SITE VISIT: Early Childhood Care and Education in Kenya

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1 SITE VISIT: Early Childhood Care and Education in Kenya By Lea I. Kipkorir and Anne W. Njenga, Context The Republic of Kenya, located on the East Coast of Africa, occupies an area of 583,000 square kilometers. It borders the republics of Ethiopia and Sudan to the North, Somalia to the east, Tanzania to the south and Uganda to the west. The Indian Ocean forms the border to the south-east. Administratively, the country is divided into eight provinces. These are further subdivided into 47 districts. From July 1983, Kenya adopted a new strategy for development referred to as the District Focus for Rural Development. As a result the district assumed a greater role in decision making, planning and implementing development programmes. Land Potential and Population Only 17% of Kenya's landmass is suitable for agriculture. Part of this land, particularly in Central, Western and Nyanza provinces, is densely populated. Land fragmentation is high, and as a result people do not grow enough food to feed their families. Consequently, children suffer from either malnutrition or undernutrition. The remaining 83% of Kenya is made up of semi-arid land. This region cannot support crop farming, hence most of the people are pastoral farmers. This region suffers from sporadic droughts resulting in serious famines. Most of the children suffer from malnutrition and nutrition-related diseases. Due to the pastoral mode of life of the communities and the vastness and the rugged nature of the terrain, it is very difficult to provide medical services to the communities living in this region. This means that the sick do not always have access to medical care. It is also not easy to give maternal-child health services to mothers and young children. Lack of adequate health services has adversely affected the health of communities in this region. Age and Gender Structure In 1992, the Population was estimated at 25 million people. This is an increase of 15.3 million since the 1979 census. Kenya's annual growth rate of 3.8 per cent is one of the highest in the world. This rapid growth is due to a high fertility rate combined, in recent years, with reduced child mortality as a result of better health services and a higher standard of living. 1

2 Besides the high growth rate, Kenya has an imbalanced age structure: 59% of the population consists of youth and children aged below 20 years; 18% (3.8 million) are children aged below 5 years; 20 per cent (4.3 million) are women of child bearing age (15-49 years). Overall, women constitute 51 per cent of the total population. These statistics have significant effects on the economy. Most of the population is unproductive, relying on the government to provide all the essential services, particularly health and education. The large population of women of child bearing age has also put additional strain on these services because these women require a lot of medical care, both for themselves and their children. The strain on education and health services is evidenced by the fact that most of Kenya's budget is spent on these services. The World Bank has insisted that these expenditures be reduced through cost sharing by all users. This is part of the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP). Cost sharing has, however, worsened the situation, as the majority of the women who shoulder most of the burden of providing health and education services to their children cannot afford the high fees being charged. If SAPs are enforced without sensitivity to the most vulnerable groups, a vicious circle of poverty may be created in which the children of the poor are condemned to a life of poverty. Socioeconomic Changes The Kenyan society has undergone various socioeconomic changes which have resulted in the disintegration of traditional child rearing patterns. For example, grandparents, older siblings and other community members are no longer available to participate in child rearing at the same level as was the case earlier. Some of the socioeconomic changes that have taken place include:! URBANISATION Migration into urban areas has continued to increase. This is particularly so among young men who move to urban areas in search of jobs, draining the rural area of an important labour force, and leaving women and children to shoulder the total burden of agricultural work in the rural areas. As a result, women spend longer hours working and often leave their children without adequate care. The productivity in some of the rural areas has also declined, and it is estimated that most Kenyan families spend up to 64% of their home budget on food (Kiriro and Juma 1991). The major reason for this is that most women do not have access to credit facilities. In addition, most extension services and training are directed towards men, not the women who are the ones directly involved in agriculture. They therefore cannot use modern farming practices, such as fertilizers, high breed seeds and insecticides, which would guarantee higher yields. Lack of adequate food production has far-reaching effects on the health and nutrition of young children and families.! INCREASED PRIMARY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE The number of children attending primary schools in Kenya has continued to grow. By 1991 the enrolment had reached high levels, including 95% (5.5 million) of all school children. This was a 2

3 result of two major factors. The first was the abolition of tuition fees in primary schools, prompting a 49 per cent increase in enrolment (from 1.8 million in 1973 to 2.7 million in 1974). The second was due to the introduction of free milk, resulting in a rise in enrolment by 23.3 percent (from 3.0 million in 1978, to nearly 3.7 million in 1979). While this is a positive factor, particularly for girls, it has adverse effects on child care because the older siblings are no longer available to assist their mothers in caring for younger children. The mothers are left to shoulder the burden of child care and at the same time fulfill their other roles.! INCREASED POPULATION Increased population has adverse effects on land availability and the environment. Population pressure in most parts of Kenya has resulted in land fragmentation. Most of the families own very small pieces of land which can no longer satisfy their food requirements. As a result, undernutrition, malnutrition and nutritional-related diseases have increased in these areas. Population pressure has also resulted in serious degradation of the environment. Water and wood-fuel have decreased tremendously as a result of the extensive deforestation that has taken place. In some areas, women have to walk for a long distance in search of wood for fuel. There are places where fuel is not available at all, so women have to spend their meager incomes to buy it. In her study, Nzomo (1992) found out that women, due to lack of wood-fuel, have resorted to cooking meals of low nutritional value that require less fuel. Although this has adverse effects on the nutritional status of the family, women do not have much alternative. Deforestation and cultivation along rivers and water sheds has not only depleted water resources but has contributed to water pollution, a factor that may effect the health of communities.! CHANGES IN OCCUPATIONAL PATTERNS OF WOMEN An increasing number of women are moving away from traditional work patterns which mainly involved subsistence agriculture and household management. They are entering new forms of employment in the commercial sector and paid employment. This has been dictated by high costs of living in most families. The women have been forced to earn incomes to maintain their families. Their new occupations include commercial farming, business and paid employment. All these activities require women to work for long hours and far from home, leaving their children without adequate care. In commercial farming areas, most of the land is used for cash crops. Very little land is left for food crops, hence families do not produce enough food to eat. The money from cash crops is often controlled by men, most of whom may not be committed to buy adequate food for their families. This leaves most of the families without adequate food, a factor that has had far reaching implications on the health and nutrition of young children. With increased participation of women in formal education, the number of women in the paid labour force has also continued to grow, from 12.2% in 1984 to 21% in 1987 (Kenya Development Plan ). The work places are far away from home, making it difficult for women to go home in the course of the day to check on the welfare of their children. 3

4 In addition, the work places are bureaucratic and hostile to children. To date, no single employer in Kenya has child care services for its women employees in the place of work. Despite the struggle by women for increased recognition and better working conditions, maternity leave has remained at two months, with women forfeiting their annual leave the year they take maternity leave. This means that women cannot take care of their children during the critical first year of life. In order to cope with the career and child care roles, some women in the paid labour force hire child minders (ayahs) to take care of the children during their absence. The majority of these child minders are often inexperienced and often emotionally immature, hence they do not give quality care to the children. They also change jobs frequently, making it difficult for the children to develop an attachment to any of them. The development of attachment that takes place during the first year of life is an important milestone in the growth and development of children.! FEMALE HEADED HOUSEHOLDS The number of female headed households has continued to increase in Kenya. By 1979, it was estimated that 32.1 per cent (3 million) of the households were headed by females. Most of the women heading households are in their prime working and reproductive ages (25-29 years). Therefore, the majority have children requiring care. Most of these women do not live with their parents, and so extended family child support is not available. These women and mothers are responsible for caring and socializing their children, but they are also the sole bread winners of their families. As a result, the households headed by women form one of the most vulnerable groups not only in Kenya but all over the world (Landers 1992). In the rural areas most of the women heading their households are landless. They are either employed in large plantations, are engaged in small business, or are in the employment of other families. Those employed in large plantations have a very long working day of 8 hours or more. They are not paid maternity leave, and because of the meager salaries they earn, they are forced to resume work soon after delivery. They leave their babies under the care of pre-school aged children. In plantation pre-schools, it is quite common to see preschoolers with babies strapped on their backs. Many of the children in plantation areas not only lack adequate care but also suffer from malnutrition and other nutritional-related diseases (Kericho DICECE annual report, 1990). Those engaged in small businesses are mainly hawkers in urban centres where they sell, for example, milk, vegetables and fruits. They also have a very long working day, starting as early 3 a.m. and lasting until late at night. They transact their businesses on foot. Carrying the heavy commodities, they move from house to house selling. Despite their toil, they get very little profit, barely enough to meet the basic needs of their families. Most of their children are not only malnourished but grow without parental care, adversely affecting their total growth and development. 4

5 In urban areas, the majority of the female-headed families live in the slums where children are faced with a hostile and impoverished environment. Poor sanitation and lack of parental care, adequate water, health, and educational services, coupled with poverty, all militate against proper growth and development of children (Nzomo 1992: Landers 1992). The income earned by the majority of these women from either hawking, prostitution or beer brewing is often not enough to meet the basic needs of their children. Hence, many of the children suffer from malnutrition and other nutritional related diseases. This has given rise to a high rate of child mortality in the slum areas. For the women who earn their living through prostitution, the scourge of AIDS has robbed many children of their sole breadwinner, making them destitutes (Government of Kenya/UNICEF 1992). The Pre-School Institution as an Alternative Child Care Provider All these changes and problems regarding child care have led parents to search for and institute alternative childrearing patterns. The best alternative in Kenya so far has been the pre-school institution. The parents have preferred this institution because they have a lot of trust in the pre-school teacher. Since she is someone they know, they have confidence that she will provide adequate care to their children. To most of the parents, particularly in the rural areas, the pre-schools mainly serve a custodial and socialization function. The preschool teachers are expected to provide custodial care to the children and also to socialize them so that they acquire acceptable social norms and values. Origins of the ECCE Programme in Kenya In Kenya, Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Institutions are known by a wide range of terms, which include day care centre, nursery school, kindergarten and preschool. In this report the term pre-school will be used to refer to all institutions catering to children aged below six years. The first institutions were started in Kenya in the 1940's, in urban areas for both European and Asian children. The first pre-schools for African children were started in African locations in urban areas, coffee, tea and sugar plantations. Later, in the 1950's, during the Mau Mau struggle for independence, the pre-schools were started in the emergency villages in Central Province. These centres provided custodial care to the children while their mothers were involved in forced labour. After independence, the pre-school education programme expanded greatly countrywide. This was in response to the intensification of socioeconomic changes and other forces of development and also to late President Kenyatta's call for "Harambee ", that is, self help, in nation building. Since independence, the programme has continued to grow in terms of enrolment, and in the number of teachers, schools and sponsors. For example, in 1986, 657,688 children were enrolled 5

6 in 12,186 schools with 16,182 teachers. By 1991, these numbers had risen to include 908,966 children, 17,650 schools and 24,809 teachers. For enrolment this is a significant growth of 38.2%. The coverage has, however, remained relatively small as only about 30% of the children aged 3-6 years are benefiting from the service. A remarkable feature of pre-schools in Kenya is that they serve the entire cross-section of social, economic, cultural and geographic background of the society. In Kenya, the services provided for the young children prior to 1970 were very poor. This was mainly because of a lack of adequate government intervention and coordination. As a result the curriculum content and methodology used in the pre-schools differed greatly and was often unsuitable for young children. There were also no properly organized training programmes for the teachers; hence the majority of the teachers were untrained. A survey done by the Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services in 1971 revealed that out of 5,000 teachers only 400 had received basic training in aspects of pre-school education. The untrained teachers lacked adequate knowledge and skills for providing rich and stimulating learning experiences to the children. Their classrooms had no learning and play materials, so they used rote learning and talk-and-chalk teaching methods. There was also no organized curriculum or other support materials for use in the pre-schools. Faced with this problem the teachers used formal teaching methods equivalent to those used in the primary schools with older children. Faced with this reality, the Kenyan Government, through the Ministry of Education (MOE)and with the assistance of the Bernard van Leer Foundation, initiated in 1971 a research project named the Pre-school Education Project based at the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). The main objective of the project was to improve the quality of the pre-school education through development of viable training models for ECCE personnel and curriculum and other support materials for use by the children, teachers and trainers. As a result of increased awareness of the importance of pre-school education, the MOE established a pre-school section at KIE. This section assumed all the responsibilities of the project. Throughout this period however, and up to 1979, the Ministry of Culture and Social Services was responsible for pre-school education. In 1980, this responsibility was transferred to the MOE. In response to this circular, pre-school sections were created at MOE headquarters and at the inspectorate. The headquarters oversees the administrative matters which, include coordination of all partners (both local and external), registration of pre-schools, coordination of government grants and funds from external donors, and provision of ECCE personnel at all levels. It is also responsible for the formulation of policy guidelines for the ECCE programme. The inspectorate ensures the maintenance of professional standards in the programme. It coordinates inspection and supervision of schools, training institutions and teachers undergoing training. It is also in charge of the administration of the Pre-school Teachers' Examination. 6

7 Description and Evolution of the Programme In 1982, a national pre-school seminar was held to discuss the experiences and outcomes of the pre-school Education Project. One of the recommendations made during this seminar was the establishment of a national centre for early childhood education and a network of sub-centres at the district level. These were expected to facilitate the dissemination of the project's experiences and outcomes. The MOE responded to this recommendation by establishing the National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE) in 1984 and the District Centres for Early childhood Education (DICECE) in NACECE was assigned the following functions:! Training of personnel for ECCE.! Development and dissemination of the curriculum for ECCE programmes.! Identifying, designing, undertaking and coordinating research in ECCE.! Offering services and facilitating interaction between agencies and sponsors.! Coordinating and liaising with external partners and also informing the public on the needs and developments of the ECCE programme. The DICECE The establishment of the DICECE facilitated the decentralization of the ECCE programme to the district level. The functions of the DICECE are:! Training of the pre-school teachers and other personnel at the district level.! Supervision and inspection of pre-school programme at district level.! Mobilization of local communities in the pre-school programme so as to improve the care, health, nutrition and education of young children.! Development of pre-school curriculum.! Participation in the evaluation of pre-school programmes and carrying out basic research on the status of pre-school children in and out of school. How the Programme Functions! THE STRUCTURE AND PROCESS The ECCE Programme in Kenya consists of three sections at the national level which include the pre-school sections at the Ministry of Education Headquarters and the Inspectorate, and NACECE based at KIE. This programme has been decentralized with the establishment of DICECE at the district level. In 1993, there were DICECE in all the districts and four 7

8 municipalities, namely, Nairobi, Kisumu, Mombasa and Nakuru. The DICECE are classified into fully-fledged and associate DICECES. The fully-fledged are those that have a residential training component. They train pre-school teachers from their district as well as those from neighboring districts. Currently there are 18 spread all over the republic. The associate DICECE are those that do not have a training component. They carry out all the DICECE activities except the training of teachers. The trainers from these DICECE join the DICECE that train teachers from their districts during the residential sessions.! ADMINISTRATION AT THE DISTRICT LEVEL All the DICECE trainers are accountable to the District Education Officers (DEO) for their day-to-day operations. Through the DEO they coordinate and give professional guidance and support to all concerned with matters of ECCE in their districts. The trainers give advisory services to the teachers, parents, communities and other sponsors of preschools.! PARTICIPATING AGENCIES: One of the strengths of the ECCE programme is its partnership policy, which encourages the participation of various partners. The Ministry of Education adopted this policy because it realized that to be able to provide adequately for the total needs of children all partners dealing with various aspects of children's welfare must be involved. The main partners include: Parents and Local Communities. The parents and local communities are the most important partners in the ECCE programme in Kenya. They have started and manage over 75% of the pre-schools in the country. As mentioned earlier, these schools are started on a harambee basis. Through harambee, the parents and the local communities provide land and funds for the construction and maintenance of physical facilities. They also provide furniture, materials and labour, and pay teachers' salaries. In some of the pre-schools the parents and local communities have initiated community-based feeding programmes and community-based growth monitoring and promotion (CBGMP) activities. For feeding programmes, the parents contribute the ingredients and cooking and eating utensils. They also either hire a cook or take turns preparing the food for the children. In CBGMP the parents participate in weighing the children and plotting the measurements on the chart. Some of them also act as resource persons in parental educational programmes that are part of the GMP activities. Local Authorities. At the district level, the local authorities are also very important partners because they heavily subsidize the cost of running the pre-school education programme. Their main support consists of providing materials and equipment and payment of teachers' salaries. In some cases they assist the local communities in providing physical facilities and furniture. Voluntary Organizations, Religious Bodies and Companies. Many religious organizations have established pre-schools in the church/temple/mosque compounds. Firms, cooperatives, state 8

9 cooperatives and plantations have also established pre-schools for the children of their employees. Although sponsors and the managers of the institutions are responsible for the overall administration of the centres, the parents are also involved in decision making. Voluntary organizations have been very supportive of the programme by starting new centres or supporting those that are started and run by the local communities. The main supports from these organizations include provision of physical facilities, materials, furniture, feeding programmes and payment of teachers' salaries. The Ministry of Education. The MOE is responsible for the overall administration, policy and professional guidance, grants for training, staffing at all levels, curriculum development and conducting research and evaluation on ECCE. Other Government Ministries. The Ministry of Health is usually involved in the provision of medical service to the school children. This is done with the collaboration of the local communities and other education officers. The Ministry of Culture and Social Services participates by encouraging parents and local communities to increase and improve the facilities for better growth and development of children. Other Partners. As mentioned above, early childhood education in Kenya is carried out on a partnership basis. The government assists and builds on initiatives of the parents, the local communities and local authorities. Non-governmental organizations also provide support to programmes for young children. Over the years, major donor agencies, including the Bernard van Leer Foundation, UNICEF and the Aga Khan Foundation, have supported the ECCE programme. The Bernard van Leer Foundation started supporting the programme in Kenya in 1970 by funding a research project, the pre-school Education Project. To facilitate the dissemination of the project's outcomes the ministry decided to launch NACECE in The Bernard van Leer Foundation has since supported the various activities of NACECE, the most important activity of this centre being the training of early childhood trainers and supervisors. UNICEF assistance to early childhood care and development dates back to 1954 when it started supporting the mother and child health services. In 1985, UNICEF agreed to support six DICECE, namely Kakamega, Baringo, Kisumu, Muranga, Meru and Kwale. The Aga Khan Foundation started supporting the ECCE programme in 1986 when it offered to give financial assistance to four DICECE, which included Kericho, Nyeri, Kilifi and Garissa. UNICEF and AKF have been providing financial support for training of teachers, purchasing equipment and materials, curriculum development, parental and community education, research, and purchasing vehicles for DICECE. 9

10 In addition to the six DICECE, UNICEF has been supporting area-based programmes in six districts through the Child Survival and development (CSD) programme. The six districts are Kitui, Kisumu, Baringo, Kwale, South Nyanza and Meru.! TO WHOM THE PROGRAMME IS DIRECTED The NACECE and DICECE programme is directed towards children, pre-school teachers, trainers, field officers, local leaders, parents, local communities and various sponsors. The cardinal objective of the programme is to improve the welfare of young children. In order to do so effectively, the programme has adopted the holistic approach which ensures the provision of health, nutrition, growth monitoring and promotion (GMP) activities. In addition, parental and community awareness and mobilization programmes are carried out in the pre-schools in an attempt to meet these needs. The pre-school activities which provide mainly for early stimulation emphasise the use of learning and play materials and real life experiences as a way of providing effective learning to children. As the children manipulate the materials, explore and experiment, they develop language and reasoning skills and they also acquire concepts of the world around them. The pre-school teachers and trainers are also key agents in the programme. Through the training provided, they are equipped with knowledge and skills which help them to provide for the total needs of children, to mobilize parents, local communities and sponsors so that they improve the services for young children both in and outside preschools. The programme also provides for the personal growth and development of the teachers and trainers by providing them with knowledge and skills on such issues as human relations, effective communication, needs of families, and effective ways of dealing with conflicts and life problems. Field officers are important in the programmes because they give professional guidance and support to the teachers, parents and local communities on issues related to the welfare of young children and the improvement of the pre-school services. In order to ensure that these officers carry out their duties effectively, a training programme has been designed which equips them with relevant knowledge and skills on issues related to their work. The local leaders play an important role in the programme because they act as catalysts for mobilising the parents and local communities so that they increase their participation and involvement in the pre-school education programme. The programme organises seminars for them during which various issues on ECCE are discussed, such as the roles of different partners in the pre-schools, community mobilisation, care of children and services required in pre-schools. Parents and local communities are the most important actors in the pre-school education programme because they have sponsored most of the pre-schools in the country. They are also the care, health and nutritional providers of their children and hence all the programmes related to the welfare of children must be directed to them. 10

11 The programme organises awareness meetings, cooking demonstrations, seminars to discuss health, nutrition and care of young children and workshops to develop relevant curriculum materials for use in the pre-schools. As noted earlier the parents and local communities have also been mobilized to provide community-based feeding programmes and CBGMP activities. By participating in the programme parents learn about balanced diet, food preparation, food hygiene and preservation, family planning, immunization, common childhood diseases, care of children and early stimulation. This exposure has helped many parents to improve the welfare of their children and families. Training Training has remained one of the most important functions of the NACECE and DICECE programme because it equips teachers and trainers with knowledge and skills which help them to provide quality services to children and to mobilize parents and local communities so that they improve the welfare of young children and families. There are two types of training programmes, one for the trainers and the other for the teachers. Participatory approaches are used in training programmes whereby trainees contribute to their training through discussions and the sharing of ideas and experiences. This approach helps the trainees to develop confidence because they feel they can contribute to their training programme. They stop feeling threatened when the trainers do not pretend to know it all, as is the case in many training programmes. To the trainees, the trainer is a partner and a facilitator in learning. By using this approach, the programme has produced graduates who are independent, have initiative and are committed to their work. The training also emphasises the practical aspects of the course, for example, materials development and field experience. This ensures that those trained are practical and will be able to exploit the human and physical environment for the benefit of the young children under their care. The environment is thus used as a fundamental source of developing all curriculum and other support materials as, for example, learning and play materials and folklore. Training of Trainers The trainers undergo a nine month induction course consisting of two components, a residential and a field component. The residential session consists of a total of 12 weeks divided into three sessions, each of one month. These are alternated with field experience sessions. During the residential sessions, the trainers cover a wide range of content, including child development, health and nutrition, pre-school curriculum, community education and mobilization, and research and evaluation. The training is made as practical as possible through such activities as development of learning and play materials and visits to pre-schools. During field experience, trainers are expected to put into practice whatever theories are learnt during residential sessions. In addition, the trainers 11

12 have one month teaching experience in pre-schools. This gives them practical and real life experiences working with children, parents and local communities. During the field experience, the trainers also participate in the training, monitoring and evaluation of teachers, community mobilization programmes, and curriculum development activities, and in the carrying out of research. This exposure is extremely useful in preparing trainers to be leaders and catalysts of change in their communities. Training of Teachers The teachers undergo a two-year on-the-job and in-service course which has six residential sessions which alternate with six field experience sessions. The residential sessions take place during the holidays, while the field experience sessions take place during term time. During the residential sessions, the teachers cover child development, health and nutrition, community education, history of pre-school education, general knowledge and pre-school curriculum. Development of learning and play materials and understanding the needs of children are emphasised during the training in order to ensure that the teachers are able to provide for the needs of children and also provide rich and stimulating learning experiences for them. The teachers are also given skills on community mobilisation so that they are able to support from the communities to improve the pre-school facilities, develop learning and play materials, provide feeding programmes, and initiate GMP activities. The in-service course for teachers is run on two levels. One level is for teachers who have done the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education and obtained 35 points and above. This is designated the "regular course". The other level caters to all other teachers in the pre-schools, irrespective of their academic background. It is designated the "alternative course". It mainly caters to teachers from disadvantaged districts, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas. Supervision of ECCE Activities The DICECE are responsible for monitoring and supervising the activities of ECCE programmes in their respective districts. They are assisted by the field education officers and local authority supervisors. The activities involved in monitoring and supervision include the assessment of preschool teachers undergoing training, inspecting pre-school facilities in order to ensure that they are safe, adequate and suitable for the children, inspecting the records kept by the teachers in order to ensure that they are available and have been appropriately filled out, giving professional guidance and support to the teachers, and advising sponsors and other interested parties on issues related to ECCE. The team at the national level also monitors the programme regularly, through annual reports, visits, and meetings held between them and the trainers. 12

13 Costs and Resources Sources and Utilization of Funds and Resources. An important component in any programme development is the cost element. The planners, implementers and donor agencies have increasingly become concerned about the effectiveness of the programme in the light of the resources used. As noted earlier, the ECCE programme in Kenya is a partnership venture. The main partners include parents, local communities, government ministries, local authorities, NGOs, entrepreneurs and bilateral partners such as UNICEF, BVLF and AKF. All these partners contribute various types of resources to the programme. Some of the resources may be expressed in monetary terms, for example, in budgets and financial grants. These monetary contributions are used for various programme expenditures, for example, payment of salaries and allowances, procurement and maintenance of vehicles and equipment, transport expenses and training programmes. In other cases, it is difficult to place a price on resources contributed. Such contributions include donation of materials, labour, time spent in programme management, meetings, advisory services and commitment to programme development. In this paper an attempt was made to establish monetary and non-monetary contributions of various partners.! PARENTS AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES The parents are key to the development of ECCE programmes at the local level. Their contributions involve: Provision of Land. In Kenya almost all of the land at which the pre-schools are built is given by the local communities. Construction and Maintenance of Buildings. Most of the pre-schools have been put up by the parents and local communities through harambee. They also provide labour and materials. It has been very difficult to cost the buildings because no proper records of accounts are kept. There are also other contributions that may be difficult to cost, for example, time spent in planning the project, and labour and advisory services provided. Payment of Fees. In all pre-schools, parents pay fees. These vary greatly, depending on the sponsors. The local authority, religious and parent-sponsored pre-schools charge the lowest fees, while the private schools charge the highest. Support to the Feeding Programmes. In pre-schools where there are feeding programmes, the parents make contributions which include money, ingredients, labour, water, utensils and fuel. Some of these contributions cannot be costed in monetary terms. Payment of Teachers' Salaries. In the community sponsored schools, the salaries of teachers range from 90 to 700 shillings per month. These salaries compared to those paid by other sponsors are low and irregular. 13

14 ! LOCAL AUTHORITIES The local authorities, which include the national, municipal, town and urban councils, have been supportive of the ECCE programme. Their contributions include payment of salaries to teachers and supervisors, development of pre-school facilities, sponsoring teachers for training, and provision of stationary and other materials to pre-schools. In addition to the salaries of teachers, the majority of the teachers employed by the local authorities are permanent and pensionable and therefore have better job security. There is, however, a great variation in the salaries and allowances paid by the different local authorities. While some authorities pay as little as Ksh 800 (i.e., about US $10) others pay as much as Ksh (US $30) per month. The schools sponsored by the local authorities have better physical facilities and furniture and a greater variety of learning and play materials for use by children than those sponsored by the communities. The Ministry of Education! MONETARY CONTRIBUTORS Ministry of Education Headquarters, DICECE and Training Programmes. From 1980, when the ECCE was transferred to MOE, there has always been a budget allocation to pre-school education. In addition, the subsequent development plan ( ) had a budget allocation to pre-school education. This shows the commitment of the Government, which is an important step towards sustainability. In proportion to the total education budget, the cost of supporting the pre-school programme is extremely low for government because of the partnership arrangement. Table 1 shows the government expenditure on ECCE from 1980 to TABLE 1 GOK EXPENDITURE ON ECCE PROGRAMMES Financial Year MOE Expenditure on ECCE in KPd 1980/81 56, /82 78, /83 90, /84 106, /85 145, /86 200, /87 202,515

15 1987/88 216, /89 553, /90 567, /91 621,981 NACECE In addition to the above contributions, the GOK also pays the salaries and allowances of the NACECE staff. The number of professional staff members at NACECE has grown from six in 1984 to 15 in The centre also has sixteen support staff. The government spends about Kenya Pd. 120,000 per year on the salaries and allowances of the NACECE staff. Other Expenses The MOE also spends a substantial amount of money on the administration and management of the programme both at the national and district levels. These costs involve electricity, water, telephone and postage bills, reprographic and secretarial services, stationary and equipment, provision of office space and maintenance of the buildings.! NON-MONETARY CONTRIBUTIONS Different persons at various levels are involved in the development of ECCE programmes. At the National level there is the Early Childhood Implementation Committee chaired by the Director of Education. This committee is responsible for providing advisory services to the government on ECCE, monitoring the programme, implementation and expenditure, and approving and forwarding proposals, work plans and reports to participating partners. NACECE is also within the KIE establishment and the Director of the Institute is consulted at the various stages of the programme implementation and development. In the production of various curriculum materials, the panel system is used to vet the materials before they are taken to the ECCE institutions. The panel members are drawn from various institutions particularly those whose activities are related to the health, care, nutrition and education of children. At the Ministry Headquarters and Inspectorate, the Director of Education and the Chief Inspector of Schools provide advisory services. The District Education Officers are the chief custodians of education at the district level and the DICECE trainers work under their jurisdiction. The trainers also involve the other education staff at the district headquarters and those in the field in their activities. Other Government Ministries: The ECCE programme has forged a very close working relationship with other government ministries particularly the Ministries of Health, Agriculture, and Culture and Social Services. The Ministry of Health provides medical services to pre-school children and advisory services to the farmers, teachers, parents and community members on child care, nutrition and personal environmental hygiene. The district nutritionist participates in awareness programmes organised by the DICECE trainers. These awareness programmes cover such areas as growth monitoring and promotion, and cooking demonstrations. 15

16 NGOs and Private Entrepreneurs The NGOs, such as religious and private entrepreneurs, also play an important role in the ECCE programmes. Their main contributions include: provision of facilities, payment of teachers' salaries and providing feeding programmes. Teachers employed by these partners are paid a salary ranging from 700 to 3000 Ksh per month. The private entrepreneurs pay the highest salaries. This is because they also charge the highest fees among all the sponsors. Some of them charge as much as 2500 shillings per child per term. Despite the high salaries paid to these teachers, many of them are employed on temporary terms and therefore have no job security. Bi-lateral Partners The financial contributions of bilateral partners from 1981 to 1992 are shown in Table 2 below: TABLE 2 FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECCE BY BILATERAL PARTNERS, Year UNICEF Aga Khan BLVF Foundation , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,250 As already noted, financial assistance from the Bernard van Leer Foundation supports NACECE activities while UNICEF and AKF support DICECE activities. Variation in the Programme Decentralisation of the programme to the district level has facilitated flexibility and variation in terms of decisions made, facilities provided and activities carried out. It has made it possible to adapt the programme to suit the needs of consumers in the various environments. 16

17 The pre-school facilities, curriculum materials and feeding programmes, for example, differ from place to place depending on the resources available, leadership abilities and motivation of the communities. This is a healthy feature in the programme because the communities are allowed to develop appropriate, affordable and relevant services for the young children without external pressure and competition, and at their own pace. As a result, the programme is at different stages in various districts, some having achieved more than others. The curriculum and other support developed at the national level, the "Guidelines for Pre-school Education in Kenya, 1984," and the "Teacher Education Syllabuses," are merely guidelines, allowing room for adaptation to suit the needs of different environments. There are also localised materials in the form of stories, poems, riddles and children's games and plays that are culture specific. They are developed by various communities in order to preserve and strengthen their culture and traditions. Change over Time Since the inception of the NACECE and DICECE programme in 1985, the following changes have been observed:! The programme has continued to grow in terms of enrolment, number of schools, teachers (both trained and untrained teachers) and sponsors. Table 3 summaries the growth in enrolment, teachers and schools. TABLE 3 Year Children Trained Teachers Untrained Teachers Schools ,688 5,119 16,182 12, ,966 8,581 24,809 17,650 It is important to note that the ratio of trained teachers to untrained teachers has not increased despite the expansion of training opportunities. This is because of the fast growth in the number of schools and consequently that of untrained teachers recruited to teach in those schools. The number of trainers has also increased from about 35 in 1985 to about 180 in ! Now there are DICECE in all districts and in four municipalities. In 1985 there were only nine DICECE in the whole country.! The number of curricular and other support materials have greatly increased. These materials are for use by the children, pre-school teachers, trainers, parents and local communities. They include folklore materials, syllabi, support and audiovisual materials.! There has been greater emphasis on the holistic approach in order to ensure provision of the total needs of the children. Community-based feeding programmes, CBGMP activities,

18 cooking demonstrations, and discussions on health and nutrition and care of young children have been initiated in various pre-schools in order to improve the welfare of young children and their families.! The issue of the care of under-threes has emerged as of great concern. Up to now, the ECCE programme caters mainly to children aged four to six. However, there are many children in the pre-schools aged three years or under whose needs must be met. The programme has started developing strategies and content that will meet the needs of these children.! There are many sponsors that are now paying for the training of their teachers. Some teachers are also sponsoring themselves for the DICECE training. This is a healthy sign because it means that the programme is gradually becoming sustainable. Evaluation Effects In NACECE and DICECE there is continuous monitoring and evaluation of all activities carried out. This is done through review meetings, workshops, seminars, mid-year and annual reports. In addition, four evaluations have been carried out, one in 1987, and others in 1990, 1991, and The 1987 evaluation analyzed the in-service training programme for both trainers and teachers, the curriculum development process, and community involvement in ECCE. The 1990 evaluation of the AKF-supported DICECE attempted to find out the impact of the short courses for pre-school teachers, and the coverage and the impact of the Islamic Integrated Education Programme. The 1991 evaluation examined costs of the pre-school programme in the Kilifi District. Out of the continuous monitoring exercise and the four evaluations a lot of data have been collected. These data have helped to identify major achievements, constraints and emerging issues in ECCE programme under the guidance of NACECE and DICECE. One of the major achievements of the programming has been positive effects on children, teachers, trainers, parents, local communities and other participating agents. These effects are summarized below. Effects on Children The children who have attended pre-schools, particularly those that are taught by DICECE trained teachers, have been observed by Standard One teachers to be better socialized. When they join primary school they are able to fit into the school routine; they obey school rules. They do not fear teachers and other children, and are able to interact and play with other children. They are also able to take turns and share material. They are able to use school facilities as, for example, the toilets. In addition, they are better prepared for formal learning because they can use pencils and books and can also recognize letters and numbers. 18

19 They are also more independent and responsible. When assigned tasks, they are able to carry them out without supervision. The majority are able to prepare themselves for school because they can wash and dress themselves. They are more outgoing and brave. They have the courage to greet visitors and entertain them; for example through songs and dances. They also have the courage to carry out their activities; for example, they are not afraid to play in the presence of visitors. When questioned, they respond without fear. Many of the Standard One teachers, when interviewed on differences between children who have attended and those who have not attended pre-schools, say this socialization strongly influences the children's ability to learn. They say that those who have attended preschools learn faster than their counterparts who did not attend the pre-schools. Trainers As a result of their exposure to the DICECE programme, the trainers:! have acquired more knowledge and skills on pre-school education, particularly on issues related to the learning and teaching process both at training and pre-school level, the collection and development of materials, and community education and mobilization. As a result, the trainers are able to prepare and to provide more effectively for the needs of pre-school children, teachers, parents and the local communities.! have acquired more knowledge and skills on issues related to the health, care, nutrition and education of young children and families. This has helped to initiate programmes that cater to the total needs of children, for example feeding programmes, CBGMP activities, and parental and community mobilization programmes.! have acquired more knowledge and skills on community mobilisation, so they are able to solicit support from them.! have demonstrated a lot of creativity and initiative when carrying out their duties.! have acquired more knowledge and research skills. This has made them more sensitive to the needs of the children, teachers, parents and the community. They have also been able to carry out simple research on ECCE.! are now able to detect problems in their environments, select those that are a priority, analyse them and initiate intervention programmes aimed at solving them. This has resulted in provision of better services for children, teachers, parents and communities.! have also acquired skills in report writing, so they are able to compile information systematically. They are also able to communicate effectively in writing. Teachers As a result of the two-year training programme the teachers: 19

20 ! have developed positive attitudes and have acquired knowledge and skills in pre-school education. They are able to plan, organize and manage classroom activities better and to provide a rich and stimulating environment for children.! have acquired skills in community mobilization; hence they are able to interact and communicate better with parents and local communities. They are also able to mobilise them in order to ensure that they provide quality services to the children.! are more confident and able to discuss issues without fear. This confidence has helped to solicit support from various partners to fight for their rights and to play an advocacy role. Effects and Partners One of the major changes that has occurred in the partners in the pre-school education programme is the development of positive attitudes towards the needs of children, teachers and the trainers. All the partners have increased their support towards the programme because they are convinced of the importance of investing in early childhood care and education. They know that the support they give the programme today, in the form of either money, professional guidance or moral support, will pay dividends in years to come. The Government of Kenya Since 1985, the programme has had a modest budget allocation within the Development Plan. Previously there was no such allocation to support the trainees during the residential training in the government fully-fledged DICECE. The Teachers' Service Commission has a staff allocation for the programme catering to the staff at both National and District levels. The majority of the authorities have also continued to vote for more money to support the pre-school education in their districts. The government through the Ministry of Education also provides office accommodation to the ECCE programme staff at the national and district levels. Bilateral Partners The Bernard van Leer Foundation, UNICEF and Aga Khan Foundation have continued to support the ECCE programme. As a result of this assistance, the programme is benefiting many teachers, children, trainers, parents and local communities. Parents and Local Communities Since the establishment of the DICECE, communities have increased their support to the pre-school education programme. This has mainly been due to the awareness programmes, workshops, cooking demonstrations and GMP activities carried out by the DICECE trainers and 20

21 pre-school teachers. As a result of these mobilisation programmes the parents and the local communities have:! improved pre-school facilities through provision of better buildings and maintenance of the old ones;! provided more and more suitable furniture for the children and the teachers;! assisted in the development of localized curriculum;! provided more quality feeding programmes for the children; and! acquired more knowledge and skills on issues related to health, care, nutrition and early stimulation. They are therefore able to provide a better diet for their children, to detect health and nutritional problems in children, and to provide for the total needs of their children. Lessons Learned, Including Negative Lessons When the early childhood programme was still at its experimental stage, a decision was taken to introduce pre-school units in primary schools in Nairobi. This was a class for five year olds who would be "prepared" for one year prior to starting their Standard One in the same school. Although the curriculum was "prepared" and was meant to emphasise all areas of development social, emotional and cognitive the result was a purely academic preparation for school. This could have been due to the fact that no awareness or training had been made available to the head teachers of these schools, who saw the unit as just another class which had to obey their demands, and teachers continued to follow the rules of the primary school. Unless well designed, ECCE programmes would be best on their own. When they have to be incorporated with existing services, then all those involved must be trained and be made sensitive to needs of young children. The Kenya early childhood programme has grown because it is rooted in the community. The communities are part and parcel of it and do not feel it as an imposition from outside. Through workshops and seminars organized by the DICECE, the parents and communities have been encouraged and empowered to increase their participation beyond provision of physical facilities. They provide feeding programmes, assist in collecting and developing learning and play materials, provide furniture and initiate CBGMP activities. During materials development workshops the primary school children draw charts and cards while the mothers sew dolls and balls. They all take part in collecting, telling and demonstrating stories, songs and dances in their mother tongue. The incorporation of folklore in the curriculum makes them feel proud of their contribution to the learning and development of their children. The lesson here is that the community is a very important resource for the development of the ECCE programme and must continue to be tapped and appreciated. The programme has not been very successful in mobilising the urban community to a great extent. This may be due to the high mobility of people to and out of residential areas. It may also 21

22 be due to the fact that people come from different ethnic groups and because of the different languages, customs and habits the evolution of a community does take some time. It has been pointed that 75% of all pre-school teachers are paid by the parents. The salary they receive is very low. At times, some of them have gone for months without pay. The situation is worse for teachers working in marginal areas, for example, slums and semi-arid areas. The situation is also bad in those schools with poor enrolment because the salary comes from the fees paid by the children. For a long time, and especially in the initial stages of Kenya's independence, there was a lot of self-sacrifice and willingness to give. Some of the teachers used to be paid in kind, for example, by being given farm produce or having their farm cultivated or weeded for them. The amount of cash being used within the community was limited. But with the cash economy now in place, it is becoming impossible for teachers to survive without payment. For the first time in recent years there have been a few pre-school teachers leaving teaching to look for alternative employment. The teachers' needs have to be addressed now as they seem to have reached a limit of low cost payment. Recommendations for appropriate remuneration have been made to the government but have not been fully implemented. It is true that the early childhood education centres, particularly those in the rural area s, are low cost especially in terms of facilities, operations and maintenance. This is what has sustained the programme over the years. Once the building has been constructed and the teacher paid her salary, there are very few recurrent costs. With efforts to improve and widen the scope of activities, it is important that a critical appraisal be made of what is low cost and affordable. The move by some DICECE to start Resource Centres to be used for a variety of activities in early childhood is commendable but will require governmental intervention because it cannot be done on harambee basis alone. Some DICECE may not be able to have them at all in the way they are envisaged, so alternative ways of meeting the same needs have to be thought out. Again, we are saying that there is a limit to the provision of early childhood programmes on a low cost basis. Training of personnel in ECCE is crucial. The various cadres of personnel involved in training of teachers ranging from administrators, trainers, supervisors and curriculum developers, all have had some training which has equipped them not only with the knowledge of ECCE but has enabled them to work in a dynamic and flexible manner with the teachers and the communities. Without the training, it would be difficult to promote and guide a programme which is so rooted in the community and operates in many different environments. It is not only the initial training which is necessary, but retraining or in-servicing whenever the need arises. The ECCE training within NACECE/DICECE has to go from training the teacher to mobilising the community for curriculum development, feeding programmes and growth monitoring promotion activities, and research and evaluation. As a result of awareness programmes carried out by DICECE, the majority of local authorities have extended their services beyond the employment of teachers. Some have employed supervisors, some supply materials to pre-schools, and others sponsor teachers for in-service courses. 22

23 From Kenya's experience, going to scale in ECCE happened after 10 years of experimentation by the pre-school education project. By that time a national plan had been mapped out from the ministry headquarters to other institutions that would participate in the programme, that is KIE would carry out the training of trainers, develop the curriculum and carry out research. The Teachers' Service Commission would employ the trainers, the Inspectorate would maintain the standards, and the Ministry of Education Headquarters would administer the programme. One may speculate as to how the implementation would have gone if the project had operated outside the government. It is also true that the dissemination within the project worked better for a number of reasons, but the problems cropped up when the project went to scale. The problems had to do with inadequate manpower and recurrent costs to cover transportation for field supervision. By having the programme within the Ministry, it was possible to use other government personnel like the district education officers and assistant primary school inspectors for supervision. The district officers were also able to pull resources together and share whatever government resources were available at the district level. Relations to Other Programmes The Early Childhood Education programme described above covers well over 95% of children enrolled in pre-schools. The other programmes which exist, particularly in the urban areas, are the private nursery schools or kindergartens. These are privately owned by organizations, companies or individuals. All of them are centre-based. The majority operate in the mornings only and enroll children from 3-6 years. These schools are high cost in terms of fees. Their programmes are formal and structured and emphasize the 3Rs. There is very little, if any, community participation. Some of their teachers are trained by an association of the owners, namely the Kindergarten Headmistress Association and others have been trained by the Montessori Training Programme. The numbers involved are low, and no comparative study has been done on them. Issues Over the last 10 years since the NACECE/DICECE activities have been in operation a number of issues have emerged that have to be addressed briefly. These are: Further Training for Personnel As more trainers are recruited and become experienced in their work, the need to upgrade them further has arisen. There is a need to train them further to post-graduate level. With this type of training they will be able to address the gaps that exist in Kenya's knowledge of child development. There is also a need to have skilled people who can carry out original research and carry out long term studies on children. 23

24 0-3 Year Olds It has been pointed out that there is no programme for children below three years of age, either home-based or centre-based. There are however a few under-three children who are enrolled in the pre-schools, yet there are no suitable activities which have been developed for them. For these groups of children there is need to develop programmes as well as to identify the knowledge and skills required by care givers at home. Transition The emerging pre-school curriculum is flexible, informal, participatory, and appeals to the child's sense of adventure and freedom. The primary school curriculum is prescribed, formal and examination oriented. It has been observed that children find the changes to be traumatic. Although seminars for head teachers and primary one teachers have been organized so that they exchange ideas with the pre-school teachers, there is need to develop an organized programme that will ensure there is a smooth transition from pre-school to primary school. Teachers Salaries It has been mentioned earlier that this issue cannot be ignored any more. Once the teachers have been trained and certificated they must be paid a reasonable and regular salary. Being a pre-school teacher is a profession like any other, so attempts must be made to try and solve the problem of salaries of teachers. Children in Difficult Circumstances Because the philosophy of Early Childhood Education is that it is rooted in the community and is not centralized, the fate of the children in difficult circumstances has become an issue. There are handicapped children, street children, children living in slums, nomadic children, children of refugees and children of displaced families. All these should have their needs assessed and programmes developed to cater for them. The numbers are increasing and it is clear that the existing programmes do not adequately cater for them. References Gakuru, 0. N., M. Kabiru, G. Nguru, and A.W. Njenga (1982). The Evaluation of the Pre-school Education Project-Part One: Findings and Recommendations. Nairobi: Kenya Institute of Education with the Bernard van Leer Foundation. Gakuru, O.N., F.F. Riak-, P.H. Ogula, R. Mogo and A.W. Njenga (1987). Evaluation of NACECE-DICECE Programme. Part One: Research Findings and Recommendations. Nairobi: Kenya Institute of Education. Government of Kenya/UNICEF (1992). Children and Women in Kenya: A Situation Analysis. Nairobi: UNICEF. Government of Kenya. Development Plan, and Nairobi: Government Printer. 24

25 Kabiru, M. and A.W. Njenga (1993). "Women, Work and Child Care: A Research Proposal." Nairobi: Kenya Institute of Education. Kericho DICECE (1990). "Annual Report, 1990." Nairobi: Kenya Institute of Education. (Mimeo). Kiriro, A. and C. Juma (Eds.) (1991). Gaining Ground: Institutional Innovations in Land Use Management in Kenya. Nairobi: ACTS Press. Kipkorir, L.I. and A.W. Njenga (1992). "The Kenyan Woman: Her Status and Role," A paper prepared for a Seminar on Empowerment and Family at Cornell University, May 28 June 3, Nairobi: Kenya Institute of Education. Landers, C. (1992). "Women, Work and Child Care." New York: UNICEF. Ministry of Education, Kenya. Annual Statistics: Nairobi, unpublished document. Mussen, P. J. Conger and J. Kegan (1969). Child Development and Personality. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. Myers, R. (1992). The Twelve Who Survive. London and New York: Routledge. Myers, R. (1992). "Towards an Analysis of the Costs and Effectiveness of Community-based Early Childhood Education in Kenya. Kilifi District," New York: The Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development. National Center for Early Childhood Education (NACECE), (1987). Early Childhood Education in Kenya: Implications for Policy and Practice. Jadini Seminar Report, August 31-September 4, Nairobi: Kenya Institute of Education. Njenga, A. W. (1992). "Collaboration for Educational Change: Participation of Government, NGO's and the Community in the Improvement of Basic Education: A Case for Early Childhood Education in Kenya," A paper prepared for the International Institute for Educational Planning. Nairobi: Kenya, Institute of Education. Nzomo, M. (1992) "Policy Impacts on Women and Environment," in S. Khasiani (Ed.) Groundwork. Nairobi: English Limited. Shiundu, J. 0., A.M. Mwaura, G. Onyango, and G. Kimani (1990). Evaluation of Aga Khan Sponsored DICECE. Part One: The Results and Recommendations. Nairobi: Kenya Institute of Education. Copyright 1997 Lea Kipkorir and Anne Njenga Early Childhood Counts: Programming Resources for Early Childhood Care and Development. CD-ROM. The Consultative Group on ECCD. Washington D.C.: World Bank,