COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION

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1 COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION o Attribution You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. o NonCommercial You may not use the material for commercial purposes. o ShareAlike If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original. How to cite this thesis Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: (Accessed: Date).

2 -.. --~, ~.\~-~> \ (:1. \ ", '-..- -~.- THE APPLICATION OF FACILITATOR TRAINING IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE by RODOLFO PIERO FRIGENTI DISSERTATION Presented in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree MASTERS IN INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY in the FACULTY ECONOMIC AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES at the RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY SOPERVISOR : MR F. CROUS NOVEMBER 1993

3 (ii) FOREWORD My sincere appreciation and thanks to the following Dissertation: person's on completion of this Mr F. Crous, my study leader, for his theoretical insights and guidance, his time and interest, and his constructive criticism. Professor Frans Cillier for sharing his theoretical knowledge and patience, and his care and support in facilitating a never ending process of learning in my life. Director Psychology (Brigadier A. Jansen van Rensburg) for his contribution and permission to undertake my studies. My colleagues in section Psycho-strat for their patience and support. My mother for her unconditional caring and support.

4 (iii) CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES PAGE (viii) ABSTRACT (ix) OPSOMMING (xi) CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND INTRODUCTION MOTIVATION General Specific PROBLEM STATEMENT AIM OF THE STUDY General aim Specific aim METHODOLOGY SUMMARY CHAPTER 2 : THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE INTRODUCTION DEFINITION OF TERMS Change Change agent Change intervention., Levels of change 14

5 (iv) 2.3 PRESSURES FOR CHANGE Global change Emerging trends Trends in leadership and management MODEL FOR UNDERSTANDING CHANGE SUMMARY 21 CHAPTER 3 : DIAGNOSING THE EFFECT OF CHANGE ON PEOPLE INTRODUCTION DIAGNOSIS OF SITUATION Force field analysis Areas of organization change People supporting change "People" methods THE EFFECT OF CHANGE THE EXPERIENCE OF CHANGE DEALING WITH RESISTANCE SUMMARY CHAPTER 4: THE FACILITATING PROCESS INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT THE FACILITATOR ROLE DESCRIPTION OF FACILITATION THE NATURE OF FACILITATION 41

6 (v) 4.6 RATIONALE FOR FACILITATIVE TRAINING Practical implications ' Theoretical implications SUMMARY 47 CHAPTER 5 : PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMALITY INTRODUCTION THE MANAGERIAL ROLE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMIZATION Self development Description A refocus from the abnormal to the optimal Optimality as purpose within management development Definition CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMAL FUNCTIONING PERSON Intrapersonal Characteristics Physical characteristics Cognitive characteristics Emotional characteristics Conative characteristics Interpersonal characteristics Interpersonal characteristics summary A description of sensitive relationship forming The core dimensions of sensitive relationship forming Work-related characteristics SUMMARY 62 CHAPTER 6: THE STIMULATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMALITY AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS TRAINING INTRODUCTION 64

7 (vi) 6.2 STIMULATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMALITY The self-read and do method.. ; The interpersonal learning method THE GROWTH GROUP Definition of a group Types of growth groups Core concepts in growth groups Here and now focus Self-Disclosure Feedback Climate of experimentation Stages of the T-Group Process Trainer as facilitator / member INTERPERSONAL SKILLS TRAINING Helping Skills A Model for managing problems Rationale of the model The purpose of the model Description of the model Application of the model SUMMARY CHAPTER 7: THE APPLICATION OF FACILITATOR TRAINING WITHIN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE INTRODUCTION CASE STUDY Purpose Reaction to change Diagnosis Remedial Strategy The facilitation model Evaluation and feedback 95

8 (vii) 7.3 DESIGN OF A SHORT-TERM TRAINING PROGRAM FOR THE FACILITATION OF SENSITIVE RELATIONSHIP FORMING AS INTERPERSONAL SKILL IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE PROCESS Formulation of a programme Content of the programme Self-disclosure and behavioural feedback Listening Skills Modelling Role play Transfer of learning Video feedback The role and characteristics of the facilitator in the development of sensitive relationship forming SUMMARY ISSUES IN FACILITATOR TRAINING Change and the use of facilitation The effectiveness of Organizational Development (OD) Competence ali a facilitator Functions of group facilitation Appropriate Standards and Criteria General characteristics and interpersonal skills of the facilitator CONCLUSION SUMMARY 108 CHAPTER 8: THEORETICAL RECONSTRUCTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS THEORETICAL RECONSTRUCTION RECOMMENDATIONS SUMMARY LIST OF REFERENCES 115

9 (viii) LIST OF FIGURES PAGE 2.1 The concept of change Levels of change Pressures causing change in organizations Model for managing change Forces acting on organizations Change objectives of organizational development programs Continuum of client-consultant relationships Focus change from abnormal to optimal The helping model The process of individual change 85

10 (ix) ABSTRACT THE APPLICATION OF FACILITATOR TRAINING IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE by RODOLFO PIERO FRIGENTI SUPERVISOR : MRF. CRODS DEPARTMENT : HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY : RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY DEGREE : M. Comm. Change is one of the foremost issues in organizations, if not the foremost issue in people's everyday life. Organizational change involves any substantive modificationto some part ofthe organization. This change may be prompted by forces internal or external to the organization. Typically organizational change involves the restructuring or elimination ofjobs, found in actions such as reorganization, automation, rapid growth, downsizing, job redefinition, a physical move, the effects of competition, or a shifting market. Whatever the "trigger" for the change, people are experiencing confusion, worry, anger, numbness or all of the above. The cumulative effect of change on people is the same, and is manifest in resistance. Even though people know change is imminent and even though they understand it intellectually, it still has an emotional impact that they do not quite expect and that they find difficult to cope with. Many different change techniques or interventions are used for managing change. The most common ones involve changing organizational strategy, structure and design, technology and people. The focus of this study is on people, and illustrates the general inability of managers and subordinates to cope with organizational change, and to discuss a suitable training technique to overcome the inability to cope. A literature study was undertaken to determine the suitability of introducing facilitator training for managers in the management of change. It seems that managers are not taught or possess the skills necessary in dealing with the emotional content of subordinates reaction to change.

11 Against this background it was determined that managers lacked the necessary skill of facilitation and as (x) a result subordinates are not helped to cope during the process of organizational change. Facilitation training equips managers to function more effectively as managers and as persons. As a result managers are able to assist subordinates to cope with their emotional reaction to change. Results obtained from ----_.., _..,._-"---_..._."-.._---_..~_ research on the application of facilitator training within management, indicate positive growth in the trainee on both the inter- and intrapersonal level. This growth resulted in the acquiring of certain characteristics within the manager which were of benefit in his interaction with his colleagues and subordinates. It is deduced that managers acquiring these characteristics will be able to facilitate a process -----_.--~ _..._ "'_.- of helping whereby subordinates are helped to help themselves during an organizational change process.

12 (xi) OPSOMMING DIE TOEPASSING VAN FASILITERINGS VAARDIGHEDE OPLEIDING IN DIE BESTUUR VAN VERANDERING deur RODOLFO PIERO FRIGENTI STUDIELEIER : MNR F. CROUS DEPARTEMENT : MENSLIKE HULPBRONBESTUUR UNIVERSITEIT : RANDE AFRIKAANSE UNIVERSITEIT GRAAD : M. Comm. Verandering is een van die belangrikste faktore binne organisasies en dit het verrykendc implikasie op die mens in sy daagliksc bestaan. Oraganisasieverandering behels enige substansiele aanpassing binne 'n gedeelte van die organisasie as geheel. Hierdie verandering kan te weeg gebring word deur kragte intern of ekstern tot die organisasie. Tipies behels organisatoriese verandering die herstrukturering of eliminering van werk, soos dit in aktiwiteit soos herorganisering, outomatisering, versnelde groei, inperking, posherdefiniering, fisicse verandering. die effek van kompetisie of 'n verandcrcnde mark voorkom. Wat ook al die rede vir die verandering, mense ervaar verwarring, kommer, woede, gevoelloosheid of 'n kombinasie van al die bogenoemde. Die kumulatiewe effek van verandering op mense is dieselfde soos dit manifesteer in weerstand. Alhoewel mense die belangrikheid van verandering besef en op intellektuele vlak verstaan, het dit steeds onverwagte emosionele impak wat moeijik is om te hanteer. Verskeie veranderingstegnieke en tussenredes vir die bestuur van verandering word gebruik. Die mees bekende behels die verandering van organisatoriese strategic, struktuur en ontwerp, tegnologie en die mens like hulpbron. Die fokus van die ondersoek is op die menslike hulpbron en iliustreer die algemene onvermoe van bestuurders en ondergeskiktes om met organisatoriese verandering te kan tredhou. Tweedens bespreek die ondersoek 'n toepaslike tegniek om die onverrnoe om verandering te kan hanteer, te bowe te kom.

13 (xii) 'n Literatuurondersoek is ondemeem om te bepaal of die opleiding in fasiliteringsvaardighede toepaslik is vir bestuurders binne die bestuur van verandering. Dit blyk asof die bestuurders Die die vaardigheid geleer is of daaroor beskik, om die emosionele inhoud van ondergeskiktes se reaksie op verandering, te hanteer Die. Teen die agtergrond is vasgestel dat bestuurders Die oor die vaardigheid van fasilitering beskik Die, en gevolglik word ondergeskiktes Die gehelp om die proses van organisasieverandering te kan hanteer Die. Fasiliteringopleiding stel bestuurders in staat om meer effektief as bestuurder en as mens te funksioneer. As 'n resultaat hiervan is bestuurders daartoe in staat om hierdie emosionele reaksies op verandering te kan hanteer. Resultate uit navorsing oor die toepassing van fasiliteringopleiding by bestuur, dui op positiewe groei in die opleiding op beide die inter- en intrapersoonlike vlak. Hierdie groei het gelei tot die verwerwing van sekere kenmerke binne die bestuur wat hulpverlenend in sy interaksie met sy kollegas en ondergeskiktes was. Dit word afgelei dat bestuurders wat hierdie kenmerke verwerf, daartoe in staat sal wees om 'n proses van hulpverlening te fasiliteer waardeur ondergeskiktes gehelp word om hulleself te help, gedurende die organisasie-veranderingsproses.

14 Page 1 CHAPTER 1 : CHANGE 1.1 INTRODUCTION. Currently, a topical issue concerns the rapid changes taking place allover the world, and more specifically the impact of this change in South Africa. Change is inevitable as a new South Africa is dawning and people are no less exposed to political, social and economic change than are organizations. Change, it seems, is_tb~_()ee issue that is a certainty within today's society. These changes may be relatively small....~.-_._.~..._--_.-- and insignificant, large and important, temporary or permanent. a detrimental effect on people with a resulting loss of ability to cope. But because of these changes, there is The phenomenon of change is not only apparent in South Africa, but has deep seated roots in the rest of the continent. It would seem more prominent in South Africa, as she has been isolated politically for many years, and as a result has difficulty in adjusting to the main stream of international trends. To understand the phenomenon of change from a psychological viewpoint one needs to address two major elements of the current situation, i.e. change and its corresponding effect on organization's. Both these elements are discussed within the motivation of this study. Thereafter the problem statement and aims of the study are discussed. Lastly the methodology and structure are presented. ( 1.2 MOTIVATION General. As change is so prevalent in South Africa, its impact is relevant and central to the continued existence of organizations at present. I This can tie seen in three distinct but interrelated aspects of the environment, namely the social, the economic, and the technological spheres. Change within these three aspects daily present new threats, new opportunities, new problems, pres~ures and possibilities. It follows then that conditions are always changing, and that change has become the norm.l.:l~sl1 as itmay sound, success and survival depend on being able to anticipate change, arid possibly to avoid being swallowed up by its negative effects. More often than not, coupled to change, one all-important organizational dimension is overlooked, namely, that of human reaction to change. Faced with lay-offs of their co-workers or the introduction of new people, policies and procedures, employees often feel helpless and disenfranchised in the midst of sweeping change. At the very worse, management has adopted the all too familiar attitude of "adapt or die", within their O\\-TI particular management style. While a tough stance would seem to sort out the

15 Page 2 "winners" from the "losers", the long term prospects for a changing organization, harbour deep resentment, fear, and anger amongst surviving employees. This situation arises as a result of managers not always being in contact with the emotional content of human reaction during sweeping change. This means that the implementation of change, how one actually goes about the process of bringing about the conditions for effective change, how one gets people's commitment to it and involvement in it are all important issues to be examined. More specifically, it is important to understand and recognise that organizational change impacts on people emotionally Specific. Plant (1987, p.l3) says that the values, attitudes and responses of individuals and groups of people toward change have altered. People are no longer prepared to accept being manipulated, influenced, or pressured into accepting changes which they don't understand or agree with. As such, the willingness by people to articulate their feelings against any form of change has become increasingly acceptable. These feelings are not always overtly displayed. and are often manifest within certain behavioral reactions. Woodward & Buchholz (1987, p.93). identify the following four basic behavioural reactions by people to organizational change: Disengagement. This typifies the reaction of people who withdraw or pull back, and will not let you know what they are feeling. Disidentification. Some people are very honestly worried or sad about the change. Disorientation. Others are confused and lack a clear sense of direction. Disenchantment. Some people are angry and develop resentments against the organization for this change. From the above it can be seen that organizational change has an effect on subordinates, resulting in differing behavioural reactions. The effects of change can best be explained by referring to the Kubler Ross model (Woodward et al. 1987, p.66). The death and dying model of Kubler - Ross (Golan, 1978, p.193), is used to explain the four behavioural stages of development within people when loss is experienced. The stages are exhibited as follows through the : denial of the loss or reality of the situation in the form of resistance. expression of anger toward the loss or the situation, process of bargaining with ones self, others and the situation in order to rationalize the change, experience of depression once the reality of the situation becomes apparent, followed by, acceptance of the loss and that which is changed.

16 Page 3 Similarly it could be said that people experience feelings of loss within a changing organizational environment. The importance of the model indicates that a person experiencing change as a loss must be helped to move through the stages to eventually accept the loss.~xa.,cceptance of change that is forced will result in the person accepting the change intellectually. but emotionally the person has not worked through the change and will find himself in a stage of denial or resistance (Coch and French p.512). From the above it can be seen that change has an effect on people. but more importantly. change has become the norm within organizations (Nicholson, 1990). Given the fact that change is the norm and that it has a corresponding effect on people. one can assume that leaders and managers alike need to anticipate the changes that will affect them in the future and develop interventions whereby people are helped through the process of change (Tearle. 1991). The problem however is whether managers are equipped to deal with the emotional reaction to change. Lawrence (1969) points out that the most baffling and recurring problems which managers face is employee resistance to change. Claasen and Backer (1989) also indicate from research findings that employees are generally unhappy with the way in which change is introduced or handled. More specifically. Van Rooyen (1991) points out a lack of knowledge and skills. within management, on how to deal with potential disillusionment. frustration and dissatisfaction amongst professional, managerial. technical, skilled and unskilled workers resulting from organizational change. It can be surmised that organizational change brings about change in the individual with an emotional reaction to the loss which will require a skilled intervention aimed at helping a person to cope. Any change or loss caused by natural or manmade disasters (e.g., floods and train wrecks). by developmental events (e.g., divorce and widowhood), or by situational events (e.g., organizational change). are temporary periods of extreme stress which can produce feelings of disequilibrium and helplessness in the lives of normal individuals and families. as explained in Brammer & Shostrom (1968). Golan (1978). Ivey, Ivey, Simek & Downing (1978). The change or loss is a crises which requires special skills on the part of the psychologist and other helping professionals. whereby an immediate intervention is employed, designed to alleviate the distress quickly. and aimed at helping the client improve his ability to cope constructively with this and similar situations in the future (Golan, p. 3). Such an intervention is therapeutically based, whereby people in crises situations are helped to cope. A similar intervention which can be used during an organizational change process. is based on the skill of facilitation. whereby the facilitator helps the person to help ----,._- Yet, facilitation is not therapy, where the therapist makes behavioral interpretations from a _~imself. specific therapeutic model and works remediably (Cilliers, p.j). The skill of facilitation is also a more viable alternative to therapeutic interventions, which are costly and time consuming. The skill of facilitation is based on the interaction between the fist person (facilitator) and the second person (client) whereby the second person (within a group situation) is allowed the ---opportunity to grow. formulating own -' --_.-... _---,-... -

17 Page 4 ( If~s an~ m~t!i~?s, and accepts full!~spqnsibili~fqrlj.isli~tions (Cilliers, 1988a). Through facilitation then, it would be possible to re-establish control for the individual within the process of organizational """--"-'---" -'-.",--. change. In summary, the motivation of the study indicates the following: change is a norm within organizations and leads to an emotional reaction within people; the emotional reaction to change is overlooked in favour of technical issues during the management of change; the latter point occurs as a result of a lack of skills and an appropriate intervention in dealing with the emotional reaction; the skill of facilitation is introduced within this study as a viable intervention to be used by management in assisting people through the process of change. The motivation for the study provides a basis for discussing and formulating the problem statement. 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT. In South Africa, change is inevitable and necessary. Because the environment is changing rapidly, organizations cannot afford not to resist change (Lindeque, 1992). As a result change and the management thereofare important issues within organizations (Manning, 1990), and by definition implies the following activity: Change management can be defmed as a deliberate effort with a stated objective on the part of an individual or group to bring about a modification to the current state of a system which requires its members to learn how to perform new behaviours and organizational roles (Pansegrouw, 1991). Change can be defmed and irnplimented from many different paradigms. From the following three main streams in psychology the following can be reasoned: the psychodynamic or psychoanalytic model of abnormal behaviour developed by Freud and his followers (Morris, 1979, pa90). According to this model, behaviour disorders are symbolic expressions of internal conflicts. This approach is not popular in organizational application, as it is complicated because of unconcious material and its effect on the individual or organization; behaviourism which concentrates on stimulus - response behaviour, which denies the dynamics of change as well as the potential for growth. Thus, behaviourism does not concentrate on matters such as "psychological movement" or "helping people see the point of organizational change" (Bigge, 1982, p.74); the third force in psychology (humanistic, existentialism / phenomenology) serves as paradigm emphasising the dynamics in organizations such as human change and growth and the realization of human potential (Rowan, 1988, p.19).

18 Page 5 The above definition, as an end result, requires people as individuals and groups to change their work behaviour and habits by learning new skills, developing new values and attitudes and following different procedures (Adams and Spencer, 1988; Etzioni, 1972). Manning (1988, p.55) and Plant (1987, p.12) point out that the implementation of change, how one actually goes about the process of bringing about the conditions for effective change, and how one goes about gaining peoples' commitment and involvement to change are important issues to consider. This implies that an important task of a manager is to implement change, but more importantly being able to overcome the resistance to change experienced by people (Coch and French, 1978), Adams and Spencer (I988) and Kotter and Schlesinger (I979) point out that managers should be able to diagnose and be aware of the following reasons people resist change: First, a desire not to lose something of value; Secondly, a misunderstanding of the change and its implications; Third, a belief that the change does not benefit anyone; Lastly, a low tolerance for change. The above indicates that change impacts not only on organizational structures but has a definite effect on people and their emotions. Megwa (I992) says that change can be perceived by people as being either a destabilising or uniting factor. Megwa also points out that to be sensitive to those perceptions, communication needs to be an interactive process involving the exchange of ideas and feelings between the manager and subordinates. This means that communication needs to be facilitated amongst organizational members as concerns their feelings toward change. In this regard literature indicates that various strategies are implemented by managers in ways they can positively influence and help specific individuals and groups cope during change (ref, Adams et al.; Pansegrouw, 1991; Tearle, 1991; Walton, 1989). Although there are numerous strategies and interventions Kotter et al. (979) notes that utilising a process of facilitation and support is the most helpful when fear and anxiety lie at the heart of resistance during the implementation of change. The literature indicates that facilitation has an important function during an organizational change process, and by its very nature implies a process of "being available" or "helping" within different situations (Dick, 1991, p.243; Gauthier, 1989; Rees, 1991a). The facilitator within the process of facilitation is broadly defined as a helper and refers to the psychologist, the sociologist, the process consultant, the interventionist, the instructor, the third party consultant and the cultural integrator (Rees, 1991). Additionally the literature indicates that the process of facilitation does seem to be predominantly associated with working groups rather than individuals (Stroul, 1988; Walton, 1988). Within the process of facilitation there is an interaction between the facilitator and the individual or the group (Cilliers, 1984). This interaction places certain specific demands on the first person (facilitator / psychologist) to avoid

19 Page 6 providing only mechanical information during the process of change. and to concentrate on the dynamic behavioural aspects in which the second person (individual I group) learns how to learn and help themselves cope with change (Cilliers, 1988a). According to Cilliers (1984) the learning of the skill of facilitation is not covered within the traditional academic training of the industrial psychologist, and within managerial development. Callahan, Fleener and Knudson 0986, p.si8) point out that the use of facilitation as an intervention during the process of organizational change is the least implemented, as it is one of the skills least acquired by managers. It would seem from the above that during an organizational change process managers tend to concentrate on technical issues, and place lesser emphasis on the emotional reaction of subordinates. Woodward and Buchholz 0987, p.6s) point out that if this is the case, any change implemented will be met with resistance which has a negative effect on organizational effectiveness. Woodward and Buchholz further indicate the importance, for both managers and subordinates. of gaining an understanding of the emotional reaction to change so that people are able to cope with the technical issues of change. From the above it is clear that any organizational change has a corresponding emotional reaction on people. This emotional reaction is typified by a loss of control by the individual, which impacts negatively on organizational effectiveness. A suitable intervention in helping people to cope during organizational change is based on the skill of facilitation, but is rarely employed as it is a skill not covered within either academic or managerial training. From the above discussion, it is possible to formulate the following problem statement and thereafter discuss the aim of the study. Does the management of organizational change have any negative effect on the human resource element. and if so. is the skill of facilitation a viable intervention to be employed in assisting people cope with their emotional reaction to change? 1.4 AIM OF THE srudy General aim. The general aim of the study is to examine the management of change and propose facilitation as a means whereby growth amongst organizational members is stimulated during the process of organizational change

20 Page Specific aim. The specific aim of this study is two-fold:- 1. To indicate that there is a lack of a specific mechanism or programme whereby managers possess the facilitation skills necessary to help themselves and subordinates cope with the emotional reaction to organizational change. 2. To introduce the skill of facilitation as an intervention to be used during the management of organizational change, whereby the facilitator creates an opportunity and climate for leaming and growth wherein the person is helped to cope with the effects of change. 1.5 METHODOLOGY. Chapter two has as specific aim to investigate the management of change in order to present a conceptual framework for understanding change and the management theroef. Of particular importance, is the type of change intervention employed and the different levels of change i.e. technical versus people. Chapter three has as aim to discuss the effect of change on people and the management thereof. this chapter people's experience of and reaction to change are examined. Within Chapter four discusses the facilitating process as an alternative approach and suitable intervention to be used in the management of change. Within chapter five the interpersonal nature of management is examined, and the application of facilitation skills training ensures that the manager, in order to be effective as manager and person needs to develop certain characteristics. Chapter six examines alternatives whereby facilitator characteristics and skills are acquired through the method of stimulating psychological optimality. Chapter seven examines the practical application of facilitation training within a specific case study illustrating the process involved between manager's and subordinates during a process of organizational change. The latter part of the chapter discusses issues such as the competence of the facilitator in facilitation. Chapter eight looks at a theoretical reconstruction and appropriate recommendations for the study.

21 Page SUMMARY In chapter 1 the problem statement of and motivation for the study are discussed. Second the general and specific aims of the study are formulated. Thirdly the method of research is discussed based on a division of a theoretical literature study and the application of this within a practical case study, as well as the division of chapters. Chapter two presents a conceptual framework for understanding change and the management thereof, according to a model which also indicates how the change agent needs to manage the process of change.

22 Page 9 CHAPTER 2 : THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE. 2.1 INTRODUCTION. Change management is an accepted concept in management practice which refers to a planned process for implementing organizational change. In this regard Pansegrouw (1990a) defines change management as a deliberate effort with a stated objective on the part of an individual or group to bring about a modification to the current state of a system which requires it's members to learn how to perform new behaviours and organizational roles. The definition emphasises that change management: is a conscious, goal directed activity, may be performed by either an individual or a group, internal or external to the organization, aims at a modification of the structure and processes which currently characterises the organization, as an end result, requires people as individuals and groups (termed as the "target of change") to change their work behaviour and habits by learning new skills, developing new values and attitudes and following different procedures. Based on the above points of the definition certain key concepts involved in the management of change can be defined. 2.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS. Providing a more concise description of the processes and terms involved within the definition of change management (point 2.1) facilitates an understanding for discussing the reasons for change and how managers can become more effective in coping with and managing change (as discussed in point 2.3) Change. In explaining change as a conscious, goal directed activity, Robbins (1989. p.527) defines change ali making things different. The Oxford dictionary (1983) provides a more abstract explanation by defining change as follows: an alteration; a substitution of one for another; a renewal; going from one to another; adopting a new plan or option: making or becoming different. and

23 Page 10 "putting on new clothes." Although change as a concept and by definition may seem easy to explain, it becomes quite complex if one takes into account all the factors surrounding it. explanation to change as a simple starting point: Crafford (1992) provides the following model as Control x Conflict A B Change Figure 2.1 : The concept of change (adapted from Crafford, 1992). Based on the above model, change is a transition state, which implies that some movement has taken place (A ~ B). Although there may be various reasons for the movement, a common denominator is that B will always bedifferent to A. The implied contrast may be defined in terms of a form of conflict, from which universal resistance to change originates. If one takes the conflict position as a starting point it becomes clear that two routes towards change may be followed, namely (a) change through conflict (A ~ B) e.g. the war in the Persian Gulf, or (b) change through the control of conflict e.g. what politicians are trying to achieve through negotiations in South Africa. Having defined change, it is necessary to examine the person or group responsible for the change Change agent. The literature provided similar descriptions on the definition and role of the change agent, and is discussed below.

24 Page 11 According to Robbins (1989, p.527) this term is defined as "the person (or persons) who act as catalyst, and assumes the responsibility for managing the change process." Crafford (1989, p.2) sees the role of the psychologist primarily as that of a change agent. First he deals with a subject that develops physically and mentally throughout his life, which implies a continuous set of changes. Secondly he deals with an individual or group that requires change in some form or another in order to terminate an uncomfortable situation. Similarly to the latter, Eisenberg and Patterson 0979, p.2) state that the ultimate purpose of the psychologist in counselling"... is to help the client achieve some kind of change that he or she will regard as satisfying. tl Manning 0990, p.10) sees the main role of the change agent in being able to foster the necessary desire for change. Subsequently, the successful change agent must sense carefully the moment when people are unhappy enough to let go of the past, but not so negative that they can't think about the future. Tichy (in Callahan et al. 1986, pa12) identifies four types of change agents: Outside pressure types who work to change systems from outside the organization. They are not members of the system they are trying to change and use such tactics as mass demonstrations, civil disobedience and violence to accomplish their objectives (Van der Merwe & Meyer, 1987, p.79-81). People-change-technology types who work to change the way people behave through various behavioural science technologies. They are concerned with worker motivation and morale, including absenteeism, quality and quantity or work turnover. The methods used include job enrichment, management by objectives and behaviour modification (Orpen, 1981). Analysis-for-the-tup type focus on changing the organizational structure or technology so a'i to improve output and efficiency. This approach relies primarily on the rationality of individuals and might include introducing computerised information - processing systems and developing new task groups to operate the innovations (Blignaut, 1988, p.3-12). Organization development type focus their attention on internal processes such as intergroup relations, communication and decision making. Their diagnosis includes a strong focus on organizational culture and their intervention strategy is often referred to as a cultural change approach. This approach to the change process grew out of such areas ali sensitivity training (Schein, 1972; Shaffer & Galinksy, 1974). The application of facilitator training within this

25 Page 12 study, for the purpose of clarity and definition would resort under the auspices of the organization development (ad) type of agent. From the above it is concluded that the change agent is responsible for initiating, leading and managing the change process. From this it is also gathered that the change agent develops skills (discussion, chapter 5) and has sufficient knowledge in adopting a suitable intervention aimed at a modification of the structure and processes currently characterising the organization Change intervention. A change intervention is "a planned action to make things different" (Robbins, 1989, p.527). From this one can deduce that an intervention is a technique or method employed primarily for helping other people through the change process. Callahan et ai. 0986, pa14) describes intervention as a method or means to manage change more successfully. These means may include either responding to forces for change or creating forces to help prepare organizational members to accept the change. This means that the intervention can focus on the individual, the work group. several groups, or the total organization. According to Callahan et aj. (1986, pa14), Camp, Blanchard & Huszczo 0986, p l), Kepner and Tregoe 0981, p ), Orpen (1981, p ). Schaffer and Galinksy (1974) the following are the most widely used intervention methods in organizational change: life planning which consists of a series of activities to help individuals look at their values, life experiences, goals and action steps to prepare them to achieve their objectives; job design as an intervention which involves examining the current structure of the worker's activities for the purpose of restructuring them for performance improvement; team building is a series of sessions to improve effectiveness and performance of individuals who work together on a continuing basis; process consultation, which is a variation of the latter and consists of a set of activities on the part of a consultant to help the manager and the work group understand and act upon their own processes to become more effective; conflict resolution focuses on getting conflicting groups to bring to the surface the real and imaginary sources of tension occurring between them; organizational mirroring is a variation of conflict resolution and requires that each group indicate how it views its own behaviour and the behaviour of the other groups involved, and how it thinks the other groups view their behaviour; survcy feedback involves systematically collecting analysis. interpretation, and corrective action so that the group is able to pinpoint findings, problems and solutions;

26 Page 13 management by objectives is a process integrating goals at various levels through the goal setting process and developing realistic action plans and systematically measuring the resulting performance; sociotechnical inputs referring to a series of interventions aimed at changing the relationship between social and technical aspects of a job so that the resulting work is more efficient for the company and more satisfying for the worker. While all of the above are important, the intervention oflaboratory training is the most suitable within the management of change process, especially when dealing with emotions such as fear and anxiety at the heart of the resistance to change (Kotter & Schlesinger, 1979, p.ll0). This type of training is synonymous with experiential learning and, allows for a process of growth, releasing the vast human potential for actualizing and fulftlling one's capabilities and fmding a deeper meaning in life (Schultz, 1977, p.1). Laboratory training forms the basis for acquiring and learning facilitation skills, which is proposed as a suitable intervention to be used within the management of a change process. By defmition, laboratory training or also known as sensitivity training (Shaffer & Galinsky, 1974, p.189) is an intensive workshop for an individual or work group whose major goals include: the development of a spirit of inquiry and willingness to experiment with one's role in the organization and the world, an increased awareness of other people and expanded interpersonal awareness, improved sincerity in relationships with others, greater ability to collaborate with superiors, peers, and subordinates rather than to use authoritarian approaches, and greater ability to resolve conflict through developing alternatives and problem-solving techniques, as opposed to manipulating, coercing, or compromising people into accepting change.,/ From the above it is gathered that laboratory training is conducive to experimenting with and learning of new behaviours, similarly change as an end result requires people as individuals and groups (termed as the "target of change") to change their work behaviour and habits by learning new skills, develop new values and attitudes and follow different procedures. In order for people as individuals and groups to change it is necessary to be aware of the different levels of change that exist.

27 Page Levels of change. The effectiveness of change management is dependant on the effort and time involved relative to the level of change. In this regard Pansegrouw (1990a) says it is important to understand that change may occur at different levels of individual and group functioning, namely: knowledge; attitudes; individual behaviour; group behaviour. The following diagram illustrates the relationship between these levels of change and the time and difficulty involved in bringing about change at each level. TIme and difficulty involved in making various changes High Group behaviour Individual behaviour Difficulty Involved Attitudes 1low Knowledge Short t-( Time Involved :) long Figure 2.2 : Levels of change (adapted from Pansegrouw, 1990a) The diagram illustrates that both the time and difficulty involved in communicating change in knowledge to people is short in comparison to implementing behavioral change at both individual and group level.

28 Page 15 Watzlawick, Weakland and Fisch (in Whitlock 1984, p.i) use the terms, first and second order changes to explain the levels of change and the learning involved. They cite a behavioral illustration of the difference between the two types of changes as provided by the example of a person learning to drive an automobile. A person is able to assimilate as much theoretical knowledge on how to drive an automobile, and such a change in knowledge is a first order change, but it is not sufficient in itself in ensuring competence behind the wheel. The second order change is illustrated by changing from having knowledge on how to drive to physically sitting in the automobile and experiencing the operational side of doing and driving. In terms of learning, it refers to a significant change within persons, and not simply an increase in the amount of conceptual knowledge regarding the change. When a person makes a connection between what he or she experiences and the related thought patterns, genuine learning occurs (Whitlock, 1984, p.2). In summary the fundamental implications of the concept of levels are: the time and difficulty involved in effecting change differs depending on the level of human system functioning involved; bringing about change at one level, e.g. knowledge, will not necessarily and of itself provide a flow of change to other levels of functioning; the objective of change management, namely, individual and or group behaviour changes are usually not easily achieved (Pansegrouw, 1990a, p.7). The last point indicates the ease of effecting change through cognition (knowledge) rather than affective responses (individual and group behaviour). This study deals with the application of facilitation skills whereby individual and group behaviour are positively influenced during the management of change. Emphasis is placed on dealing with people's reaction to change (chapter 3), and not so much on managing change purely from a technical perspective (tasks and technology). The above definitions provide a basis for understanding and discussing change as a concept, which is achieved by first examining pressures for change, and second by discussing a model for managing change. 2.3 PRESSURES FOR CHANGE Global change. It is clear that people live in historic times, if one has to consider the changes that occurred in the first year of the 1990's. The reunification of Germany, the decline of Communism, the release of Nelson

29 Page 16 Mandela, the unbanning of the ANC, PAC and the Communist Party, the economic changes in Eastern Europe (Tearle, 1991, p.i). Van Rooyen (1991) describes South Africa as God's crucible where representatives of many races of the world are melting, changing - hopefully in a process of renewal - and in the creation of a new society and a better country for all its people. Recently a multi-disciplinary team analyzed the changes that South Africa was undergoing (Mont Fleur Scenarios, 1992) and concluded that South Africa's current crises has three main dimensions i.e., political, economic and social. These three elements are locked in a downward spiral of mutual cause and effect and the team argued that if the trends of the past ten to fifteen years cannot be changed, South Africa's problems are likely to be insoluble before the end of the decade. As response it is given that a political settlement and a new growth path are pre-requisites for progress. A new growth path implies change, yet it would seem that organizations are ill prepared for the future. Manning (1990) says that managing change is hard at the best of times, but managing change in what can at best be called a time of crises, with the very ground shifting under one's feet is an awesome task. From the above global forces for change certain trends are apparent that have relevance for organizations and ultimately the individual Emerging trends. Viljoen (1987) indicates that since the 1970's, the increasing volatility of the business environment has caused a dramatic shift in the philosophy and practice of management as a result of the emergence of a "new society". The "new society" would appear to be characterised by: high levels of expectation and the stubborn belief that these can and should be met by government, church and business; a greater emphasis on human rights, self-development and expression; the development of an educated, questioning society concerned with human dignity and searching to interact on the basis of mutual respect and voluntary co-operation rather than submission and self-sacrifice; trends towards individuality with members of society placing personal goals above those of their organization, social group or nation; a desire for bottom-up participation in society: concern for the conservation of physical resources; a technological revolution; reduced stability and predictability in all elements of the human environment;

30 Page 17 greater specialization and the resulting need for individuals. societies and nations to depend on others (for specialized skills) in order to accomplish tasks. From the above list one can see that change is not a periodic evil. organizations must face before things return to "normal". Rather. change itself has become the norm and is depicted within the following diagram indicating the pressures causing change in organizations. Organisation - People Tasks Technology Recepient of Change Hil Level Bcpectations Human Rights Structure r Forces of Change r Emerging Individuality Parlidpation Conservation High-Tech ReciJced Stability Specialised Skills Societal trends Figure 2.3 : Pressures causing change in organizations (adapted from Tearle. 1991) Through the restructuring of the "new society" both organizations and individuals will need to cope differently in the future. This means a change in organizational and managerial practice in order to cope with the pressures for change. which is discussed as trends in the leadership and management arena.