as harmony or congruence between what the person says or does, and what he really feels and means. He acts spontaneously, honestly, sincerely and is fully himself, without affectation or defensiveness. This entails contact with himself and openness towards feelings emanating from his being. This must also be communicated in so far as it is positively or negatively applicable in the relationship. Concreteness refers to a specific or factuality in expression with regard to personal or goal-related information, in contrast to vague or over-generalised expressions. This facilitates accurate and clear communication. Wissing (1978) hypothesizes that there is a hierarchical conjunction between the four core dimensions within the sensitive relationship forming process. It is only when the first person has a basic respect for the second person as human being, that he is able to show empathy. Following this, he is then able to be genuine which will then allow him to be concrete in order to benefit the second person. On the other hand, the second person (subordinate), within the sensitive relationship forming process of the four core dimensions, is able to self-examine, obtain self-knowledge, formulate new goals and consider alternatives and provide solutions (Wissing, 1978). This means that the psychological optimal functioning manager, through the process of sensitive relationship forming is able to establish rapport and help the second person (colleague or subordinate), to help himself, and to cope within the process of organizational change. The above intra and interpersonal characteristics combined lead to specific work related qualities Work-related characteristics. The role of the manager as facilitator has been discussed within point 5.2, with specific reference to personality characteristics (intrapersonal in point 5.3.1) and skills (interpersonal in point 5.3.2). According to CilIiers (1989, p.5: p.7: 1992, p.20), the above-mentioned intra and interpersonal characteristics combined leads to the following work-related qualities:

74 Page 61 A full commitment to work and its situations, productivity and the experience of joy and growth from new challenges. A perpetual awareness of the relationship between different areas of work, tasks and with the whole. A focus on being problem centred, responsible, flexible, using own initiative, concentration and optimal utilisation of time. The psychological optimal developing person is focused on the here-and-now situation, but at the same time aware of the past (without being bound to that past), at) well at) a positive orientation towards the future. Work goals are integrated with ethical moral, social and religious values which leads to the experience of purpose and meaning in life. Happiness is no goal in itself, but rather a by-product of performance, acceptance and psychological optimisation. Creativity, loyalty and dedication also forms part of this. The individual shows preference towards a democratic managerial style, characterised by proactive planning and respectful delegation which permits subordinates to grow and develop their -own potential. This allows the development of a psychological safe and permissive climate, wherein the subordinate and his colleagues are allowed to develop their own potential, accept responsibility for their own behaviour and work environment. As a result, the subordinate's work behaviour is more productive and focused on the achievement of organizational goals without forfeiting own needs and goals. Argyris (1962) refers to the latter at) an authentic work relationship, wherein the manager creates an awareness for his own and others needs for acceptance, so that his subordinates model on this behaviour. This allows for situations which require decision-making and which are characterised by negative feelings and suppressed energy, to be converted into positive growth situations, thereby enhancing both the productivity and quality of work life (Cilliers, 1988, p.9). The essentials of the above work-related qualities could best be described by comparing them to some of the leadership challenges faced by South African managers, during the ijrocess and management of organizational change. Van Rooyen (1991, p.7) talks about a culture challenge wherein lies a need for knowledge and skills on how to deal with potential disillusionment, frustration and dissatisfaction amongst professional, managerial, technical, skilled and unskilled workers because of the nature of, and tempo with which change takes place. This means that the development of both the intra and interpersonal skills are of importance within management.

75 Page 62 Van Wyk (1989, p.ll) emphasises the human resource practitioner's changing role, and says that the main focus needs to be on developing and growing people who can enhance the quality of the organizational population and the growth of potential leaders for the future. Two key words synonymous with the process of facilitation in this context is development and growth. This again is synonymous with the term psychological optimal functioning, which is used to describe the process of growth and its characteristics in terms of intra, interpersonal and work related behaviour (Cilliers, 1989, p.z). Manning (1990, p.12) says that, while change management is the objective, leadership is vital in bringing it about. He further explains that change management is not a mechanistic process, but rather hinges around human emotions: "It depends upon such intangible skills as awareness, timing, nuances, and the human touch." While the description is somewhat vague and refers to a "gut feel" approach, what it does point out is the importance of being in touch with human emotions. In this regard one can again refer to the concept psychological optimal functioning (Cilliers, 1989, p. 3), which on the one hand illustrates the growth of the manager (facilitator) towards more effective functioning and helping, and on the other hand the growth of the client (subordinate) towards higher quality of life and being in control of his own situation (internal locus of control) as a result of facilitation. In summary the work characteristics refer to a total involvement, an awareness of responsibilities, and an optimal usage of time and creativity (Cilliers, 1993, p.12). This means that the psychological optimal functioning person is involved totally within his work situation, and has the necessary mechanisms to cope within a changing environment. As a result, all the above mentioned intra and interpersonal characteristics of optimality serve as pre-requisites for optimal work achievement (Cilliers, 1988, p.b). Seen in context, this means that the change agent inhis management of the change process, should aim the intervention -.>."'_.. of facilitator training at persons who occupy positions of leadership within the organization. This specifically refers to managers who are responsible for developing and managing people in order to achieve organizational goals and enhance the general quality of the organizations human resources. As we have seen thus far, effective management entails the need for knowledge andskills on how to deal not _only~ith the..!~~hnical a<;pects of change, but also the emotional reactionby-people (Chapter 3) to change. ( Specifically this refers to the role of the manager in creating a conducive climate and opportunity for the \ subordinate to grow and help to help himself in coping with organizational change. 5.5 SUMMARY. This section examined literature on the interpersonal nature of management, whereby it is seen that relatively less emphasis is placed upon developing the manager as a person who does not have the necessary skills and development in their interaction with subordinates and as a result increase the potential for destructiveness within the managerial relationship. This specifically impacts during the change process

76 Page 63 of organizational change whereby the manager needs to focus not only on the mechanics of change but on the dynamic behavioral aspects such as the emotional reaction by people to change. Therefore the change agent should focus the intervention of facilitator training on the managerial element within organizations. The application of facilitation skills training ensures that the manager in order to be effective as manager and person needs to develop certain characteristics. Within the concept. psychological optimal functioning. it is generally accepted that acquiring and developing certain characteristics and skills by the manager are of great importance in effectively facilitating psychological growth and help in subordinates during the process of organizational change. From literature on growth and helping psychology. the term psychological optimal functioning is used to describe this process of growth. and its characteristics in terms of intra. interpersonal and work related behaviour. It would seem that these characteristics are best stimulated by enhancing self-awareness in growth group experiences and interpersonal skills training. which is discussed within chapter six.

77 Page 64 CHAPTER 6: THE FACILITATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMALITY AND SENSITIVE RELATIONSHIP FORMING. 6.1 INTRODUCTION. Within stage three of the model for managing change (figure 2.4). the change agent has identified the resistance to change and recognized the limiting conditions within managerial ability and skills to cope with people's emotional reaction to change. Within step four of the model the change agent has focused his attention on considering alternative approaches and techniques to solve the problem. This alternative approach is discussed within chapter four where the skill of facilitation is introduced as a suitable intervention (solution) to be used within the management of change. Within step five of the model the change agent must decide on what approach to follow while implementing the solution. As in this case facilitation as an intervention is aimed at providing managers with the necessary skills needed in helping subordinates to cope during the process of organizational change; This is discussed within chapter five which examines the psychological optimal process whereby the skills and characteristics of the facilitator are discussed as an important developmental process for the manager involved in helping subordinates to help themselves. In this chapter an evaluation and discussion follows on the method of stimulating psychological optimality. and the facilitation of the four core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming through interpersonal skills training. 6.2 STIMULATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMALITY. Within psychological literature effective helping as applied in the fields of <therapy. counselling. management) is seen as a product of the level of self-development of the helper (Nelson-Jones p ; p.5; Rogers. 1975). Research has shown that helping can be "for better or for worse" (Carkhuff and Anthony p.s). Cilliers (l988(c). p.j) says this means that the helper who functions on a high level of psychological optimality. is able to stimulate growth, within the second person. Conversely. a manager who functions on a low level of self-development, inhibits growth and causes emotional damage within the second person. In order to help effectively it is necessary that selfdevelopment is seen as a priority by the manager. and there should be active attempts at stimulating selfdevelopment (Nelson-Jones p ; p.5; Cilliers, 1988(c), p.s).

78 Page 65 Nelson-Jones (1983, p ) differentiates between two methods that are appropriate within the facilitation of sensitive relationship forming. namely the self-read and do method. and the interpersonal method The self-read and do method. This method advocates numerous technologies that are used to develop, self-actualize and address specific characteristics of the personality (including interpersonal skills. such as the core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming) within the individual (Cilliers, p.l00). Some of the above training is presented in specific training courses and programmes, which entails the individual to autonomously (without the help of a trainer or counsellor) read through a text, or listen to an audio cassette and possibly in conjunction with the completion of questionnaires and a series of exercises. In this regard one can mention the self-development program of Pedler, Burgoyne and Boydell p.lol) which is applicable within the management situation. Typical programs include decision-making. the management of change and creativity which assists in problem-solving. To help within management there are also audio-cassette courses whereby management skills, motivation and assertiveness are leamed. As a more typical example, some courses are marketed and advertised within periodicals and magazines under personal growth columns (example Psychology Today. and I.P.M. journals). In support of this type of leaming approach, it could best be motivated from the point of view that human resource budgets are under extreme pressure within the current South African economic climate. Von Hirschfeld and Downs (1991, p.13) point out that the demands made on human resource managers in South Africa today arc epitomised by the phrase. "do more, with less. " and "more training, in more skills. of more people... with less money and fewer people". \ To support the former statement and as example. a more recent and widely used approach. in this regard, is ~mputer-based training. Collins (1992(a), p.29) offers the following as, advantage and rationale for computer based training systems: training standards are maintained regardless of where the program is run or by whom; flexibility to meet the individual leaming needs of a wide range of students; facilities for pre- and post-course testing and for tracking progress of students through the program;

79 Page 66 use-able at any time for any number of people, in a centralised facility or at the student's own work place. In contrast, Cilliers 0984, p.102) points out that the biggest disadvantage in such learning is within the method. Although an advantage of the self-read and do method lies in the availability of the manager being able to progress through the material within his own time and tempo, negative criticism is levelled toward, amongst other factors, the process that behaviour does not become internalised. Wicks 0979, p.165) says that such learning incorporates only change on a cognitive level. In this regard This means the individual learns new words, terms, concepts on a cognitive level, but insight into own experience and functioning is not facilitated. Although a person might well, gain insight into the behaviours of others, according to McGregor (1960, p.220) emotional growth within this learning process is negative, as the individual learns to rationalize his own behaviour. Cilliers (1984, p.103) indicates this learning method as inadequate within training, as it does not lead to optimal behavioural change, behaviour is not internalised, skills are not enhanced, and it leads to negative emotional growth or contra psychological optimal growth (as it reinforces defence mechanisms). As a result, this type of training is not suited to <-~--'~- -~--~ _.~_ ~ -.,... - _.'.-'... the facilitation of sensitive relationship forming within manag~rs. Cilliers (I984, p.103) points out that interpersonal contact is necessary within the learning situation, which serves as a core characteristic within sensitive relationship forming, which should serve as a model within training The interpersonallcarning method. The interpersonal learning method comprises two basic approaches. Firstly, the class-room and conference technique, encompassing traditional methods such as lectures, discussions and case studies (McGregor, 1960, p ). This form of learning is primarily intellectual and docs not result in permanent behavioural change, and as a result is not suitable as a learning method for the facilitation of sensitive relationship forming (Cilliers, 1984, p.l03). The second method within literature is based upon interpersonal experiential learning. Johnson 0981, p.io) this type of learning is based on three assumptions: According to people learn best when they are personally involved in the learning experience; knowledge has to be discovered if it is to mean anything or make a difference in behaviour; and commitment to learning is highest when people are free to set their own learning goals and actively pursue them within a given framework.

80 Page 67 Johnson (1981, p.ll) further notes, that learning from experience is especially useful when one wants to learn skills, for example; reading about how to communicate is not enough to make one skill full in communicating with others. One needs practice and experience in good communication skills. Cilliers (1984, p.103) notes that sensitive relationship forming is primarily an interpersonal actrvrty, coupled to the personal growth of the first person and the level of growth of the second person, within a relationship. Motivated from the grow-through-interpersonal-experience-principal, it seems that sensitive relationship forming is best facilitated within an interpersonal experiential learning situation. Johnson (1981, p.lo) says that to learn interpersonal skills, one first needs to understand what the skills are and when they should be used, and second, you need the opportunity to actually practice the skills by employing one or other method. Cilliers (1984, p.104) differentiates between the following interpersonal experiential learning methods: individual, group psychotherapy and counselling, the growth group, and interpersonal skills training. With reference to individual, group psychotherapy and counselling as methods for facilitation of sensitive relationship forming, the following negative points can be discussed: within individual psychotherapy and counselling there exists within the one-to-one situation, with its emphasis on intrapsychic growth, a relative shortage of a multitude of interpersonal growth stimulating situations (Brammer & Shostrom, 1960, p.6-1o; Shapiro, 1978, p.1l-12); additionally, the one-to-one situation is uneconomical in terms of time and money. Within the development and training of management, organizations attempt to maximise profits with the minimum input of people and financial resources (Uys, 1989); the cost aspect as negative point within individual psychotherapy can be overcome through the use of group psychotherapy. This however is still not viable as an alternative for the facilitation of sensitive relationship forming. The latter focuses on pathology as such, and negates the potentially rich interpersonal dynamics available within the group, with personal growth as focus (Rowan, 1989, p.7-10). personal growth, per definition, is what happens when a healthy person with no obvious problems decides on a process of self-exploration for self-understanding, simply in order to be more able (Rowan, 1989, p.9). Rowan further states that it is possible to use a very wide range of

81 Page 68 techniques during the personal growth process - hence the development of the open encounter group and the growth centre (group) 0989, p.10). It seems from the above humanistic paradigm (Rowan, 1988, p.3-20), with the grow-through-interpersonalexperience-principle, that these interpersonal dynamics can be utilised effectively within the facilitation of sensitive relationship forming (Cilliers, 1984, p.10s). Accordingly the growth group and interpersonal skills training are discussed as possible methods for the facilitation of sensitive relationship forming within managers involved with the process and acceptance of change by subordinates. 6.3 THE GROWTH GROUP. With reference to the following discussion on the rationale, description and application of the growth group, it would seem that this technique is well suited to the facilitation of psychological optimality, as characteristic of sensitive relationship forming within the industrial psychological context, especially with regard to the optimisation of interpersonal potential within the manager (Cilliers, 1984, p.ll l) Accordingly a discussion follows on the growth group as technique whereby sensitive relationship forming can be optimally stimulated Definition of a group. The literature examined (Dick, 1991; Schaffer and Galinsky, 1974; Shaw, 1981; Smith, 1980), provides a comprehensive listing of definitions on groups, with the emphasis differing from specifying the characteristics of small groups, to emphasising the purpose of groups. For the purposes of this study, Shaw 0981, p.b) provides a general perspective, and defines a group as two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person. From this definition it is concluded that interaction amongst members is the key feature. Other aspects of importance in a group are 0) that groups endure for a reasonable period (longer than a few minutes), (2) have a common goal or goals, and (3) have developed at least a rudimentary group structure (Shaw, 1981, p.8). Having defined a group, it's functioning is discussed within the context of growth groups.

82 Page Types of growth groups. This study does not discuss the various growth groups in detail, but provides only the main correlating characteristics of each. The origin of growth groups, can be attributed to Kurt Lewin in 1946, who in conjunction with Ronald Lippitt, Kenneth Benne and Leland P. Bradford, were responsible for the T-group format (Schaffer and Galinksy, 1974, p.1l-17). T-groups are interventions that go under many names, most commonly "T-group", "laboratory education", "sensitivity training" and "encounter group" (Camp, Blanchard and Husczczo, 1986, p.347), and are described as follows: Laboratory education may be distinguished from T-groups as it is a more complete program with the T-group as its main ingredient but supplemented by the use of lectures, cases, role playing, and discussions of theory (Shaw, 1981, p.36-41; Camp et al. 1986, p.347) Encounter groups tend to be more intensive experiences designed to put the "normally alienated individual" into closer contact - or encounter - with himself or herself with others and with sensations. Thus, the emphasis is on personal growth and leaders of the group tend to use more psychodrama and gestalt therapy methods than the traditional human relations skills orientation of T-groups (Schaffer and Galinksy, 1974, p.2ll-239>. Sensitivity training may resemble T-groups or encounter groups, and Smith (1980, p.48) says that the term sensitivity training implies that one of the major goals of training is that one should develop a more perceptive or accurate understanding of others. Another group, seen as a sub-type to and because of its similarity with the model of sensitivity training, and its work method of the encounter group, is the marathon group (Schaffer and Galinksy, 1974, p.222). The purpose of the marathon group is to facilitate personal growth through intense, and concentrated group experience (Smith, 1980, p ). The main difference with this group is that it is usually held over a weekend, continuously and without rest, for a period of forty-eight hours. As a result of this psychological pressure and the exhaustion experienced, defence mechanisms are reduced, psychological intimacy and real behaviours and feelings are facilitated (Jones, 1972; Kaplan and Sadock, 1972, p.26). The above descriptions are brief, and have as aim to provide an understanding of the range of phenomena in relation to groups. In this regard (Camp et al. 1986, p.348) points out that variation in groups using the same title may be greater than the actual variation between groups using different titles. Thereby meaning that variations revolve around the role of the trainer (directive to nondirective), type of agenda (structured to unstructured), length of sessions (10 to 15 two hour sessions, 24 to 72 hour marathons, numerous 15 minute compressed microlabs), and composition of the group (strangers, cousins, employees

83 Page 70 of the same company who don't ordinarily work together, family, employees from the same company who work together on a daily basis) Core concepts in growth groups. T-groups (T standing for "training"), may be briefly defined as an intensive effort at interpersonal selfstudy, and an attempt to learn from the raw experience of member participation in a group how to improve interpersonal skills and to understand the phenomena of group dynamics (Schaffer and Galinsky, 1974, p.189). Many authors have described what they think to be the key components of a T-group experience (see for example, Bradford, Gibb and Benne, 1964; Camp et al. 1986, p.348; Rogers, 1970; Schaffer and Galinksy, 1974; Schein and Bennis, 1965; Yalom, 1970), and the following summary of the basic characteristics is based on the mentioned literature: Here and now focus. The traditional T-group has no structured agenda. The content for group discussion is the present behaviour of members and their feelings regarding effects to relate to one another in the group. Since the typical business environment provides managers with guidelines, agendas, and expectations, it is thought that the removal of these structures will facilitate a reflection on how one actually behaves in the absence of established protocol. This is especially relevant in this study, as has been indicated, that managers lack the appropriate skill, in helping peopleto cope with the process of organizational change, by not being in touch with their own and subordinate's feelings (Cilliers, 1988(b); 1989) Self-Disclosure. Members learn about themselves by revealing to the group how they feel and what they perceive to be happening. Within the business environment, managers put on a facade in their relations with others, and this facade leads to relationship problems. which manifests itself within the manager firstly, and secondly within the subordinate (Uys, 1989). This means that if the manager has not developed optimally especially the (intrapersonal characteristics), he correlates and discloses these negative attributes toward the subordinate. Thereby meaning that the interpersonal skills (communication ability) necessary in dealing with his own and other's feelings, during the process of organizational change, are not exhibited within the four core dimensions of genuineness, concreteness, respect and empathy (Cilliers, 1988(a».

84 Page Feedback. Some of the self-disclosure that is expected to take place is feedback to other members about how they come across to the rest of the group. Members thus learn quickly and directly what they are like to relate to, and learn how to give constructive, specific feedback through this process. Schein (1964 in Camp et al. 1986) says that life in business organizations often operates without much feedback to individual managers, resulting in much anxiety. It is gathered from this, that through the process of feedback, one is able to grow optimally (intrapersonal), whereby the interpersonal skills are enhanced and communication is more effective (Cilliers, 1988(b». The above argument stresses the importance of the managers continuous self-development. Cilliers (1988(a» says that academic training of managers usually consists of cognitivcly learning a variety of theories, models and techniques, with its emphasis on the mechanics of management. Less is done towards stimulating the dynamic characteristics of psychological optimal functioning, which lies more on an emotional level. Therefore and because of its dynamic and process nature, it remains the responsibility of the individual manager to enhance his own emotional well-being and self-actualization throughout his life. If the latter, acquiring the skill of facilitation, as process takes place, the self-developed manager is able to then assist and help the subordinate to cope with the process of organizational change (Cilliers, 1989). The above self-disclosure and feedback is intergrated in the well known Johari- Window-model (Luft, 1970) Climate of experimentation. T-groups are to provide a "cultural island" where group members provide support and build the trust to open up and take some behavioural risks. By stretching beyond one's typical behavioural repertoire in a safe setting, an individual may discover new ways of relating to others and receive feedback on these attempts. It is especially hoped that managers will be able to let down their facades, experience and learn from their emotional reactions - something not typically encouraged within organizational settings. The purpose of creating and making available a climate of experimentation is based on Lewin's belief in an action research model (Smith. 1980, p.8-30). He proposed that the trainer (facilitator) and trainees should treat what is said and done as real data to be analyzed and acted upon. He said that interpersonal styles are based on long held beliefs, and that they can only be changed and improved when individuals are able to examine them personally and discover whether their beliefs are satisfactory or not.

85 Page Stages of the Group Process. From the literature examined (see, for example, Schaffer and Galinksy, 1974, p ; Smith, p.22-30) it seems that certain sequences of events very commonly occur within the stages of the T-group process. This development is dependant upon a wide range of variables, such as. leader personality and style, the make-up of the membership. including background, personality characteristics, occupational roles. variations in motivations of members, and whether group members are affiliated or strangers. Lundgren and Knight (in Camp et al p.35l) carefully studied transcripts of 20 two-week NTL Institute T-Groups and could only identify three common stages : (1) the initial encounter, (2) interpersonal confrontation, and (3) mutual acceptance. Clearly not all the events and reactions described above occur as a result of every T-group, but the pattern is common enough to label specific stages of the T-group process. In this regard, Cilliers (1990. p.10) based upon literature on group dynamics describes 4 group development phases. which is especially perceived in more unstructured groups: The forming phase. with insecureness as emotional undertone. is experienced with a vacuum feeling. because members are not aware of what to expect from the situation. or of himself or others. This feeling of insecureness is seldom verbally expressed by the group. but it still influences group behaviours to a large extent. As a result defenses against the feeling appears (in the Freudian sense) - for instance suppression. denial. or projection of undesired feelings. These feelings are compounded by the fact that the leader. purposely subverts the natural inclination to depend on the leader. and provides only comment on how he or she sees people dealing with this leadership vacuum. The storming phase has the undertone of conflict as emotional content, which has to do with control over the group. The conflict manifests itself in the form of direct or indirect aggression by the members against the appointed leader. Furthermore defense reactions can appear such as denial, intellectualisation. there-and-then discussion and generalisation. The individual is inclined to speak of himself in the second or third person (for example. "you". "a person"). The norming phase leads to group cohesion where a hierarchy and rules (explicitly or implicitly) are established which guides group behaviours. Examples of this may be where the leader attempts to keep the discussion of these feelings in a here-and-now perspective. to personalise ("lime"). instead of talking about ("uslthem"). Furthermore. roles and status are discussed. The performance phase entails the execution of the task according to the norms and structures. As a couple of members start exploring their feelings and interpersonal styles, someone notices the support given to members willing to explore. This leads to more members opening up and a sense of group caring and cohesion begins to develop. As facades break down, feedback is

86 Page 73 provided and trainees attempt to verbalize what they are learning about themselves. In this sense it refers to personalised self-disclosure and behavioural feedback in the stimulation of psychological optimality Trainer as facilitator / member. The founders of the T-group movement envisioned a very different role for the trainer than is typically prescribed for other forms of training sessions. The T-group trainer was not to be the focus or main provider of insight and information. Rather as Cilliers (1990, p.3) says, the facilitator, creates a climate of experimentation and makes available opportunities for the second person (trainee) to learn how to learn about his self and to experience himself, with as aim the enhancement of his quality of life, as manifested in the concept psychological optimal functioning. Thus, the fathers of the T-group movement were deeply conunitted to displaying a model of leadership that was far more participative than traditional models. The key to the T-groups leader's role was, and still is, to facilitate, not control, the learning of the rest of the members. It can be said, that the leader is primarily meant to be another member attempting to further his or her learning about self, others, group dynamics, and learning how to learn. During this process, the facilitator would model a number of key behaviours and values including openness, how to give and receive feedback, non-defensiveness, and listening skills (ali example, Brammer and Shostrom, 1968; Carkhuff and Anthony, 1979; Ivey et al. 1987; Johnson, 1981; Nelson-Jones, 1988). From the literature it is seen that the facilitator, has a two-fold purpose. First, he must observe, provide feedback and confront on behalf of the group members. Second, he must disclose himself in terms of the behaviours he models that have been set as goals (Johnson, 1981; Schaffer and Galinsky, 1974, p ; Smith, 1980, p ). The above literature indicates that to be successful in the afore-mentioned behaviours, requires the following complex interaction of specific personality characteristics and skills. i). To be able to observe, one needs to be aware, sensitive and accepting in terms, within one's self and others. ii). To provide feedback, the skill of empathy and concreteness are required. Thus, that which is experienced can be reflected to the second person in a concrete and growth facilitating way.

87 Page 74 iii). To be able to comfort, it is necessary to have and show respect for the second person. iv). Self-disclosure requires genuineness toward the self, so that this behavioural dimension can be modelled for the second person. v). Modelling requires that the facilitator discloses positive growth stimulating behaviour, so that the same is facilitated within the second person. The latter is substantiated by research findings by Neville (1978, p i), that growth facilitating behavioural manifestations within the group leader or group member, tend to stimulate the same behaviour within other group members. vi). With regard to the latter point. Rogers (1982(a» refers not only to the growth facilitating skills of the four core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming, but to an additional characteristic described as a transcendence phenomena. This refers to a process whereby the facilitator is in contact with his inner and intuitive self, which cannot be described in a rational way. This "feeling" of the first person, enables him to reach out to the second person, so that the relationship is transcended and becomes part of something bigger. Within this intuitive process, growth takes place. In summary. Cilliers (1984, p.133) indicates that a growth group experience. composed of the characteristics of a Tvgroup, encounter and marathon group, are effective in facilitating psychological optimality as characteristic of sensitive relationship forming. Additionally within each group. an unstructured basis is provided for the facilitation of interpersonal skills. While such a group facilitates the process of self-actualization. specific interpersonal skills are not always learned. The reason for this is found in a lack of a specific purpose and methodology within the training program whereby the interpersonal skills are learned (Carkhuff, 1971 (c). p ). Accordingly, an examination and evaluation of a model, technique and methods within the literature, for the facilitation of the core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming, are discussed as interpersonal skills training. 6.4 INTERPERSONAL SKILLS TRAINING. Danish and Hauer (1977, p. I) indicate that there are three basic components involved in being a helper: 1. an understanding of yourself;

88 Page knowledge of helping skills; and 3. experience in applying these skills. While an understanding of the self, point I, can be facilitated within a group situation (ref. 6.3), points 2 and 3 above require an alternative method within the growth groups. In support of this (Cilliers, 1984, p.133) says that the four core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming, cannot be facilitated as with the process of psychological optimality. The four core dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness are described within literature as interpersonal skills which can be learned, and as a result, it would seem that a more systematic and direct skills training approach would be effective for the facilitation thereof (Carkhuff & Anthony, 1979, p.1; Nelson - Jones, 1988, p.lo). This interpersonal skills training makes use of group situations (Danish & Hauer, 1977, pa), which from a managerial point of view, promotes cost effectiveness. 6'A: 1 Helping Skills. From the literature examined, the word 'helper' refers to all those persons using counselling and helping skills as part of their jobs (Carkhuff & Anthony, 1979; Nelson - Jones, 1986, pa; Nelson -Jones, 1988, p.z). This means that the helper is not necessarily a professional counsellor, but can refer to a manager who has acquired the skills to help subordinates. Nelson -Jones 0988, p.2) says that the client, in the J / broad sense of the word refers to the personreceiving help. ~ The following definition on counselling and helping as provided by Nelson - Jones 0988, p.3) serves to illustrate more clearly the term helping skills : Counselling and helping is a process whose aim is to help clients, who are mainly seen outside medical settings, to help themselves by making better choices and by becoming better choosers. The helpers manager's repertoire of skills includes those of forming an understandingrelationship, as well as interventions focused on helping subordinateschangespecific aspects of their feeling, thinking and acting. One can extrapolate the following key elements applicable to the managers role in helping the subordinate through the process of change, from the above definition. First, there needs to be a relationship, between the manager and his subordinate. Characteristics of a good helping relationship are sometimes stated as non - possessive warmth, genuineness and a sensitive understanding of the client's thoughts and feelings (Rowan, 1988, p.71-86). These correspond per definition with the core behavioral dimensions of sensitive relationship forming (discussed in chapter 5).

89 Page 76 Second, and most important, the manager should possess a repertoire of skills. As Carkhuff and Anthony (1979) explains: every helper needs to develop a repertoire of concrete and functional skills needed to make a difference - helping for better and not for worse - in the lives of helpees. Third, the definition emphasises self-help. helping clients to help themselves (Cilliers, 1988 (b), p.i-2). Helping is essentially a process with the overriding aim of Fourth, it emphasises choice. Helping aims to help client's to become better choosers among different possibilities, by making them responsible (Egan, 1982, p.12-1s, Nelson -Jones, 1986, p.34-37). Fifth, it focuses on problems of living. People are in a continuous state of transition, thereby forcing them to adapt to organizational changes and unpredictable circumstances (Johnson, 1981, p.143). Thus helping can be used primarily on "ordinary" people, rather than on the needs of the moderately to severely disturbed minority (Nelson - Jones, 1988, p.s). Lastly, helping is a process. The word 'process' denotes movement, flow and the interaction of at least two people, manager and subordinate, in which each is being influenced by the behaviour of the other (Nelson - Jones, 1988, pal. What begins as a process involving two people, ideally ends as a self - help process, where the employee is helped to help himself (Cilliers, 1988 (b), p.2.) Having defined helping skills above, it is now important to discuss these skills within a framework or model for collaborating with subordinates to assist them in managing their problems better. This model serves as a possible instrument for the facilitation of the core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming A Model for managing facilitation. D'Zurilla and Goldfried (in Nelson - Jones, 1988, p.9l) define a problem as a specific situation or a set of related situations to which a person must respond in order to function effectively in his environment. Additionally it can be said that a subordinate has a skills deficit in managing the problem (Egan, 1982, p.32). Based on the above definition of a problem, the manager requires a model or framework whereby the subordinate is helped to help himself (facilitation). Egan (1982, p.o) says that the number of models or approaches to helping is endless. A number of writers have presented problem management models, for example: the model of Egan (982); the micro-training model of Ivey (987); the Dosie model of Nelson-Jones (I988); and the helping model of Carkhuff (I979). Next an intergrated model will be presented, although primarily based on Carkhuff's model.

90 Page 77 The helping model of Carkhuff (Carkhuff & Anthony, 1979) consist's of four stages: (1) attending, (2) responding to clients, (3) personalizing their experience of where they are and where they want to be, and (4) initiating action. CilIiers (I984, p.140) allocates first priority to the model of Carkhuff as it lends itself well to the facilitation of the core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming, in conjunction with Berenson and Truax, wherein Carkhuff (1980) brought forward his skills helping model in "the art of helping". The rationale, purpose, description, helping dimensions of respect, empathy, genuiness and concreteness and the application of the model are discussed from the above literature Rationale of the model. According to Carkhuff & Anthony (1979, p.i) all helping is for better or worse, and there is no middle ground as regards this. This means that effective helping, then results in meaningful and measurable outcomes. The converse is also true, that poor or ineffective helping results in negative outcomes that are equally meaningful and measurable. Within this interaction, no helpee is left unchanged by any helping interaction. The helpee has either developed new skills and behaviours - or believe's that such development is impossible. The helpee either experiences more positive feelings about his or her situation and capability or deteriorates under the increased burden of negativity. Additionally, the helpee either acquire's a greater degree of self -control and self-guidance, or is rendered more ineffective than ever. The skilled helper thus provides direction and helps initiate so that the helpee is stimulated to action, achieves his goals and eventually attains a level of healthy behaviour (Egan, 1982) The purpose of the model. The critical factor that most determines whether helpee outcome during the process of change will be positive or negative, is the helper's repertoire of skills. This means that the helper must be able to employ certain specific skills in order to promote the necessary activity on the part of the helpee. The purpose of the model, is thus to teach these skills to the prospective helper (Carkhuff & Anthony, 1979, pal Description of the model. The model as set out and explained in Carkhuff & Anthony (1979), follows a systematic, purposeful, action orientated, integrated and direct method consisting of different phases. These phases provide a logical and sequential interaction between the helper and the helpee. The core of the helping relationship lies within the interactive phases of the model.

91 Page 78 The model is presented as follows: Helper: First Person Activity Attending Responding Personalisation Initiating / / / / / Helpee : Seeond Person / Actitivity / / / / / / J Involvement Exploration Understanding Action (Starts sharing (of feelings. (of own behaviour. (execution of his problem). tensions). feelings. accepts action). responsibility). -t, Reeycle Figure 6.1 : The Helping model (adapted from Carkhuff, 1979, Cilliers, 1990).

92 Page 79 In each of the above - mentioned four phases, the following dimensions or helper qualities (which are divided into categories) play a changeable role: the responsive category : empathy, respect and specificity of expression (or concreteness); this is a highly dynamic phase; the initiating category: genuineness, self disclosure, confrontation and immediacy; this is a more mechanical phase. The above mentioned core dimensions were defined in chapter 5, point In Carkhuff & Anthony 0979, p.143), it is indicated that the resolution of a problem is the only meaningful outcome of counselling. The interaction of helper and helpee and their cumulative movement toward such a resolution is the process of counselling. In order to understand how process and outcome are inextricably linked, Carkhuff (in Carkhuff & Anthony, 1979, p.b) produced a five - point scale wherein the above four dimensions occur to rate the level of any developer's interaction with the helpee (second person). Levell There is no evidence of any helper effort to attend to the helpec's needs. Level 2 : There is evidence of the helper's effort to involve the helpec in the helping process. Level 3 : There is evidence of the helper's effort to facilitate the helpee's exploration of her or his experiences. Level 4 : There is evidence of the helper's effort to facilitate the helpee's understanding of previously explored material. Level 5 : There is evidence of the helper's effort to facilitate the helpee's action based on his or her understanding. Given the above scale, the level of involvement required to effectively help the helpee, is seen in resolving a problem. Accordingly the model with its five phases is discussed, and the role of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness within the model are examined (Carkhuff & Anthony, 1979). Phase 1. Attending (involvement of the helpee is facilitated).

93 Page 80 This entails preparing, positioning, observing, and listening, to facilitate helpee involvement, within the following steps. First, the helper prepares himself by - having a corresponding frame of reference as regards the purpose of the contact i.e., to discuss the process of change and its effects on the individual, and - to provide a context for the interaction. This means arranging the office and furniture so that open communication is facilitated. Second, the helper focuses on the helpee's non-verbal expressions. This is done by using attending skills involved in positioning, i.e., posturing oneself at the appropriate angle, level, inclination, and maintaining eye contact. The third step involves observation of: the energy level of the helpee (as indication of his experience of an enriched life) as indicated by his build, posture, grooming and non - verbal behaviour: his emotional tone as depicted by his posture, behaviour and facial expressions: his intellectual functioning as indicated through posture, behaviour and facial expression: the content and nature of the verbal expression of the helpee, and possible incongruencies within his emotional expressions. In the fourth step. the helper listens by: paying attention to the verbal and non-verbal content of the helpee, in order to gain information: focusing on the helpee without distractions: focusing on the content according to the 5 WH - formula (who. what, why. when, where. how); continually focusing on the expression of the helpee; concentrating intensely: temporarily ignoring own convictions, values and attitudes. Within the first phase of the above attending, the helping dimensions occur as such: empathy, the first step of where the helper tries to understand the content and feelings of the helpee; respect, by the helper communicating his caring for the helpee from his frame of reference. This is the most important dimension in attending, and is manifested especially by the attitude and nonverbal behaviour of the helper.

94 Page 81 genuineness by the helper, by being open towards himself; concreteness, whereby the helper provides attention to the helpee's specific issues. In summary, it can be said that through attending, the helper facilitates a process of involvement whereby the helpee responds. Phase 2. Responding (exploration within the helpee is facilitated). Responding involves the reaction to the content, meaning and feeling of the helpee's communication, by means of micro skills such as minimal encouragement, summary/paraphrasing and reflection of content and feeling (Ivey et al. 1987). The first step requires that the helpee discusses specifics related to his or her immediate situation. Having encouraged helpee discussion of the immediate situation through continued use of attending. observing, and listening skills, the helper sustains such discussion by responding to the content of helpee expressions. As an example of the latter - "what you are saying is...", or "in other words...". Responding to content leads to responding to meaning and feeling. The second step of helpee exploration involves the helpee's expression of the immediate meaning that the situation has for him or her. Having promoted the helpec's presentation of meaning by responding to content, the helper now responds, to the meaning that is inherent in the helpee's statements and nonverbal behaviours. As an example of the latter in response to the content, "In other words, this means that...". The third step of helpec's exploration involves the helpecs' consideration and expression of the immediate feelings that each aspect of the situation arouses in him or her. The helper promotes continued exploration of feeling on the helpee's part by responding to these feelings. As an example "it seems to me that you are feeling...", The fourth step of helpee exploration is reflected in the helpee's discussion of the immediate reasons he or she finds for each feeling. The helper encourages this final level of exploration by responding to feelings and the reasons for these feelings as expressed by the helpee. For example, "you feel..., because In responding the helping dimensions are reflected as follows: empathy, as response to content, meaning and feeling. This is the most important dimension in responding, as used in the accurate reflection of the helpee's feeling and experience in

95 Page 82 reformulated words. In more practical terms, the helper provides an empathetic response to the helpee's feelings. respect is communicated by the helper by responding, not from own but the second persons' frame of reference. and communicating unconditional respect and care; genuineness, in communication without any hidden motives; concreteness, where the helper speaks about specific experiences. meanings and feelings. The helper promotes and directs helpee exploration by making use of specific micro responding skills. This process entails learning which leads to understanding. Both persons learn the experiences of the subordinate, and his position in life. With the help and responsiveness of the helper. the helpee experiences himself in a self - diagnostic process wherein he can experiment. In this manner he learns about himself in relation to the world. Exploration is jointly shared by both the helper and helpee when the helper's interpersonal skills level increases or decreases there is a corresponding effect on the self exploration of the helpee. Phase 3. Personalisation ( promotes understanding within the helpee). Helpee involvement and exploration prepare the helpee to achieve a personalized understanding of where he or she wants or needs to be: The first step of helpee understanding requires that the helpee recognize the personalized meaning in his or her situation. The helper lays a responsive base and then personalizes the meaning implicit in the helpee's statement. The second step of helpee understanding requires that the helpee recognize and accept the personalized problem or deficit that is at the base of the situation. Here the helper personalizes the problem in terms that specify the helpec's limitations. The third step of helpee understanding involves the helpee's recognition of new and personalized feelings that flow from her or his acceptance of the deficit. The helper initiates with the helpee at this level by personalizing the implicit feelings in the helpee's recent statements. The final step is reached when the hclpee recognizes and accepts the personal goal indicating where he or she really wants to be. The helper personalizes the goal which is the opposite of the helpee's deficit or problem. The helpee's new and personalized understanding makes it possible for the helpee to take control of the situation by taking responsibility for his or her role in the situation. Within personalization the helping dimensions present themselves as follows:

96 Page 83 empathy, in the personalisation of empathetic responses, at a level beyond the expression of the helpee; respect, in the communication of positive regard; genuineness, as portrayed by the helper. This is the most important dimension in personalization as is apparent in the openness of the helper. concreteness, in expression of problems. Personalisation facilitates an understanding within the helpee, which grows through insight. This knowledge must first be acquired by the helpee, in order for him to recognize where he features in relation to where he wants to be, and then he is able to react to this concept of understanding. After personalisation and understanding have taken place, the helper is now able to initiate. Phase 4. Initiating (action is facilitated within the helpee). Initiating refers to the process whereby the helpee takes constructive action through the defining of a goal, and choosing the optimum course of action leading to the goal. Initiating is the culmination phase in the helping process and entails the initiative of the helper within a series of mechanical activities wherein the effects of the helpee in striving for his goal are facilitated. These activities are: defining of goals which refers to the components, functions, processes, conditions and standards for the helpee; development of programmes that focus on the steps needed to achieve these goals; development ofaction plans focusing on time allocation to steps; development of reinforcement focusing on how to reinforce the steps; individualization of the steps which refers to the formulation of objectives according to the framework of the helpee. Within initiating the dimensions of helping are presented as follows: empathy, in the provision of reflections; respect, within the communication of unconditional caring according to the helpee's strong and weak points; genuineness, in reciprocal free and open communication.

97 Page 84 concreteness, in the specificity with which programmes for growth are developed and implemented. This is the most important dimension in initiating, as it would seem in the drawing up of a plan of action. Initiating facilitates action within the helpee, wherein new behaviours are experimented with and implemented. Understanding leads to behavioural change only when action is systematically developed. Phase 5. Reimplementation of Skills. This step in the reimplementation of skills refers to: the implementation of steps, the initiating of control measures and the reimplementation of steps. It can be said that initiating promotes individual action within the helpee. Each new action thus becomes the starting point for further exploration, deeper understanding, and more effective action. Similarly the development of effective responses, leads to development within the helper. In the reimplementation of skills, the dimensions of helping are presented as follows: empathy, within the here and now, as understanding and insight occurs between the two individuals. This entails living fully within the moment by responding fully from the helpees' experience, and initiating fully from the helpers own experience: respect, in a differentiated regard for the second person wherein constructive behaviour is positively reinforced, destructive behaviour is negatively reinforced, and careful observation of behaviour to provide direction. genuineness, within the situation as a result of both people being free and fully involved in the here and now: concreteness, as specified and defined within a programme of objectives, which facilitates freedom Application of the model. Within the management of change the helping model (discussed in 6.4.2) serves as a framework and structure whereby the manager is able to help the subordinate cope with his or her emotional experience to change - to facilitate growth.

98 Page 85 The application of the helping model could best be explained by referring to a three phase process of individual change. Bridges (1980) explains that in any change situation first comes an ending, followed by movement through a transition phase. and then a phase of new beginnings as depicted in the following illustration. PHASE I II III CHANGE PROCESS / / ENDING TRANSITION NEW BEGINNINGS Figure 6.2 : The process of Individual change (adapted from Bridges, 1980). At each stage, Bridges identifies a set of psychological tasks individuals need to successfully complete in order to accept change and move forward. In the ending phase. individuals first need to disengage. When change occurs some things end, or they cease to be. These endings are often painful or confusing, and before people can move on they must come to terms with the changes and resolve them. If they do not, they will be unable to let go of the past and will carry excess emotional baggage with them into the new venture. In the transition phase people are weaned from the old to the new. These transitions require that the subordinate becomes conscious of what is ending and what is beginning, as a result of the change. Once the subordinate has phased into the new, he or she is faced with the challenge of new beginnings and therefore needs to initiate action into a new way of doing things. The helping model (6.4.2) is used by the manager to help the individual move through the process of change described above. The helping model is described in chapter seven as a practical example in solving an organizational change problem. 6.5 SUMMARY. This chapter provided a perspective on the two method's employed in the learning of the skill of facilitation, which is proposed as a suitable intervention to be employed within the management of change

99 Page 86 process. The first method is experiential in nature and advocates the use of a growth group or T-group experience as means to facilitating growth as manifest in the concept psychological optimal functioning. The second method, in combination with the growth group, focused on the acquisition of interpersonal skills within the setting of the growth group. This refers to a process whereby the four core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming i.e.. respect, empathy, genuineness, and concreteness, are learned and utilised within an interpersonal problem solving skills model. In this regard the interpersonal helping skills model of Carkhuff with it's four phases of attending, responding, personalising and initiating are discussed. The helping model finds it's application within the three phases of individual change process -endings, transitions and new beginnings. The helping model in its entirety also serves as a practical example wherein a specific case study is employed to illustrate the interaction between a manager and his subordinates as experienced during an organizational change process. This case study is discussed in chapter seven where a specific organizational change problem is managed through the use of the skill of facilitation employing the interpersonal helping skills model. This chapter will also discuss a typical programme, research results, and advantages I disadvantages of employing the skill of facilitation as an intervention during the management of change process.

100 Page 87 CHAPTER 7 : THE APPLICATION OF FACILITATOR TRAINING WITHIN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE. 7.1 INTRODUCTION. According to the change model (figure 2.4) the final step in any change process should be to evaluate it's effectiveness, whether the change indeed resulted in a more effective organization and more effective employees. The theory examined thus far looked at how managers can become more effective in coping with and managing change. Based on this approach the change agent considers both the technical and emotional issues involved. and considers the skill of facilitation as a suitable intervention that can be acquired by managers to plan, understand and help subordinates cope with the process of change. Part of the necessary skills required by managers is his or her ability to establish interpersonal effectiveness with the subordinate so that the change would indeed result in a more effective organization and more effective employees. Within chapter six, interpersonal effectiveness in management is conceptualised as sensitive relationship forming between the manager and subordinate, with empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness as core behavioural dimensions. As concurrent characteristics to these skills, psychological optimal functioning is described with its intrapersonal and interpersonal characteristics as stimulated within a growth group setting. From within different theoretical models in psychology wherein the above interpersonal effectiveness and optimal functioning is emphasised (Carkhuff. 1981; Egan. 1982; Ivey et al.; Schultz, 1977) it is clear that effective interpersonal relations require specific skills. for example to be able to reach out to the second person as a human being. thereby helping him to understand himself and his world comprehensively. Applied within the management of change process, the manager can help the subordinate to mature. stimulate his potential to achieve an optimal level of functioning and to accept responsibilities for his own behaviour. This type of facilitative action from within the manager allows for an increase in psychological optimal functioning within the subordinate in terms of reality contact, emotional maturity and internal locus of control (Cilliers, 1993) during the process of organizational change and instability. The stimulation of growth within the subordinate has as pre-requisite that the manager possesses a high degree of maturity (psychological optimal characteristics) coupled to specific interpersonal skills in order to stimulate the same behaviours within the subordinate (Cilliers, 1989). This process is conceptualised as sensitive relationship forming. with empathy. respect. genuineness and concreteness as core behavioural

101 Page 88 dimensions. Wissing (1978) defines sensitive relationship forming as the creation of a relationship climate that leads to the stimulation of enhanced growth processes between the manager and the subordinate. The purpose of the following section is to operationalise the four core dimensions within a specific case study illustrating the process involved between a manager and his subordinate during a process of organizational change, by making use of the facilitation model discussed in chapter CASE STUDY. Kazdin (1980) defines a case study as the observations of a practitioner or researcher as regards a specific client. These observations are derived from diagnosing, treatment and interviewing. The case study presented here is based on the above observations. and presents an illustration of the operationalisation of the facilitation model within an organizational change process. The client in this study is a department that provides a psychological research and consultation service within its own broader organization. As a result of certain promotions and resignations both at director and departmental level, the afore-said department has undergone both structural and technical changes. As a result of these changes, rumours are spread about certain occurrences within the organization and these ripple through to the department in question. The rumours intensify and finally become real and are communicated via the management team to the various sections. What becomes apparent is the introduction of a policy of re-organization of sections. job re-definitions and a new leader to head up the management team. The above process is cyclical in nature, continually intensifying and building. The corresponding effect on people is fear, anger, confusion and a loss of control. Even though people know a change is imminent and even though they understand it intellectually it still has an emotional impact that they don't quite expect and that they find difficult to cope with. Accordingly a discussion follows based on the skill of facilitation (Cilliers, 1984) and the facilitation model, whereby people are provided with the help they need to deal with the effects of what appears to be a steadily increasing rate of change Purpose. The purpose of helping is not to "prevent" or "solve" or "cure", but rather to help people move freely through the change process. Specifically, the helping skills model has as aim:

102 Page 89 To provide a set of learned behaviours, strategies and skills people in change can use to cope with the change process. To help minimise the resistance and the emotional reaction that people experience during the process of change (refer Chapter 3). To provide people with an internal locus of control whereby they accept responsibilities for their own actions and decisions amidst the change process. To maximise the new opportunities that change presents for people and organizations. Before the facilitation model is employed, it is necessary to identify and examine the basic reactions to change as experienced within this case study Reaction to change. Typical behaviours by subordinates within the organization included the following: Reminiscing (dwelling on the comfort of the past): Sulking (as a form of negative expression to change): Continuing with traditional modus operandi (finding it difficult to let go of out-dated methods and procedures on projects): Continued association with previous section members (during lunch and after hours): Resisting new superiors and tasks (by being late for meetings and producing the minimum). Many of the above behaviours were accompanied by typical verbal responses such as: "Its not fair'" we continually have to adjust to different management styles because of the frequent changes: "They didn't consult me," as regards the introduction of the matrix organization: "It won't work," people will never accept the removal of sections and section heads to accomodate the matrix organization: "They mustn't blame me when this whole new matrix organization backfires:" "I'm washing my hands off it:" "The concept of having specialised sections was working fine, why change?" "This means that my whole job is completely changed;" "I used to be a specialist in my field, now I'll have to be involved in uninteresting work."

103 Page 90 The above responses were gained from people in the course of informal discussion. management meeting feedback. and individual interviews. From these responses it would seem that subordinates within the organization are experiencing disidentification with the changes that have been proposed Diagnosis. According to Bridges (1980) disidentification occurs in change situations because something or someone that the individual identified with has been removed. A person experiencing disidentification has lost selfidentification. Typical things with which these people identified with strongly are specific tasks, their sections. work teams and their specific status and positions within the organization. As within this case study things were changed and taken away from these people. and what followed is a sense of loss not only of the job or the team. but also a loss of identity. It is obvious from the symptoms in point that the organizational members attachment to the past is strong because it gave them positive feedback. comfort and a sense of belonging. The management team felt that subordinates were jumping to unwarranted conclusions. For the subordinates interviewed however. the statements made were perfectly true. Actually. the statements made are accurate statements of fact. However, it is only the first half of the statement that is true. It is the second half of the statement that causes the problem. For example. "I used to work with a really good group of people. and now I have to mix with others with whom I have nothing in common." In these disidentified statements. the clause before the comma is accurate; the clause after the comma is inaccurate, an exaggeration or anxiety about "something" that "might" happen. Clearly the introduction of the change on a structural and technical level had an impact on organizational members. A" a result while the change was managed technically, the people affected by the change were left behind emotionally. This meant that people had to be helped emotionally through the change process in order for them to move forward with the technical changes implemented. It was also deemed necessary for management not to be seen a" solving (manipulating) problems for organizational members, but to remove barriers. provide support and establish a direction so that effective change could take place. The foilowing remedial strategy was followed in essence by management in support of the change Remedial Strategy. The management team was faced with the problem of how to move themselves and organizational members toward accepting the new changes. As there were numerous people involved in the process and

104 Page 91 all were to a greater or lesser extent affected by the change. it was necessary to consider the following strategy during the helping process: the intervention was aimed at helping people cope with the change. by having small group discussions wherein their feelings were discussed and problem-solving achieved; groups consisted of six other people, and have the advantage of providing increased dynamics and growth during the process of self-disclosure and feedback between individual members; group attendance and discussions were made available to all organizational members on the basis of self-nomination; a skilled facilitator wac; used for the facilitation of the groups. employing methodologies and techniques as discussed in Chapters 4. 5 and 6; an open forum was provided for the group participants as concerned their own needs and feelings around the implemented changes; issues put forward by the group would be used by management to refine the proposed change before final implementation. The above strategy saw its implementation according to the facilitating model The facilitation model. In Moms (I979. p.385-4l6) the technical difference between fear and anxiety is well illustrated. Fear has an object. while anxiety does not. Translated into the case study; if a person is afraid to leave his section because he knows he will be made redundant - that is fear. But if you are just plain afraid to leave your section - that is anxiety. Within this case study. it was obvious that most people were suffering from anxiety as concerns the changes. Translated into practical terms. it means that they were unsure about what was to happen with the removal of sections and the introduction of a matrix organization. In contrast. when one knows what it is you are afraid of. when you have an object or have identified the problem. then you also can begin to think about how to deal with it. This means that the helpee could then start by looking for solutions to the identified problem. The facilitation model hac; as action first to transform anxiety into fear. that is to bring the actual problem into focus so that organizational members can deal with it. The following steps of the model are now discussed as implemented within the group interventions by the facilitator: Phase 1 : Attending.

105 Page 92 Initially the facilitator explained his role by referring to his involvement within the group process and not in the outcome or content of the discussion (refer to Chapter 4). Secondly the facilitator explained the purpose of the exercise by referring to the proposed matrix organizational changes and peoples feelings toward it. As with the helping skills model the facilitator prepared himself by positioning, observing and listening in order to facilitate helpee involvement within the group. As a result of the facilitators attending action, the group process got underway, with individuals raising issues on the proposed change. Typical responses were defensive in nature, as for example: "They didn't consult me," as regards the introduction of the matrix system, and "It won't work," people will never accept the removal of sections and section heads. The facilitator used the first phase as a means to the following: initiating the process of discussing the problem as they experienced it; allowing individuals to ventilate their anxieties, which took the form of anger, resentment, frustration and defensive statements; to allow the formation of certain group issues. Within this first phase the facilitator made use of the helping dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness, through the exhibiting of positive non-verbal responses such as ie., maintaining eyecontact, nodding of the head and by using verbal responses such as "yes," "I sec," "that's quite understandable. " Through attending the facilitator, facilitated a process of involvement whereby the helpce became involved, by sharing his views about his perception concerning the proposed changes. Phase 2 : Responding. Within this phase the facilitator reacted to the content, meaning and feeling in the helpee's communication. The facilitator responds by pointing out to the group that certain common issues were raised, for example: "It seems to me that the introduction of the matrix organization and the removal of sections are issues raised by the group, and there is an association of negative feelings around these issues". Accurate responding by the facilitator allows the individuals within the group to explore their feelings and tensions as concerns the issues and problems raised. The facilitator facilitates exploration by being

106 Page 93 empathetic to the feelings exhibited. respecting individual perceptions. and being genuine and concrete in his neutrality as facilitator and helper. He further promotes exploration by responding and creating a safe climate wherein the individuals within the group progressively self-discloses. and in the process learns about himself in relation to his experience of the problem. The facilitator emphasises the need to speak in the first person and not second or third person about their feelings. thereby ensuring that individuals accept responsibility for their own feelings. It is at this stage. that individual members become aware of their feelings and tensions surrounding the introductions of the proposed change. Helpee involvement and exploration prepare the helpee to achieve a personalised understanding of where he or she wants or needs to be. Phase 3 : Personalisation. In this phase. the individual group member and I even the group as system recognize the personalised meaning in his or her situation. As an example the facilitator personalises the helpee's and the groups meaning by saying. "You feel angry about the change. because you are being forced to leave your old section and friends, and having to work with others whom you do not particularly like." This response by the facilitator provided a base for an understanding as to why their behaviour and feelings were negative toward the change. Most group members were of the opinion that their removal from a specialised section would render them helpless as they did not possess additional skills for other types of projects. Other members felt that the standard of their work would drop if forced to integrate with other section's members. As the process developed. most group members recognised and understood the basis of their feelings and accepted responsibility for this. for example: "I realise that my anger and negative behaviour toward the system has been subjective. and maybe I have overreacted. 1, suppose this change will provide me with the opportunity to meet and learn from others within the department. " Within personalisation the helping dimensions are modelled continuously by the facilitator. and these are also brought to the attention of the group members in their interaction with themselves. This allows for sensitive relationship forming wherein a greater process of self disclosure and feedback takes place amongst members. The helpees' new and personalised understanding makes it possible for the helpee to take control of the situation by taking responsibility for his or her role in the situation. Phase 4 : Initiating.

107 Page 94 Through personalisation the group and its individuals had a more thorough understanding of their own feelings towards the proposed changes, and how this affected their behaviour. In the action of initiating the facilitator brought the group and individual issues into focus, so that constructive action through the defining of a goal. and choosing the optimum course of action leading to the goal is facilitated. Setting a goal and initiating an action with the group. was only possible once the group understood how they were responding within the change situation. This in tum made them aware as to why it was difficult to deal with the change. Being able to recognise and diagnose these reactions to change. the group was now able to initiate specific strategies to deal with these reactions. The following personalised meanings were brought forward by the group. in that they were aware of: the fact that initially they did not believe in the change; that they felt more like the victims instead of the owners of the proposed change; the realisation that they were not truly committed to the change as a result of their fears. From the above conclusions the following rationale was followed: Initiating facilitates action within the helpee, wherein new behaviours are experimented with and implemented. Understanding leads to behavioural change only when action is systematically developed. The facilitator with the group initiated the following actions. by facing the group with questions gained from the personalised issues discussed; i). "What am I telling myself about the change? What do I fear losing?" Typical response: "If I am removed from my section, they are going to find how incompetent I really am as concerns my limited skills," "I could lose my job." ii). Is it really true? In the following typical response. group members discovered three basic things: their worry about losing their job. being incompetent. and unable to cope with the change were subjective perceptions that had not been put to the test; at the very worse. the loss of their position, meant leaving their old section's. integrating with new work teams. and having to acquire "some" new skills. and "some" new way of doing things. the need to be accepted by other organizational members is important to their self-esteem.

108 Page 95 iii). What do 1 really want from this change? What do 1 want to gain? Typical response: "I would like to use this change as an opportunity to acquire "new" skills and gain additional experience; " "I want to be recognised by my new boss and my colleagues as a creative and efficient consultant; " "I would like to gain more factual information surrounding the change. and the role that I'll be playing within this new change. " iv). What's the first step 1 can take to gain what 1 want? meet with other organizational members and discuss their feelings surrounding the proposed change;. as a group ask the management team for more information surrounding the change; present management with a short term strategy on the advantages and disadvantages of the proposed change; ensure that 1 am part of the decision making process surrounding the change by being practically involved in the implementation thereof Evaluation and feedback. The case study is simple in nature. but provides an illustration of the operationalisation of the facilitating model during a change process. All cases of helping during a process of change. do not necessarily follow the same pattern. but it is important for the manager to take into account different variables. It is clear from the above case study that the people involved within the change process had three basic needs: The first is empathy - someone to listen and share their feelings; The second is understanding - an intellectual grasp of what happened and what is going to happen; And third is ideas. specific suggestions for moving on both the emotional and cognitive level.

109 Page 96 The facilitating model of Carkhuff (1979) provides for the above basic needs, and can be applied successfully by helping people to become aware of their problem. and to generate a plan for moving them toward accepting the change. The skills involved within the model do not solve all problems once and for all. It does however start a process whereby people can begin to accept and participate in change. It can help to create an environment that supports individuals who are moving through a change. In essence the process of facilitation and the model provides a support system. wherein individuals are able to: clarify a perceived loss. and identify real wants; share feelings about the change, and link this to the purpose of the change; engage people actively, by initiating and providing direction so that there is commitment to the change. From the above case study it would seem that interpersonal skills training is an effective technique whereby the core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming between the manager and subordinate arc facilitated during the process of change. Interpersonal skills training is best formulated within a specific training programme. The following guidelines are discussed for the compilation of a program in sensitive relationship forming. 7.3 DESIGN OF A SHORT-TERM TRAINING PROGRAM FOR THE FACILITATION OF SENSITIVE RELATIONSHIP FORMING AS INTERPERSONAL SKILL IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE PROCESS. According to Chadbourne (1980. p.5s) relying on the original T-group model. which is primarily experiential. nonstructured, leaderless and without an agenda is insufficient. A model or programme should be based on a situational leadership and structure, and must aim at integrating both conceptual and experiential elements. Stokes et. al., interpersonal skills training: (1980) advocates the following three goals within a program to ensure success In having trainees develop as a group and examine their O\\TI group process: acquiring knowledge about issues in group dynamics; and learning group leadership skills.

110 Page 97 According to Cilliers (1984, p.20l) the first two points are dependant on the formulation and content of a program, while the last point is discussed in the role and characteristics of the facilitator in the development of sensitive relationship forming (point 7.3.3) Formulation of a programme. A typical programme structure based on the research of Cilliers (1988{b); 1988{c); 1992; 1993) is used as example to discuss the content (point 7.3.2) of such a program: Day 1 (Introduction, theory and growth group). Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 Introduction (purpose, the program within the management of change context). Psychological optimality (description, characteristics). First growth group experience. Day 2 (Theory and skills training). Module 4 Module 5 Module 6 The skills of respect, empathy, genuineness and concreteness. The facilitation model (attending, responding, personalisation, initiating). Skills training (role plays on video with feedback as concerns the use of skills and micro-skills). Day J Growth group and interpersonal exercises. Module 7 Module 8 Second growth group experience. Skills training (role play). Day 4 Integration. Module 9 Module 10 Module 11 Third growth group experience. Skills training (role play). Conclusion (Summary, transfer of learning), Content of the programme. A discussion now follows on the content of the above program with specific reference to the following:

111 Page 98 growth group experience (Module 3, 7, 9). which entails the process of self-disclosure and behavioural feedback; interpersonal skills training (Module 6, 8, 10) with the emphasis on listening skills; skills training (Module 4, 5, 6, 8, 10) which entails modelling, role play, the transference of learning and video feedback. Accordingly the above three aspects are discussed from within literature Self-disclosure and behavioural feedback. In the stimulation of self development. especially the two processes of self disclosure and feedback play a determining role, as explained in the Johari - window model (Luft, 1970). The process of self-disclosure entails the sharing of the self, thoughts. feelings and experiences on both a verbal and non-verbal level by the individual (Truax and Carkhuff, 1967). When a person becomes aware of ones-self, he or she learns to self-disclose with confidence. thereby increasing autonomy, personal responsibility, and self insight, which leads to self-actualization (Johnson and Johnson, 1982, p ). With reference to the process of sensitive relationship forming between the manager and subordinate. it can be said that the first person's self-disclosure serves ali a model for the second person whereby openness and rapport are established. It would seem that the value of self-disclosure lies in the response to what has been disclosed. rather than in what has been disclosed. In this regard Morrison (1991, p.68) points out that the more response produced feedback a learner receives, the more accurate and confident his responses will be. Rasmussen (1984, p.265) differentiates between conflict based and help-orientated feedback. The latter is appropriate within the formation of sensitive relationship forming and helps to increase the persons self-awareness and his self-esteem (Johnson & Johnson, 1982, p.445)' Within the context and management of change, the manager needs to realise that feedback is positive or negative, and therefore needs to be sensitive and responsible in any situation concerning the subordinate's reaction to the change process.

112 Page Listening Skills. Dick (1991. p.225) points out that the manner in which the first person listens to the second person. helps determine the outcome of the interaction. In this regard one can differentiate between passive and active listening (Nelson-Jones p.17-39): Passive listening implies that what is being said is heard and not understood; Active listening in tum requires that to be understood one must be heard. and that to be heard one must be listened to. This implies listening to the persons total communication both on a verbal and non-verbal level. and identifying the discrepancies between the two. A positive attitude within the manager is mirrored within his behaviour. This is manifest within his verbal acceptance and respect of the subordinates emotional reaction in a non-evaluative or judgemental manner. coupled to a positive non-verbal stance through continuous eye-contact Modelling. Dick (1991. p.334) indicates that the style used by the facilitator. to some extent becomes a model others may imitate. Rappaport (I973. p ) says that video-tape modelling facilitates similar interpersonal skills awareness as sensitivity training. The two techniques of modelling and video-tape feedback combined with effective role-play would seem to be an effective way in which the manager is able to build up and gain confidence in his skills Role play. The role playing technique permits the second person (subordinate) to apply playful acting-out of his problems as a serious attempt to understand his conflicts (Brammer and Shostrorn, 1968, p This technique helps the subordinate to gain a better perspective of himself and others. It can be used. for example, to practice work situations in which the subordinate finds it difficult to cope with the process of change Transfer of learning. According to McGeoch in Morrison (I991. p ) any learning process may itself be viewed as consisting of successive instances of transfer. Thereby meaning that no learning can occur without transfer from one trial to the next, providing continuity of practice. It is therefore necessary for the second person to be able to experiment with his new learned behaviours. in order to be able to help himself.

113 Page Video feedback. Camp, et. al., (1986, p ) point out from their own experience, that the use of audio-visual is necessary to compliment another technique (eg, the lecture). This technique can be helpful in resolving performance deficiencies that are due to a lack of skill and / or knowledge. In the former instance, they are often used to create a simulation of the work environment where the trainee learns by observing and / or practising the needed skill. Video feedback can be provided during the behavioural skills trammg (concurrent feedback) or immediately afterwards. The effectiveness of the technique lies in the fact that behavioural aspects not seen within the interaction can be played back (Kaplan and Sadock, 1972, p.280). This also ensure's objective reporting and feedback as to the exact behaviours that took place The role and characteristics of the facilitator in the development of sensitive relationship forming. From literature examined thus far it is clear that the facilitator or first person fulfils a specific role and needs specific personality characteristics, in the process of sensitive relationship forming within the development program (Chapter 5 point 5.4). For the purpose of this theoretical paper. the term facilitator is used to refer to those individuals who help adults learn (Chapter 4). Helping adults learn (as within an organizational setting) is a transactional process in which the facilitator interacts with learners, content, other people, himself and material to plan and implement an educational program. With reference to the general characteristics and interpersonal skills essential for the facilitator. thc following three areas of knowledge, skills and personality characteristics are summarised from within literature. n. Knowledge. Knox in Galbraith (1989) suggests that a facilitator of adult learning should possess three areas of knowledge: knowledge of content. knowledge of learners. and knowledge of methods. This implies that the facilitator needs to be technically proficient in the content area of management of change, and have the ability to apply his skills and facilitate within an industrial psychology setting. Secondly. an understanding of specific learning principles (experiential learning), behavioral change, small group dynamics and laboratory education, and lastly broad theoretical and practical knowledge and competence

114 Page 101 in therapy methodologies and / or intrapsychic learning technologies including development and training technologies. ii). Skills. The facilitator must possess the skills to implement the above knowledge and techniques effectively within a practical and developmental situation, in order to provide personal growth experiences for participants. Hogan (1977, p.42) further states competence and skill in intrapsychic processes, and in using various techniques appropriately in terms oftiming, degree ofopenness, containment and conclusion. Kriner and Goulet (1983) indicate the necessity of therapeutic skills (the facilitator is assumed to have these), and ability to provide appropriate support and help for those who may experience personal distress. Anderson and Robertson (1985, p.149) further indicate skills such as attending, communicating clearly, modelling, linking similarities and differences in the cognitions and emotions ofgroup members, interpreting in being able to understand and communicate the underlying cognitive and emotional meaning of statements and experiences, both verbal and non-verbal, and at the intrapersonal, interpersonal and group levels. iii). Personality characteristics. From the above discussion it is obvious that the facilitator must function psychologically on an optimum level (Chapter 5). In assessing appropriate standards and criteria, there seems to be a lack of an explicit mention of the personal qualities important to being an effective group leader. Truax and Mitchell in Hogan (1977, p.43) are noted as having conducted one of the most thorough reviews of the research on the interpersonal skills necessary for positive client change. They found three characteristics to be important : accurate empathic understanding, genuineness, and nonpossessive warmth. Drowes in Galbraith (1989, p.lo) found that a facilitator must have understanding, flexibility, patience, humour, practicality, creativity and preparation. According to this theoretical examination, these pe~onality characteristics can be summarised within the intra- and interpersonal characteristics of psychological optimality (Chapter 5). From the above roles and characteristics, it would seem that being technically proficient in the content area in which the instruction is being directed is paramount, as are the abilities to plan and administer educational programs. The facilitator must also possess personality characteristics and interpersonal skills that engender an image of caring, trust, and encouragement. These qualities are necessary for the manager, whereby he is able to assist subordinates cope with the process of change, and close the gap between their knowledge, skills and developmental level.

115 Page SUMMARY. Within this chapter the application of facilitator training within the management of change is discussed. The specific aims of this study indicate that first, managers lack the necessary skills and training to help subordinates cope with change, and second, that facilitation is a suitable intervention to be used within the management ofchange process. Based on these two aims, facilitation as an intervention is employed with a helping skills model within a specific case study dealing with an organizational change. The results of the case study (7.2.6) indicate that the process of facilitation and the model provide a support system wherein individuals are able to: clarify a perceived loss as a result of the change and identify real wants; share feelings about the change, and link this to the purpose of the change; engage people actively, by initiating and providing direction so that there is commitment to the change; provide managers with a useful skill whereby subordinates are helped to cope with the effects of change. The interpersonal skills training necessary for managers is best formulated within a specific training programme, and guidelines are discussed for the compilation of a programme in sensitive relationship forming. Three goals are essential within such a program to ensure success in interpersonal skills training: having trainees involved experentially in the training; acquiring skills and knowledge about issues in group dynamics; learning group leadership skills. The last point is discussed from literature (7.3.3) which states that the manager within the role of facilitator fulfills a specific role and needs specific personality characteristics, knowledge and skills in the process of sensitive relationship forming between himself and the subordinate. These qualities are necessary for the manager to be able to assist subordinates cope with the process ofchange. In so far that facilitator training for managers has been introduced as a suitable intervention to be employed by the change agent within the management of change, it is necessary to examine critique levelled against this type of intervention.

116 Page ISSUES IN FACILITATOR TRIAINING Change and the use of facilitation. Within previous chapters examined. the literature indicates that organization change is any substantive modification to some part of the organization. Lawrance (in Callahan et al pa22) notes that there are two components to any organizational change, a technical part of the change, and a social part of the change. The focus of this study is on the social part of the change ie., people's reaction and resistance to the change. Moerdyk and Fone (I987) point out that people tend to resist change becuase of uncertainty, threatened self-interests, different perceptions and feelings of loss. Participation, education and communication. facilitation. and force-field analysis are methods for overcoming this resistance (Ivancevich & Matteson p.62l). Many different change techniques or interventions are used. The most common ones involve changing strategy, structure and design, technology, and people (Kast & Rosenweig, p.62l). Organization development involves changing people and is concerned with changing attitudes, perceptions. behaviours. and expectations (Griffin pall). Facilitator training for managers is a method whereby subordinates are helped to cope with change and this resorts under organization development as a change technique. Because facilitation resorts under organization development as a change intervention it is important to discuss first the effectiveness of organizational development as intervention and second facilitation as method The effectiveness of Organizational Development (00). Given the diversity of activities encompassed by Ol), it is not surprising that managers report mixed results from various ad interventions. The following literature examined (Callahan et al pad: Griffin. 1990, pa04-411; Kast & Rosenzweig p.632; Ivancevich & Matteson p ) highlights the following critique against Ol) ali intervention: i). Because all organizations are open systems interacting with their environment. an improvement in an organization after an Ol) intervention may be attributable to the intervention. but it may also be attributable for example to changes in political conditions and economic conditions. ii). Every change agent has a normative. conceptual model of the ideal organization which is frequently at variance with the model that the manager has. Therefore, the change agent's own values may dictate the use of a favourite technique for accomplishing organizational change. iii). Many, but not all, OD practitioner's value participation and stress the importance of participation under almost every conceivable circumstance. The latter is important, as participation involves

117 Page 104 two basic concepts : participation as a method for bringing about change and participation as a goal of change. Where participation is a goal of change increased emotional reaction and resistance is likely. iv). Ethical considerations by the change agent in allowing freedom by the individual to become involved. Those individuals undergoing training should have freedom to make a choice, which implies knowledge about the event. This is particularly true as we move into the deeper interpersonal levels of intervention, such as sensitivity training. v). On balance, the scientific research to date has not been particularly supportive of sensitivity training as an effective organizational development method. Its popularity among managers has declined appreciably during recent years (Ivanceviah & Matteson, 1990, p.633). vi). In terms of competence, practitioners do not often remain within the limits of their competence, and make exaggerated claims about what a particular OD technique can do for the organization or the individual. The latter point is of particular importance to the facilitator as it applies to his knowledge, skills and abilities as discussed within the next section Competence as a facilitator. According to Galbraith (1989) helping adults learn is a transactional process in which the facilitator interacts with learners, content, other people and material to plan and implement an educational program. Knox (in Galbraith 1989) suggests however, that most facilitators in adult education programmes are expert in the content they teach, but they usually have little preparation in the process of helping adults learn. In this section competance as a facilitator will be discussed under functions of group facilitation, appropriate standards and criteria, and general characteristics and interpersonal skills of the facilitator Functions of group facilitation. The use of groups in learning has become increasingly popular in a wide variety of settings, and thus popularity has brought with it a commitment concern for the training and preparation of facilitators. According to Anderson and Robertson (1985, p.139) this concern has led both the American Personnel and Guidance Association (1967) and the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (1974) to issue documents regarding the use of groups and/or guidelines for the training of group facilitators. Unfortunately these statements have tended to be of such a broad and general nature as to add little to an understanding of what knowledge and skills are required for the effective facilitation of groups, and how such knowledge and skills can best be achieved.

118 Page 105 Kriner and Gaulet (1983, p.151) point out that many professional helpers do not actively use groups as a means to contribute effectively to client growth. They suggesed that a misunderstanding of the group process contributes to a reluctance of facilitators to initiate group programmes. Anderson and Robertson (1985, p.139) outline the following major functions of group facilitation important to growth and change for learners. i). Selection and preparation. In order to wisely select group members, the facilitator must have a clear idea ofwhat the goals of the group will be, and thus what kinds of individuals will most likely constitute the target population. ii). Establishment of facilitative norms. The group facilitator ensures the establishment of norms that will guide and encourage group.interaction (for example, honesty, immediacy, spontaneity, nonjudgemental acceptance, high levels of appropriate self-disclosure, expression of affect/emotionality). iii). Development of a cohesive group climate. It is extremely important that the group facilitator promote a cohesive climate wherein members will feel comfortable, psychologically safe, and willing to take risks. A cohesive group 'promotes both a vechile for increasing and deepening examination of individual feelings and conflicts and an experential ground for interpersonal development. iv). Creation of an independant interaction network. In order to maximise interpersonal growth in a group, it is important that members interact freely with each other rather than speak to or through the facilitator. v). Examination of group processes. The group facilitator assists the group in examining and understanding the cognitive and affective experiences of the group. This means that unless a person develops process-observation skills, he cannot become an effective leader; further, without feedback on its process, a group cannot function effectively for long.

119 Page 106 From the above discussion, should the facilitator not have sufficient training, the function of the group facilitator in creating an atmosphere of psychological safety that promotes self-disclosure, feedback, and experimentation with alternate behaviours, will fail. In order for the facilitator to perform the functions of group facilitation one needs to examine the competencies involved in such a role Appropriate Standards and Criteria. According to Hogan (1977, p.33), in order to determine competence the International Association of Applied Social Scientists (IAASS) Task Force and Committee on Standards and Admissions (1974), which is primarily organized to accredit behavioral and social science practioners, and to assist the public in understanding, properly selecting, and utilizing applied social scientists, arrived at this final list of criteria: 1. Thorough theoretical and applied knowledge of small group dynamics and laboratory education; 2. Broad theoretical and practical knowledge and competence in therapy methodologies and I or intrapsychic learning technologies; 3. Ability to integrate the above two competencies to provide personal growth experiences for participants; 4. Competence and skill in intrapsychic processes, and in using various techniques appropriately in terms of timing, degree of openess, containment, and conclusion; 5. Therapeutic skills (the consultant is assumed to have these); and 6. Ability to provide appropriate support and help for those who may experience personal distress. Hogan (1977, p.42) further comments on the above list and criticise's the lack of explicit mention of the personal qualities important to being an effective group leader General characteristics and interpersonal skills of the facilitator. Being technically proficient in the content area in which the facilitation is being directed is paramount, as are the general characteristics and interpersonal skills of the facilitator. Drawes (in Galbraith, 1989) states that the facilitator must have understanding, flexibility, patience, humor, practicality, creativity, and preparation.

120 Page 107 Cilliers (1989) points out that the facilitator's personality is one of the most important variables in the effectiveness of the behaviour changing process, but relatively little emphasis is placed upon detail personality characteristics. In this regard, Truax and Mitchall (in Hogan, 1977, p.43) have conducted one of the most thorough revisions of the research on the interpersonal skills necessary for positive client change. They found three characteristics to be important: accurate empathic understanding, genuiness, and non-possessive warmth. Carl Rogers (1957) has posited these qualities as the neceassary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic change; and it is his belief that these same characteristics make for an effective facilitator ofencounter groups (Rogers, 1970). According to Anderson and Robertson (1985, p.143) their view of the importance of facilitator characteristics in effecting change is consistent with that put forward by a number of writers in the field of group work. Egan (1973) states that the group facilitator must be adjusted and congruent with no artificial front and no fear of reacting honestly. Similarly Human (1951) indicated that the group leader is a well-adjusted person, secure and confident in his or her own personality and free of compulsions to be dominant. The constructs of honesty, genuineness, and congruence are addressed in virtually all of the literature on counselor education and are supported, along with empathy and acceptance, as being necessary attributes of all counselors, including those who work with groups (Cilliers, 1984). Additionally, it is not enough that the individual has these qualities; he or she must be seen by group members to have them. According to Anderson and Robertson (1985, p.143) members must believe that the facilitator has the capacity to lead and that he or she cares for each of them as individuals. Another area of personal qualities relates to what Yalom (in Anderson and Robertson, 1985, p.143) refers to as a belief in the efficacy of groups; thereby meaning that the facilitator believes in the capacity of human beings to change, and believes in the group as an effective change agent. In summary it would appear that the personal qualities for effective group facilitation can be grouped as follows: i). Relationship Stance : The group facilitator displays genuineness, honesty (congruence), acceptance, and empathy. ii). Self-Awareness: The group facilitator is aware ofhis or her strengths, weaknesses, fears, natural preferences, and modes of reacting to people in a wide variety of situations. iii). Belief System: The group facilitator has an internalized personal beliefsystem about helping and about groups as a medium for change.

121 Page CONCLUSION. From the above issues discussed in facilitator training, it can be said that facilitation as a method is suitable in providing managers with the skill of facilitation, whereby people are helped to cope with the effects and process of organizational change. In so far that facilitation as method resorts under Organization Development as change intervention, it is important to note the pitfalls associated with such an intervention. The most notable pitfall being that associated with the competence of the facilitator which is discussed under the functions of group facilitation, appropriate standards and criteria for facilitators, and general characteristics and interpersonal skills ofthe facilitator. The literature indicates and criticises the lack ofexplicit mention of the personal qualitiies important for a facilitator. In summary the personal qualities for effective group facilitation are based on : having a positive relationship stance with group members; characterised by a display of genuineness, honesty (congruence), acceptance and empathy by the facilitator; being aware of the self in the process of self-disclosure and feedback between group members; and having a positive belief system in facilitation as method. Itcan be summised that the role of the facilitator is paramount in effecting positive growth in the manager, and that this growth in the manager can be affected "for better" or "for worse" by the level of psychological optimal functioning in the facilitator. The growth of the manager towards more effective functioning and helping will influence the growth of the subordinate towards a higher quality of life and coping within the process of organizational change. 7.7 SUMMARY This chapter had two purposes : The first purpose was to operationalise the four core dimensions within a specific case study illustrating the process involved between a manager and his subordinate during a process of organizational change, by making use of the facilitator model. Interpersonal skills training is best formulated within a specific training programme, and guidelines were discussed for the compilation of a program in sensitive relationships forming. The second purpose is to illustrate that the manager within the role of facilitation fulfills a specific role and needs specific personality characteristics, knowledge and skills in the process of sensitive relationship forming between himself and the subordinate. The latter facilitator qualities were discussed by looking at the competence of the facilitator under the functions of group facilitation, appropriate standards and criteria for facilitators, and general characteristics and interpersonal skills of the facilitator.

122 Page 109 The role of the facilitator is paramount in effecting positive growth in the manager, and that this growth in the manager can be affected "for better" or "for worse" by the level of psychological optimal functioning of the facilitator.

123 Page 110 CHAPTER 8: THEORETICAL RECONSTRUCTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS. Within this chapter a theoretical reconstruction is formulated based on the literature examined dealing with the effects of change on people and methods for dealing with the overlooked human side of organizational change. Recommendations are based on providing managers with facilitator training. to ensure that they acquire a suitable set of skills. whereby employees are assisted to cope emotionally with the process of change. 8.1 THEORETICAL RECONSTRUCTION. Organizational change is any substantive modification to some part of the organization (Chapter 1). Change may be prompted by forces internal or external to the organization. and in general planned change is preferable to reactive change (Chapter 2). Managing the change process is very important. and should be based on a comprehensive model whereby it is understood how change effects the organization and its people. People tend to resist change because of uncertainty. threatened self-interests, different perceptions. and feelings of loss (Chapter 3). Participation. education and communication. facilitation. and force-field analysis are methods for overcoming this resistance. Many different change techniques or interventions arc used. The most common ones involve changing organizational strategy. structure and design. technology, and people. The most important area of organizational change overlooked is that of people. Even though people understand change intellectually (cognitive level). it has an emotional impact that they find difficult to cope with (affective level). From this study it is seen that the management of organizational change has a negative effect on the human resource element. and the skill of facilitation is discussed as a viable method to be employed by managers in assisting people cope with thier emotional reaction to change (Chapter 4). Facilitation as method resorts under organization development as intervention, which is concerned with changing attitudes. perceptions, behaviours and expectations. Although there are conflicting opinions about the effectiveness of several organizational development techniques, facilitation would seem to be a suitable intervention in helping people to cope during organizational change. However facilitation is rarley employed as it is a skill not covered within either academic or managerial training.

124 Page 111 Based on the above discussion of this literature study the following can be postulated: i). There are clear indications that there is a lack of a specific mechanism or programme whereby managers are able to possess the facilitation skills necessary to help themsleves and subordinates cope with their emotional reaction to organizational change. This means that the change agent should ensure that managers should acquire the necessary facilitation skill before the introduction of an organizational change. thereby enabling them to deal with the effects of change. ii). Facilitation has as function a problem-solving approach and can be described as the establishment of a favourable climate between the facilitator and the helpee, whereby the helpee learns how to help him or herself and accept responsibility for own actions and needs. In the management of change process this refers to the role of the helper (manager) to facilitate an opporunity for learning and growth for the subordinate during the process of change. In order for the manager to be able to facilitate a development process within a subordinate. the manager as facilitator requires specific skills and characteristics. These skills and characteristics correspond with literature on growth and helping psychology and are referred to as the nature and charactersitic of psychological optimal functioning. The psychological optimal functioning person is involved totally within his work. and has the necessary mechanisms to cope within a changing environment which leads to the following work-related qualities: a full commitment to work and its situations. productivity and the experience of joy and growth from new challenges; a focus on being problem centred. responsible. flexible. using own initiative. concentration and optimal utilisation of time; the development of a psychological safe and permissive climate. wherein the subordinate and his colleaques are allowed to develop their own potential. accept responsibility for their own behaviour and work environment; as a result. the subordinates work behaviour is more productive and focused on the achievment of organizational goals without forfeiting own needs and goals; the development of situations which require decision-making and which are characterised by negative feelings and suppressed energy. to be converted into positive growth situations. thereby enhancing both productivity and quality of work life during the process of organizational change.

125 Page RECOMMENDATIONS. The implimentation of the skill of facilitation during the process of organizational change can be applied as follows: The rationale for facilitator training must be made apparent to top management whereby the benefits from such a training programme are understood and accepted as policy within the organization. Following this, the change agent should appoint a facilitator, with the appropriate skills, who will be resonsible for the primary training of managers. Thereafter the facilitator and change agent should monitor individual trainee managers facilitating their own subordinates, and provide the relevant support and coaching necessary. It would be appropriate to facilitate a group of top managers initially, thereby ensuring credibility with the policy makers and canvassing their support for the implimentation of the programme throughout the organization. In so far that not every manager has the interest or the potential to acquire facilitation skills, some form of selection for participants is necessary. The development of selection criteria should be based on determining inter alia; the person's interest and motivation in participating in such a programme, relevant skills and knowledge in previously working with groups, personal qualities as in the ability to be empathethic and caring towards others, having a positive attitude towards people that need help during a change process, and a value system that is democratically based whereby people are seen as responsible individuals capable of growth during the process of organizational change. In so far that there are no formal selection procedures appropriate to measure whether a person is qualified to undertake such a role as facilitator (Hogan, 1977) the following is recommended; the facilitator should interview candidates based on the above criteria discussed, and decide who should undergo training in conjunction with top management; a second evaluation can once again take place after the four day programme whereby the facilitator can once again determine whether the manager has acquired the skills necessary for facilitating his subordinates. Due to the experential nature and complexity of facilitation as skill, it is recommended that managers are re-evaluated. This can be done by having managers undergo a second training group whereby their experiences from the first group are expanded and reinforced.

126 Page 113 Organizational members in the human resources should be the primary target for such facilitator training. 8.3 SUMMARY. Within this study the research aim was achieved by means of a theoretical literature study. From within this literature study it is deduced that organizational change takes place purely on a mechanistic level with resulting negative effects on the human resource element within organizations. The research within this investigation has a theoretical basis, and as a result should be seen as an initial examination to a more structured study wherein hypothesis can be tested empirically. The value of this theoretical study lies within the following results obtained: In South Africa change is inevitable and necessary and because the environment is changing rapidly organizations cannot afford not to change. As a result change and the management thereof are important issues within organizations; Change impacts not only on organizational structures but has a definite effect on people and their emotions. It is also seen that during an organizational change process managers tend to concentrate on technical issues and place lesser emphasis on the emotional reaction of subordinates: As a result of the latter, the following four basic behavioural reactions are seen within people undergoing an organizational change. a. Disengagement. This typifies the reaction of people who withdraw or pull back, and will not let you know what they are feeling. b. Disidentification. Some people are very honestly worried or sad about the change. c. Disorientation. Others are confused and lack a clear sense of direction. d. Disenchantment. Some people are angry and develop resentments against the organization for this change. The above emotional reaction is typified by a loss of control by the individual which impacts negatively on organizational effectiveness;

127 Page 114 This implies that an important task of a manager is to impliment change, but more important being able to overcome the resistance to change experienced by people. The literature examined points out a lack of knowledge and skills within management on how to deal with potential disillusionment, frustration, and dissatisfaction amongst professional. managerial, technical and unskilled workers resulting from organizational change; the change or loss is a crises for the subordinate which requires special skills on the part of the manager, which are aimed at helping the subordinate improve his ability to cope constructively with the change. The skill of facilitation is introduced as a viable intervention whereby it is possible to re-establish control for the individual within the process of organizational change; further indications are that there is a lack of a specific mechanism or programme whereby managers are able to possess the facilitation skills necessary to help themselves and subordinates cope with the emotional reaction to organizational change; from this study it can be deduced that facilitation is a suitable intervention to be utilised in helping individuals cope with the demands of change. Facilitation as an intervention focuses on moving people from a state of transition to a desired organizational state during the process of change.. This means that the intervention is aimed at assisiting the individual to cope and to move forward to the desired organizational state. and hence provides the rationale for using facilitation training during the management of change. The intervention is aimed at the process of growth within the individual undergoing change. for example. problem solving. the experiencing of own feelings. taking responsibility for one's own actions. and generally helping the person to help himself.

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