Research Report. Impact of Vehicle Weight Reduction on Fuel Economy for Various Vehicle Architectures
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1 Impact of Vehicle Weight Reduction on Fuel Economy for Various Vehicle Architectures Research Report Conducted by Ricardo Inc. for The Aluminum Association
2 Impact of Vehicle Weight Reduction on Fuel Economy for Various Vehicle Architectures Prepared for: The Aluminum Association, Inc. By: Anrico Casadei and Richard Broda Project FB769 RD.07/ Technical Approval: Reviewed by [Frederic Jacquelin] Date: (20-Dec-2007) Ricardo Inc 2007 FB769 - RD.07/
3 FB769 RD.07/ Content Ricardo vehicle model development for high-level representation of existing vehicles Baseline vehicle selection Model inputs and assumptions Model validation Simulation Methodology Results Gasoline vehicles Diesel vehicles Conclusions
4 FB769 RD.07/ Vehicle Modeling Using MSC.EASY5 TM A full forward-looking, physics-based model was developed for each baseline vehicle using commercially available MSC.EASY5 TM simulation software with Ricardo proprietary data as well as published information. The model simulates what happens to the vehicle when the driver applies the accelerator and/or brake pedal in order to achieve a certain vehicle speed at a certain time. The simulation runs on a millisecond-by-millisecond basis and predicts the fuel usage and actual speed with time as the model driver follows a certain vehicle speed trace (drive cycle). The model physics includes torques and inertias as well as detailed submodels for the influence of factors such as turbocharger lag and engine accessories.
5 FB769 RD.07/ Example of Model Developed Using MSC.EASY5 TM Software Fuel Economy Post-processing Tools Driver Model Powertrain Model Vehicle Model
6 FB769 RD.07/ Vehicle Model and Sub-Model Components Engine Torque curves for full load and closed throttle motoring correlated to published power ratings Fuel consumption rates covering entire speed and load range Idle and redline speeds Rotational inertia Turbo-lag model for turbocharged diesel engines Alternator parasitic load (constant throughout drive cycle) Power steering parasitic load as a function of engine speed Cooling fan parasitic load Electric (Small Car, Mid-Size Car, Small SUV) fan loads specific to duty cycle Belt-driven (Large SUV, Truck) fan loads as a function of engine speed
7 FB769 RD.07/ Vehicle Model and Sub-Model Components Transmission Torque converter characteristic curves for torque ratio and capacity factor Gear ratios Shift and lock-up clutch strategy maps for all engine throttle positions and vehicle speeds Efficiency and pumping losses for each gear Rotational inertias
8 FB769 RD.07/ Vehicle Model and Sub-Model Components Final drive differential Gear ratio Efficiency Rotational inertia The spin losses of the 4-wheel drive vehicle s front axle were also included in the model to simulate the fuel economy and performance of the 4-wheel drive powertrain operating in 2-wheel drive mode (similar to EPA procedure for emissions and fuel economy certification testing).
9 Vehicle Model and Sub-Model Components Vehicle Configuration (FWD, RWD or AWD) Weight (front / rear distribution) Center of gravity Wheelbase Frontal area Coefficient of drag (Cd) Wheels / Tires Rolling resistance coefficients Rotational inertia Rolling radius (tire size) Maximum friction coefficient Slip at peak tire force Ricardo Inc 2007 Driver Drive cycle (time vs. velocity trace) FB769 RD.07/
10 FB769 RD.07/ Vehicle Selection Five vehicle classes were chosen to represent a variety of vehicle weights and engine sizes in the U.S passenger and light-duty truck vehicle fleet. A specific comparator vehicle for each class was chosen to verify that each vehicle model was representative of the class. Vehicle Class / Comparator Vehicle: Small Car / Mini Cooper Mid-Size Car / Ford Fusion Small SUV / Saturn Vue Large SUV / Ford Explorer Truck / Toyota Tundra
11 FB769 RD.07/ Model Input Vehicle Parameters
12 FB769 RD.07/ Model Input Baseline Gasoline Engine and Transmission
13 FB769 RD.07/ Diesel Engine Selection Diesel engines were selected to provide improved fuel economy and acceptable (not equivalent) vehicle performance. The characteristic turbocharged diesel power curve (high torque at low speed) has more torque in the typical cruising and light acceleration engine operating range ( RPM). At 50 to 70 MPH in 6 th gear the diesel provides more reserve torque so that light pedal tip-in acceleration demands are superior to the gasoline engine. Full pedal (WOT) accelerations at these speeds will be slower due to the lower maximum engine speed of the diesel (4000 RPM) and resultant lower horsepower vs. the high speed gasoline engine ( RPM).
14 Diesel Engine Power Curve 2.7L V6 Diesel vs. 3.6L V6 Gasoline Engines L Diesel Torque L Gas HP Engine Torque / HP L Gas Torque 2.7L Diesel HP 50 Ricardo Inc Engine RPM FB769 RD.07/
15 FB769 RD.07/ Model Input Baseline Diesel Engine and Transmission
16 FB769 RD.07/ Model Input Downsized Gasoline Engines (Displacement reduced to provide equivalent performance to baseline vehicles)
17 FB769 RD.07/ Model Input Downsized Diesel Engines (Displacement reduced to provide equivalent performance to baseline vehicles)
18 FB769 RD.07/ Model Validation Each vehicle model was run and the simulation output for total vehicle roadload tractive effort from 0 to 60 MPH and EPA City and Highway fuel economy was compared to published data for the comparator vehicle. No attempt was made to calibrate the model to achieve a given output result. VEHICLE Simulation Roadload Force Maximum Variation vs. Comparator Simulated Fuel Economy vs. Comparator (% diff) EPA City EPA Highway Combined Small Car 0.2% 2.5% -0.6% 1.3% Mid-Size Car 2.5% 0.2% -1.4% -0.4% Small SUV 1.1% 1.8% -4.4% -0.4% Large SUV 1.7% 5.9% -1.1% 3.5% Truck -1.3% 2.2% -1.9% 0.7%
19 Vehicle Simulations Vehicle fuel economy (MPG) is simulated over the following drive cycles at EPA Equivalent Test Weight (ETW): EPA FTP75 (city) EPA HWFET (highway) ECE (European) Steady State 30, 45, 60 and 75 MPH All simulations are performed with an engine at normal operating temperature. The EPA FTP (city) cycle result is obtained by using a bag #1 correction factor of 0.8 (bag #1 fuel economy = 80% of bag #3 fuel economy) Vehicle acceleration performance (sec.) is simulated over the following drive cycles at loaded vehicle weight conditions (GCVW for truck): 0 10 MPH 0 60 MPH MPH MPH Ricardo Inc 2007 Each vehicle is weight reduced by 5%, 10% and 20% and the engine downsized to match the baseline vehicle acceleration performance. Fuel economy benefits are recorded. FB769 RD.07/
20 Simulation Drive Cycles 60 EPA Highway 50 Vehicle Velocity (MPH) Euro ECE EPA City 10 Ricardo Inc Time (sec) FB769 RD.07/
21 FB769 RD.07/ Vehicle Performance Matching The Wide Open Throttle (WOT) performance of each vehicle is simulated at a loaded weight condition to approximate what a customer would expect from a given class of vehicle (number of passengers, luggage or trailer towing). All fuel economy simulations are performed at ETW. Additional Performance Weight: Small Car 300 lb. (2 passengers) Mid-Size Car 450 lb. (3 passengers) Small SUV 550 lb. (3 passengers lb. Luggage) Large SUV 750 lb. (5 passengers) Truck 9800 lb. (Trailer + load to rated combined weight of 15,800 lb.) Engines were downsized in displacement to give the weight reduced vehicles equivalent performance to the baseline vehicle with a priority given to passing maneuvers (30-50 and MPH).
22 FB769 RD.07/ Fuel Economy Labeling of Vehicles The EPA requires that all new light-duty motor vehicles have a fuel economy label that gives the consumer an estimate of the city and highway fuel economy. This estimate is used to compare to the fuel economy of other vehicles that they may be considering for purchase. Prior to the 2008 model year, the City fuel economy prediction for the vehicle window sticker was calculated as 90% of the EPA Federal Test Procedure (FTP) result and the Highway fuel economy was 78% of the EPA Highway Fuel Economy Test (HWFET) result. Starting with the 2008 model year, new test methods that include high speeds, aggressive accelerations, cold temperatures and the use of air conditioning have been introduced to more accurately reflect real world fuel economy. As a transition to the increased testing requirements, a manufacturer has the option of using a derived 5-cycle approach for fuel economy labels for the model years that uses only the FTP and HWFET tests based on regression formulae derived from the fuel economy test results of more than 600 vehicles in the EPA database (subject to revision as more data becomes available). City MPG = 1 / ( ( / FTP MPG)) Highway MPG = 1 / ( ( / HWFET MPG))
23 FB769 RD.07/ Results Vehicles with Gasoline Engines
24 Small Car 1.6L-4V gas engine with variable intake and exhaust cam timing and lift Fuel Economy Simulation Results Ricardo Inc 2007 EPA fuel economy label projections are based on the derived 5-cycle regression equation for the 2008 model year. FB769 RD.07/
25 FB769 RD.07/ Small Car 1.6L-4V gas engine with variable intake and exhaust cam timing and lift Vehicle Performance Simulation Results at Wide Open Throttle (WOT)
26 Mid-Size Car 3.0L-4V gas engine with variable intake cam timing Fuel Economy Simulation Results Ricardo Inc 2007 EPA fuel economy label projections are based on the derived 5-cycle regression equation for the 2008 model year. FB769 RD.07/
27 FB769 RD.07/ Mid-Size Car 3.0L-4V gas engine with variable intake cam timing Vehicle Performance Simulation Results at Wide Open Throttle (WOT)
28 Mid-Size Car Additional Engine Downsizing Study Fuel economy simulation results with gasoline engine downsized to vehicle performance level at ETW (Degraded vehicle acceleration performance vs. baseline at loaded weight) Engine displacement is further reduced by 0.1% per 1% of weight reduction with a resultant improvement in fuel economy of 0.1% Ricardo Inc 2007 EPA fuel economy label projections are based on the derived 5-cycle regression equation for the 2008 model year. FB769 RD.07/
29 FB769 RD.07/ Mid-Size Car Additional Engine Downsizing Study Vehicle performance simulation results with gasoline engine downsized to vehicle performance level at ETW (Degraded vehicle acceleration performance vs. baseline at loaded weight)
30 Small SUV 3.6L-4V gas engine with variable intake cam timing Fuel Economy Simulation Results Ricardo Inc 2007 EPA fuel economy label projections are based on the derived 5-cycle regression equation for the 2008 model year. FB769 RD.07/
31 FB769 RD.07/ Small SUV 3.6L-4V gas engine with variable intake cam timing Vehicle Performance Simulation Results at Wide Open Throttle (WOT)
32 Large SUV 4.6L-3V gas engine Fuel Economy Simulation Results Ricardo Inc 2007 EPA fuel economy label projections are based on the derived 5-cycle regression equation for the 2008 model year. FB769 RD.07/
33 FB769 RD.07/ Large SUV 4.6L-3V gas engine Vehicle Performance Simulation Results at Wide Open Throttle (WOT)
34 Truck 5.7L-4V gas engine with variable intake and exhaust cam timing Fuel Economy Simulation Results Ricardo Inc 2007 EPA fuel economy label projections are based on the derived 5-cycle regression equation for the 2008 model year. FB769 RD.07/
35 FB769 RD.07/ Truck 5.7L-4V gas engine with variable intake and exhaust cam timing Vehicle Performance Simulation Results at Wide Open Throttle (WOT)
36 FB769 RD.07/ Fuel Economy Improvement per 100 lb. Weight Reduction - Gasoline Engines
37 Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement per 100 lb. Weight Reduction - Gasoline Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Ricardo Inc 2007 Fuel Economy Increase per 100 lb. Weight Re duction FTP75 Hwy Combined ECE Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck Fuel Economy Increase per 100 lb. Weight Re duction FTP75 Hwy Combined ECE Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck FB769 RD.07/
38 Steady State Fuel Economy Improvement per 100 lb. Weight Reduction - Gasoline Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Fuel Economy Increase per 100 lb. Weight Re duction Small Car Mid-Size Car Sm all SUV Large SUV Fuel Economy Increase per 100 lb. Weight Re duction Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Ricardo Inc MPH 45 MPH 60 MPH 75 MPH Truck MPH 45 MPH 60 MPH 75 MPH Truck FB769 RD.07/
39 FB769 RD.07/ EPA City (FTP75) Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement - Gasoline Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Fuel Economy Increase Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 20% 10% We ig ht Reductio n Fuel Economy Increase Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reductio n
40 FB769 RD.07/ EPA Highway (HWFET) Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement - Gasoline Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Fuel Economy Increase Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 20% 10% We ig ht Reductio n Fuel Economy Increase Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reductio n
41 FB769 RD.07/ EPA Combined Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement - Gasoline Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Fuel Economy Increase Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 20% 10% We ig ht Reductio n Fuel Economy Increase Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reductio n
42 FB769 RD.07/ European (ECE) Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement - Gasoline Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Fuel Economy Increase Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 20% 10% We ig ht Reductio n Fuel Economy Increase Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reductio n
43 FB769 RD.07/ Results Vehicles with Diesel Engines
44 Mid-Size Car 2.2L I4 diesel engine Fuel Economy Simulation Results Ricardo Inc 2007 EPA fuel economy label projections are based on the derived 5-cycle regression equation for the 2008 model year. FB769 RD.07/
45 FB769 RD.07/ Mid-Size Car 2.2L I4 diesel engine Vehicle Performance Simulation Results at Full Engine Load (WOT)
46 Small SUV 2.7L V6 diesel engine Fuel Economy Simulation Results Ricardo Inc 2007 EPA fuel economy label projections are based on the derived 5-cycle regression equation for the 2008 model year. FB769 RD.07/
47 FB769 RD.07/ Small SUV 2.7L V6 diesel engine Vehicle Performance Simulation Results at Full Engine Load (WOT)
48 Large SUV 3.2L V6 diesel engine Fuel Economy Simulation Results Ricardo Inc 2007 EPA fuel economy label projections are based on the derived 5-cycle regression equation for the 2008 model year. FB769 RD.07/
49 FB769 RD.07/ Large SUV 3.2L V6 diesel engine Vehicle Performance Simulation Results at Full Engine Load (WOT)
50 Truck 4.8L V8 diesel engine Fuel Economy Simulation Results Ricardo Inc 2007 EPA fuel economy label projections are based on the derived 5-cycle regression equation for the 2008 model year. FB769 RD.07/
51 FB769 RD.07/ Truck 4.8L V8 diesel engine Vehicle Performance Simulation Results at Full Engine Load (WOT)
52 FB769 RD.07/ Fuel Economy Improvement per 100 lb. Weight Reduction - Diesel Engines
53 Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement per 100 lb. Weight Reduction - Diesel Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Ricardo Inc 2007 Fuel Economy Increase per 100 lb. Weight Re duction FTP75 Hwy Combined ECE Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck Fuel Economy Increase per 100 lb. Weight Re duction FTP75 Hwy Combined ECE Mid-Size Car Sm all SUV Large SUV Truck FB769 RD.07/
54 Steady State Fuel Economy Improvement per 100 lb. Weight Reduction - Diesel Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Fuel Economy Increase per 100 lb. Weight Re duction Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Fuel Economy Increase per 100 lb. Weight Re duction Mid-Size Car Sm all SUV Large SUV Ricardo Inc MPH 45 MPH 60 MPH 75 MPH Truck MPH 45 MPH 60 MPH 75 MPH Truck FB769 RD.07/
55 FB769 RD.07/ EPA City (FTP75) Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement - Diesel Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Fuel Economy Increase Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reduction Fuel Economy Increase Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reduction
56 FB769 RD.07/ EPA Highway (HWFET) Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement - Diesel Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Fuel Economy Increase Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reduction Fuel Economy Increase Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reduction
57 FB769 RD.07/ EPA Combined Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement - Diesel Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Fuel Economy Increase Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reduction Fuel Economy Increase Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reduction
58 FB769 RD.07/ European (ECE) Drive Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement - Diesel Engines Engine Downsized to Baseline Performance Baseline Engine Fuel Economy Increase Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reduction Fuel Economy Increase Mid-Size Car Small SUV Large SUV Truck 5% 10% 20% We ig ht Reduction
59 FB769 RD.07/ Summary EPA Combined Drive Cycle - % Improvement in Fuel Economy per % Weight Reduction The fuel economy benefit from weight reduction is similar for gasoline and diesel powered light duty vehicles. Truck engines were downsized to a lesser degree than the passenger vehicle engines due to the performance demands on trucks when loaded. Vehicles rated to tow a trailer benefit the least from weight reduction and subsequent engine downsizing if acceleration performance while towing is maintained. % Improvement in Fuel Economy / % Weight Reduction EPA Combined (Metro-Highway) Drive Cycle Passenger Vehicle Truck Base Engine Downsized Engine Base Engine Downsized Engine Gasoline 0.33% 0.65% 0.35% 0.47% Diesel 0.39% 0.63% 0.36% 0.46%
60 FB769 RD.07/ Conclusions / Observations Reducing vehicle weight (mass) results in less tractive effort required to accelerate the vehicle and less rolling resistance from the tires. Drive cycles with more acceleration events (EPA city and European) show greater fuel economy benefits from weight reduction than highway or steady state conditions. Also, at higher vehicle speeds the engine is typically at higher throttle (better BSFC) operating points and provides less opportunity for improvement. Since the tire losses are a greater percentage of total tractive effort at lower speeds (aerodynamic losses increase by velocity squared) the potential for fuel economy gain from weight reduction is greater at lower vehicle speeds. Fuel economy results (and improvements) at the steady 30 MPH drive condition vary because most vehicles are not in top gear yet and are operating the engine at a higher speed / lower load point that is less efficient. Less tractive effort results in less engine torque demand at a given point in the drive cycle. The lower load (throttle) demand puts the engine at a less efficient point with more pumping loss and lower brake specific fuel consumption (grams fuel / power produced). Reducing the engine displacement of the weight-reduced vehicle to equal baseline vehicle performance increases the brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of the engine operating points and improves efficiency. A final drive ratio change could also partially offset the pumping loss increase but was not investigated. The Small Car with a 1.6L engine with variable valve timing and variable lift technologies that reduce pumping losses shows the largest % fuel economy benefit with the baseline engine since it can operate at the reduced engine load points more effectively (0.42% fuel economy benefit / % weight reduction vs. other gas engine vehicles at % FE benefit). When the engine is downsized it produces fuel economy gains similar to the other passenger vehicles (0.66 vs % FE / % weight reduction).
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