United Nations Security Council. 1 st Topic:

Transcription

1 United Nations Security Council 1 st Topic: The situation in the Middle East: religious terrorism as a possible threat to international peace and security. United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 1

2 Table of Contents Welcoming message... 3 The Security Council: composition and mandate... 4 General Introduction to the Topic... 5 An introduction to religious terrorism... 6 Historical background of extremism and religious terrorism in the Middle East... 6 Most popular active terrorist Groups in Middle East Jabhat al-nusra (Victory Front) Ansar Al-Shari a (Supporters of Islamic Law) Hezbollah (Party of God) Hamas (Harakat Al Muqawama Al Islamiyya (Islamic Resistance Movement) Al Qaeda (The base) ISIS: The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (some call it ISIL: Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant or IS: Islamic State) The definition of terrorism Type of terrorism: Religious terrorism International Action Ideas for propositions Bloc positions and key players USA UK France Russia China Israel Iran EU Arab League Issues to be addressed during debate and resolution-writing Conclusion United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 2

3 Bibliography Welcoming message Dear delegates, We are more than delighted to welcome you all to the Security Council of ThessISMUN 2015! We are absolutely confident that as members of the simulated Council we will all manage to cooperate efficiently and effectively both during and prior to the conference. However, in order to make that happen, we would like to provide you with some valuable information just before you embark on your exciting research on our topic area. First of all, as you will have realized by now, you are holding or looking at the study guide that we have meticulously prepared for you. This guide aims to offer you some general information on the topic and, mostly, to show you the direction towards which you should conduct your personal research. We can assure you that, should you combine the present study guide with the additional information you will find on your own, you will be sufficiently prepared for the Council Sessions. Secondly, please be reminded that from this point on and until the closing ceremony of ThessISMUN 2015 we remain at your disposal for any questions or remarks you might have. You can always contact us through , either on our personal accounts, which have been posted on the official website of ThessISMUN, or on the Council s official , which will be made public a couple of months before the conference. Furthermore, we would like to kindly ask you to be punctual in terms of the deadlines we will set for the submission of your position papers. The sooner you submit your work, the sooner we will correct it and thus, the more time you will have to revise your argumentation and perfect your preparation for the sessions. Besides, we strongly encourage you to start your preparation early enough, in order for you to efficiently elaborate on the topic and produce an exquisite piece of work. United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 3

4 Last but not least, keep track of news updates on our topic area. Religious terrorism in the Middle East is currently one of the headlines in international news reports and we expect it to be one up until the conference. Therefore, make sure you are fully informed on the latest developments; it will definitely make your argumentation more realistic and more concrete. Tiresome as it may, this brief message is coming to its end and all that is left to say (once again) is: Welcome to the Security Council! Alexander Wenzel, President Maria Ntourlia, Vice-President The Security Council: composition and mandate The Security Council is one of the six main organs of the United Nations. The UN Charter appoints to the Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. The Council holds formal meetings but it can also meet whenever peace is threatened. All members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council. While other organs of the United Nations make recommendations to member states, only the Security Council has the power to make decisions that member states are then obligated to implement under the Charter 1. Under the United Nations Charter, the functions and powers of the Security Council are: to maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles and purposes of the United Nations; to investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction; to recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement; to formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments; to determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression and to recommend what action should be taken; to call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the use of force to prevent or stop aggression; to take military action against an aggressor; recommend the admission of new Members; to exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in "strategic areas"; to recommend to the General Assembly the 1 United Nations Security Council, What is the Security Council? ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 4

5 appointment of the Secretary-General and, together with the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the International Court of Justice 2. The Council is composed of 15 members: 5 permanent (USA, UK, France, China and Russia) and 10 non-permament members elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly. The current non-permanent members of the Council are: Argentina, Australia, Chad, Chile, Jordan, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Nigeria, Republic of Korea and Rwanda. In addition, a State which is a member of the United Nations but not of the Security Council may participate, without a vote, in its discussions when the Council considers that that country's interests are affected. Finally, both members and nonmembers of the United Nations, if they are parties to a dispute being considered by the Council, may be invited to take part, without a vote, in the Council's discussions; the Council sets the conditions for participation by a non-member State 3. General Introduction to the Topic According to the most widely-accepted definitions, the Middle East constitutes a region consisting of the following states or territories: Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, Israel, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Jordan, Egypt, Sudan, Libya, and the various states and territories of Arabia proper (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Yemen, Oman, Bahrain, Qatar, and the Trucial States, or Trucial Oman [now United Arab Emirates]) 4. In the course of the last decades, the Middle East has witnessed ongoing conflict, severe unrest and extended casualties. To top it all, the recent violent activity of the religious extremist group ISIS, which aims to seize control of the entire region and form an Islamic state ruled by Sharia law, has drawn the attention of the International Community to an alarming predicament: how can we preserve international peace and security when today s most fervent terrorist groups are based and mobilized in the Middle East, one of the most turbulent and unstable regions in the world? In the following paragraphs, we will give you a general overview of relevant factors and actors. Please keep in mind that you are to represent the policies and 2 United Nations Security Council, Functions and Powers ( 3 United Nations Security Council, Current Members ( 4 Middle East, Encyclopedia Britannica ( East) United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 5

6 views of a specific State and will have to deepen your research as this is merely a introduction to highly complicated issue. An introduction to religious terrorism Historical background of extremism and religious terrorism in the Middle East Throughout the centuries, there have been several religious terrorist cases, not only in Middle East but also in the entire world where people were committing horrible crimes in the name of faith. Not only Islamists but other believers tortured or brutally killed millions of people to reassure their faith and promote their systems. Some religious terrorists are inspired by defensive motives, others seek to ensure the predominance of their faith, and others are motivated by an aggressive amalgam of these tendencies. 5 Religious terrorism can be communal, genocidal, nihilistic, or revolutionary. It can be committed by lone wolves, secret cells, large dissident movements, or governments. And, depending on one s perspective, there is often a debate about whether the perpetrators should be classified as terrorists or religious freedom fighters. 6 In this chapter we will focus on the Middle East, in order to examine terrorism and its effects to the international community s security further. Christianity, world s most popular religion has been accused several times, even nowadays for terrorist actions against civilians and groups of people that they do not agree with or that do not follow Christian beliefs. Crusades are the strongest example of how Christians were forcing other states to convert. For Crusaders, fighting and dying in the name of the cross would make them martyrs and send them to paradise. 78 Christian terrorism still exists and especially in the United States where attacks on Jewish centers, attempts to poison municipal water supplies, bombing of abortion clinics, and shooting of abortion providers have been reported. 5 Religious terrorism, pg. 131, as above 6 Religious terrorism, pg. 131, as above 7 Religious terrorism, pg. 131, as above 8 History, Crusades United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 6

7 Timothy McVeigh s bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City during 1995 killed 168 people. It showed that extremist Christians can be as deadly as their extremist Islamic counterparts. 910 Hasan ibn al-sabbah, a caliph of the Ismaili sect of Islam founded the Order of Hashhashins-Assassins, in order to defend this interpretation of the faith in the 11 th century. The Hashhashin, whose name gave us the English word "assassin," were very adept at disguise, stealth, and surprise killings, and thus the word assassination was coined. To kill or be killed was done in the name of the faith and ensured a place in paradise after death. This belief is practiced by many of today s religious terrorists. The Assassins were conducting suicide missions and killed many fellow Muslims as well as Christians. 11 Terrorism in the name of Islam is the most familiar type of terrorism in the 21 st century. The violations of human rights and the growing tension in the Middle East keep escalating and spreading fear across the World. The main division in Islam is between the Sunni and the Shi a who are initially stemmed not only from spiritual differences, but historical ones as well 12. Sunni Muslims, historically accept all four caliphs as successors to Mohammed, including the caliph Ali, Mohammed s son-in-law and cousin. They believe that only the prophet Mohammed and the holy Quran are authorities on questions of religion. The Shi a succession of imams is rejected. Also, Sunni s believe that historically, leaders within the Islamic world have been political leaders and heads of governments rather than religious leaders and there is no strictly organized clergy. For example, no single religious leader can claim ultimate authority, and non clergy may lead prayers. 13 Shi a Muslims, historically reject the first three caliphs before Ali as being illegitimate successors to Mohammed and as the first legitimate caliph, Ali was also the first in a 9 Amy Zalman, Religious Terrorism, A Short Primer on Religion and Terrorism, Vladimir Tomek, Religiously motivated terrorism, Terrorist acts by Christians and members of other faiths, Religious Terrorism, pg 134, What is the difference between Sunni and Shi a Muslims? 13 Religious Terrorism, pg United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 7

8 historical line of imams, or leaders within Muslim communities. They also believe that Imams serve as both political and religious leaders and that Imams have strict authority, and their pronouncements must be obeyed. Imams are without sin and appoint their successors. 14 Islam is linked from the beginning with the practice of divinely sanctioned warfare and lethal injunctions against apostates and unbelievers while Islam experienced no period of wandering and exclusion; from its inception, it formed a unitary state bent on military conquest. While the Quran enjoins that there shall be "no compulsion in religion," Islam still regards it as a holy duty to extend militarily the borders of the House of Islam against the demonic world of unbelievers. 15 Groups that justify their violence on Islamic grounds, Al Qaeda, Hamas, Hezbollah, use tactics as suicide bombers or tortures and executions in order to spread their beliefs and succeed their goals. It is a common phenomenon that these groups not only want to prove the world that they have an upper goal designed by God but also, as we will see below by examining those groups, that they have political or geopolitical ambitions. The most well known example of Islamic terrorism, took place in 9/ in New York City where Al Qaeda was responsible for the attacks on the World Trade Center (WTC) and the Pentagon 16. Nineteen men hijacked four commercial airlines 17 and this terrorist attack on the United States was orchestrated by al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden. A total of 2,977 people were killed in New York City, Washington, DC and outside of Shanksville, Pennsylvania, in the worst terrorist attack in U.S. history. 18 The aftermath of these attacks is well known, a counter-terrorism war escalated and the international community was shocked by the brutality of both parties. 14 Religious Terrorism, pg 147 as above 15 Phillip Blond and Adrian Pabst, The New York Times, The roots of Islamic Terrorism, Prof Michel Chossudovsky, The 9/11 Reader, The September 11, 2001 Terror Attacks, Global Research, September 11th Hijackers Fast Facts, CNN Library, September 11th Fast Facts, CNN Library, United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 8

9 The war of terror as it is known today has been exercised, as mentioned above, by several groups, that all fight under the flag of Islam but for different purposes. Modern Arab Islamic Extremism came to existence gradually and only following the geopolitical developments in the Middle East. After the Ottoman Empire s overlordship ended in 1918 it was followed by a European domination through colonialism which ended after World War II, in 1945.During the decolonization era, the new Arab and North African states, were at first ruled by monarchs or civilians who were always authoritarian and frequently despotic. Those regimes lead to a series of military coups and other political upheavals which led to the modern era of governance. 19 Postwar activism in the Arab Muslim world likewise progressed through several intellectual phases, most of them secular expressions of nationalism and socialism. At first it was the anticolonial nationalism, during which the Arab nationalists resisted to the European presence in the region and demanded their departure along with their armed forces. Then, in the early 60 s, the Egyptian President Gamel Abdel Nasser who is also known for the failure of the Six days war with Israel in 1967, lead the Pan-Arab movement for the creation of a single dynamic United Arab Republic. Ideologically the secular leftist radicalism which was based on the promotion of Marxist or other socialist principles of governance, was often opposed to their governments. 20 All those theories gradually failed to deliver political reforms, economic prosperity, and the desired degree of respect from the international community. For instance, Arab countries were humiliated from their military defeats during the wars with Israel and the seemingly intractable plight of the Palestinians so they were distanced from the secular movements they were once embracing. On the other hand, their religion along with their ideologies had struggled since the end of World War II to resist what they perceived as Western domination and exploitation, and some tradition-oriented nationalists began to interpret Western culture and values as alien to Muslim morality and values. 21 The failure of the previous generation s ideologies, resulted in the rise of new movements promoting Islamist extremism as the only viable solution to unify their 19 Religious Terrorism, pg 136, 20 Religious Terrorism, pg 136, as above 21 Religious Terrorism, pg 136, as above United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 9

10 people and claim their emancipation from the West. Especially after the Cold War, Muslims in Arab countries were counting on the radical interpretation of Islam as a vehicle for liberation. There are several cases where theories have been invented in order to demonize a group of people, such as the denial of the Holocaust. Nazi s Germany, during the Second World War launched a genocide and brutally murdered more than Jewish people. Among the many conspiracy theories circulating in Middle Eastern extremist circles, is the argument that the Nazi s holocaust never occurred. They claim that it is a hoax and that inside the camps such as Auschwitz and Dachau there were workers and not victims of one of the world s cruelest genocides. In order to demonize Israel and Jewish people in general, many terrorist, far right groups not only in the Middle East but also in the United States (Ku Klux Klan) adopt this theory in order to marginalize the Jewish people. In December 2006, a major international conference was convened in Tehran, Iran, to promote Holocaust denial. Also in a 2- day conference sponsored by the Iranian government at the behest of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, he publicly called the Holocaust a myth in The United Nations General Assembly condemned the Holocaust denial in January In our era, religious terrorism is mostly practiced by radical Islamists. In the Western world there is a huge misunderstanding regarding the historical and cultural origins of the growth of the radical interpretation of Islam, such as that Muslims are united in supporting jihad. 23 Jihad: It literally means a sacred struggle or effort rather than an armed conflict or fanatical holy war. Although a jihad can certainly be manifested as a holy war, it more correctly refers to the duty of Muslims to personally strive in the way of God. This is the primary meaning of the term as used in the Quran, which refers to an internal effort to reform bad habits (such as alcohol consumption) in the Islamic community or within the individual Muslim. The term is also used more specifically to denote a war waged in the service of religion. Greater Jihad: It is referred to the struggle each person has within him or herself to do what is right. Because of human pride, selfishness, and sinfulness, people of faith must constantly wrestle with themselves and strive to do what is right and good. 22 Religious Terrorism, pg 140, 141, as above 23 Religious Terrorism, pg 140, 141, as above United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 10

11 Lesser Jihad: Involves the outward defense of Islam. Muslims should be prepared to defend Islam, including military defense, when the community of faith is under attack. Mujahedeen: Are those who engage in armed jihad and they are considered as holy warriors. Mujahedeen who receive martyrdom by being killed in the name of the faith will find that awaiting them in paradise are rivers of milk and honey, beautiful young women and eventually reunion with their families. 24 The causes for the modern resurgence of the armed and radical jihadist movement are two: the revolutionary ideals and ideology of the 1979 Iranian Revolution and the practical application of jihad against the Soviet Union s occupation of Afghanistan. 25 Some radical Muslim clerics and scholars have concluded that the Afghan jihad brought God s judgment against the Soviet Union, leading to the collapse of its empire. As a consequence, radical jihadists strongly believe that they are fighting in the name of an inexorable force that will end in total victory and guarantee them a place in paradise. 26 These type of religious terrorists conceder their actions only justifiable but also blessed. They consider themselves as the defenders of their beliefs against the attacks of the non-believers or that their faith is indisputable and a universal guiding principle must be advanced for the salvation of the faithful. 27 There are examples confirm that religious terrorism in the Middle East occurs between and within, local religious groups. Radical believers of many faiths attack not only those of other religions but also fallen members of their own. Attacks against proclaimed apostates can be quite violent. 28 Iraq is also a strong example of sectarian violence as the Hussein (Sunni s leader, in a country that Sunni population is a minority) years led to difficulty in fully integrating all groups into accepting a single national identity. More ominously, the Sunni minority, which had dominated the country under Hussein, found itself recast 24 Religious Terrorism, pg 140, 141, as above 25 Religious Terrorism, pg 140, 141, as above 26 Religious Terrorism, pg 142, as above 27 Religious Terrorism, pg 142, as above 28 Religious Terrorism, pg 142, as above United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 11

12 as a political minority when the country began to move toward democracy and an interim government was established in June Iraqi religious extremists, it is unclear whether they are Sunnis or Shi a, conducted a series of attacks on non- Muslim cultural institutions. These included liquor stores (often owned by Christians) and barber shops (that offered Western-style haircuts). 29 Most popular active terrorist Groups in Middle East Jabhat al-nusra (Victory Front) Also known as al-nusra Front was formed in late 2011 when Iraq and more specifically emir Abu Bakr al-baghdadi (today s head of Islamic State) sent operatives to Syria in order to establish jihadist s cells in the region and fight against the al- Assad regime. He aimed at the creation of a salafist-oriented Sunni Islamist state in Syria, once the al-assad regime would fall. Jabhat al-nusra is regarded as one of Syria's main rebel groups which intends to establish an Islamist caliphate across the Levant and it is considered as one of the best-equipped rebel groups in Syria. It also believes that the fight against the Syrian regime is supported by religious texts, and its fighters hope to fulfill 'God's wish' for an 'Islamic caliphate'. 30 In 2013, tensions rose between al-nusra and its parent organization AQI (Al Qaeda in Iraq) when Baghdadi unilaterally proclaimed that the two organizations had been merged to create the Islamic State in Iraq and al Sham, but al-nusra s leader Julani, rejected the merge and a number of al-nusra fighters defected to ISIS, furthering tension between the groups. By March 2014, over 3,000 fighters had been killed in battles between ISIS and al-nusra. In the summer of 2014, ISIS drove al-nusra and a number of its allies out of one of its key strongholds in Deir al-zor, which included oil fields that were an important source of al-nusra's income. Regardless of the documented confrontations, there is evidence of cooperation between ISIS and al- Nusra on the battlefield in some areas. There have been several attacks from al- Nusra,the latest on 3 November 2014 when al-nusra attacked and defeated the Syrian Revolutionary Front (SRF) and Harakat Hazm in the Jabal al-zawiya region in Idlib. The two groups, moderate rebels linked to the FSA, surrendered local towns to 29 Religious Terrorism, pg 142, as above 30 Australian National Security, United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 12

13 al-nusra. Some members of the FSA-linked groups were arrested, and others defected to al-nusra Ansar Al-Shari a (Supporters of Islamic Law) The naming trend actually started in Yemen, when al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), the powerful and ambitious local al Qaeda branch, established the front group Ansar al-sharia in Yemen in April It is possible this was born out of Osama bin Laden's musings over whether to rebrand al Qaeda. However none of the names in the documents captured from the late al Qaeda leader's compound, mentioned Ansar al-sharia as a potential example. More recently, one of the preeminent global jihadi ideologues, Shaykh Abu al-mundhir al-shinqiti, put his stamp of approval on the new wave of Ansar al-sharia groups. They are fighting in different lands using different means, but all for the same end, an approach better suited for the vagaries born of the Arab uprisings. 33 In March 2011 Ansar al-sharia was established in Tunisia and declared itself responsible for the attack on September 14, 2012 against the U.S. Embassy and the American school in Tunis, which put the lives of over one hundred United States employees in the Embassy at risk. Members of both organizations continue to pose a threat to U.S. interests in Libya. In Morocco and Egypt, Ansar al-sharia has not publicly announced itself as an organized group on the ground, while the Moroccan organization was only created few months ago. Ansar al-sharia is said to have links to Al-Qaeda, but the group denies these allegations. ASM's raison d'etre is to spread the word of God and his law, provide social and economic services to the downtrodden, and expose the West's decadence and to free society from its grip Stanford University, Mapping Militant Organizations, 32 Sven Pöhle, Deutche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East, 26/06/2014, 33 Aaron Y. Zelin, The Washington Institute, Know Your Ansar al-sharia, US Department of State, Terrorist Designations of Three Ansar al-shari'a Organizations and Leaders, Office of the Spokesman, Washington DC, Sven Pöhle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East, Deutche Welle, 26/06/ United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 13

14 Hezbollah (Party of God) 36 Hezbollah is an extremist s Shiite group founded in 1982 after the Iranian revolution of 1979 and active especially in Lebanon. This group receives support from Syria and Iran and its units are fighting in Syria on the side of President Bashar al-assad's forces. 37 Hezbollah had two goals when it was founded: removing the Israeli presence in South Lebanon that remained following the 1982 invasion, and establishing a Shi a Islamic state in the image of the post-revolution Islamic state of Iran. 38 Hezbollah later abandoned its goal of an Iranian-style Islamic state, and is now nationalist and Islamic in its political orientation. 39 Hezbollah's raison d'etre, resistance to Israel and Western involvement in the Middle East, has made it an effective proxy for Iranian foreign policy while earning the group some support from beyond its Shiite base. 40 In 1985 in their manifest they stated: "Our primary assumption in our fight against Israel states that the Zionist entity is aggressive from its inception, and built on lands wrested from their owners, at the expense of the rights of the Muslim people. Therefore our struggle will end only when this entity is obliterated. We recognize no treaty with it, no ceasefire, and no peace agreements, whether separate or consolidated." 41 Also in October 1983 suicide attacks on the U.S. embassy and Marine Corps barracks in Beirut (258 Americans killed) furthered the group's image as leaders of the Shiite resistance. 42 Hezbollah's military arm is listed as a terrorist organization in the US and the EU. Hezbollah is a clear example of State- sponsored religious terrorist group which as already mentioned, operates under the names of Islamic Jihad, Revolutionary Justice Organization. 43 Hamas (Harakat Al Muqawama Al Islamiyya (Islamic Resistance Movement) The group is the Palestinian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood founded in 1987 after the beginning of the first intifada uprising against Israel s occupation of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. 44 Until 2005, Hamas had two purposes. 36 Oxford dictionary 37 Sven Pöhle, Deutche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East 26/06/2014, as above 38 Amy Zalman, Hezbollah, a profile of the Lebanese Militant Group, 39 Amy Zalman, Hezbollah, a profile of the Lebanese Militant Group, as above 40 Jonathan Masters, Zachary Laub, Council on foreign relations, Hezbollah, Jonathan Masters, Zachary Laub, Council on foreign relations, Hezbollah, 2014 as above 42 Jonathan Masters, Zachary Laub, Council on foreign relations, Hezbollah, 2014 as above 43 Religious Terrorism, pg 143, Sven Pöhle, Deutche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East, 26/06/2014, United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 14

15 First, waging war against Israel. Second, the delivery of social welfare programs. 45 It was in that year that Hamas began participating in the Palestinian political process and became the first Arab Islamist group to obtain power through democratic means. Since 2007 Hamas has the control of the Gaza strip and in their manifest they state that they are seeking for the distraction of Israel while the modest Fatah has the control of the West Bank. Israel never recognized Hamas due to the fact that they are responsible for 1990 s suicide bombings and several attacks in Israeli s territories targeting mostly, civilians so as the United States, European Union, Canada and Japan designate Hamas as a terrorist group. During 2014 there was an escalation between Hamas and Israel which lead to a 50 days war between the two sides. The U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs reports that 2,104 Palestinians were killed in Gaza, including 1,462 civilians, among them 495 children and 253 women. Those U.N. numbers would mean that 69 percent of the totals killed were civilians. 46 Hamas used to fire rockets from homes or UN facilities and as the Israeli government said they used Palestinians as human shields while Israelis were destroying the tunnels Hamas created in order to kidnap or assassinate civilians. Since September 2014 there has been no further escalation to this crisis and both sides agreed to a ceasefire Al Qaeda (The base) Al-Qaeda is the strongest and most dangerous terrorist group around the world and responsible for severe terrorist attacks such as 9/11. It is considered as the mother of all the other terrorist groups and was founded in 1988 by Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan after which it soon spread to other countries. Al-Qaeda consisted of Mujahedeen, Muslim fighters who fought the Soviets following their 1979 invasion of Afghanistan. In early 1990 s Osama relocated to Sudan, where he started searching for nuclear materials, weapons and started forming links with other Islamic 45 Gregory Baskin, Liberty Voice, Gaza Strip: A short history of Hamas, William Booth, The Washington Post, The UN says, 7 in 10 Palestinians killed in Gaza, where civilians. Israel disagrees, August says-7-in-10-palestinians-killed-in-gaza-were-civilians-israel-disagrees/2014/08/29/44edc598-2faa- 11e4-9b _story.html 47 Amy Zalman, Hamas, 48 William Booth, The Washington Post, Here s what really happened in the Gaza war (according to the Israelis), September United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 15

16 groups including the Islamic Jihad Movement of Eritrea and al-itihaad al-islamiya, a Somali group. In 1996 Bin Laden is asked to leave Sudan and returns to Afghanistan, where the Taliban militia is in the ascendancy. He calls for a jihad against the US to end the presence of "American crusader forces" in Saudi Arabia. On September 11, 2001 al-qaeda, after a series of smaller acts of terrorism, attacks the World Trade Center in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania kill close to 3,000 people. After this tragedy, the United States launched heavy airstrikes followed by US-coordinated attacks on Taliban positions by Afghan opposition groups which destroyed the regime Al-Qaeda s terrorist attacks continued in Europe, Russia and other countries by groups related to al-qaeda where suicide bombers, beheadings of civilians, usually Americans took place during a war or terror. The US troops invaded Iraq in March 2003 and in 2006 the leader of al-qaeda in Iraq is killed during a targeted air strike conducted by U.S. forces.. In the past three years alone, the United States has killed four of the top five leaders of the organization, and eventhough Osama Bin Laden is dead, al-qaeda still exists and grows stronger under its new leader Ayman al-zawahri. Groups related to al- Qaeda are active not only in Middle East but also in African countries and there are trying to strengthen Islam by using attacking civilians. These groups share al-qaeda's Sunni Muslim fundamentalist views. Some terror experts theorize that Al-Qaeda, after the loss of its Afghanistan base, may be increasingly reliant on sympathetic affiliates to carry out its agenda. Intelligence officials and terrorism experts also say that al-qaeda has stepped up its cooperation on logistics and training with Hezbollah, a radical, Iran-backed Lebanese militia drawn from the minority Shiite strain of Islam. The group ISIS in Iraq split off from Al-Qaeda Comparing ISIS and Al-Qaeda 49 Leah Farrall, Foreign Affairs, How Al Qaeda works, What the organization Subsidiaries say about its strength, Deutche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East 51 Amy Zalman, Al Qaeda, Profile of al Qaeda, 52 BBC News, Al Qaeda remaining leaders, United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 16

17 There is a new threat rising in the Middle East which compared to the most dangerous and alarming group in the world, namely Al-Qaeda, seems very strong and capable of causing severe damage not only to the Arab states, but also to international security. ISIS is a salafist group which abandoned the Saudi Arabian model and is based on how Mohammed organized his dominion in Medina. ISIS is a great threat given the fact that they are wealthy and they have access to and control of the media. Contrary to Al-Qaeda, ISIS occupies territories including oilfields and it also obtains Iraq s and Syria s weaponry. Their leadership is charismatic, based on western education and is more than familiar with war tactics, by organizing their state in a centralized administration with expansionism in the region. ISIS: The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (some call it ISIL: Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant or IS: Islamic State) ISIS is a Jihadist group known for carrying out public executions, beheadings, crucifixions and other brutal actions. 53 It all started in 2004 when the late Abu Musab al-zarqawi formed an al Qaeda splinter group in Iraq. Within two years, al-zarqawi's al Qaeda in Iraq was trying to fuel a sectarian war against the majority Shiite community. 54 In April 2013, Islamic State in Iraq absorbed the al Qaeda-backed militant group in Syria, Jabhat al-nusra. 55 Its leader Abu Bakr al-baghdadi said his group will now be known as Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant. Since then, the English-speaking world seems to have had a hard time settling on a name for them. In February 2014 Al Qaeda renounces ties to ISIS after months of infighting between al-nusra Front and ISIS due to Al-Nusra s Front leader Abu Mohammed al-jawlani rejection attempt to merge with the ISIS. 56 ISIS regularly employs the vicious hudud punishments to enforce sharia law in the areas it controls in Syria and Iraq. In June 29, 2014 ISIS announces the creation of a caliphate (Islamic state) that erases all state borders, making al-baghdadi the selfdeclared authority over the world's estimated 1.5 billion Muslims. The group also announces a name change to the Islamic State (IS). During July 2014 in Syria, all the cities between Deir Ezzor city and the Iraq border have fallen to ISIS, says Omar Abu 53 Ray Sanchez, CNN, ISIS, ISIL or the Islamic State?, September Ray Sanchez, CNN, ISIS, ISIL or the Islamic State?, September 2014 as above 55 CNN, ISIS Fast Facts, November 2014 as above 56 Ray Sanchez, CNN, ISIS, ISIL or the Islamic State?, September 2014 as above United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 17

18 Leila, a spokesman for the rebel Free Syrian Army and few days later, ISIS takes control of a major Syrian oil field, al-omar. It is the country's largest oil field and can produce 75,000 barrels of oil daily. In Syria's Homs province, ISIS claims to have killed 270 people after storming and seizing the Shaer gas field and ISIS militants blow up Jonah's tomb, a holy site in Mosul. During August and September 2014, ISIS has relieved videos where British and American journalists were beheaded by jihadists and also the CIA warns that ISIS fighter can muster between and across Iraq and Syria. Their objective is to create a large-scale theocracy made up of Syria, parts of Iraq, Lebanon, and much of Palestine and Jordan. The militant group is considered more radical than Al-Qaeda. More than 11,000 people have traveled from abroad to fight in Syria and Iraq, officials suggest, many Europeans and Americans have traveled to join ISIS including Chechen snipers, Saudi car bombers, and many Western subjects, although some have gone back home again. 57 They align themselves with different factions, and sometimes change loyalties as groups merge, disband or change allegiances. The brutality of ISIS embraces such an extreme, violent ideology that it makes even al Qaeda squeamish, argue many Western experts. On this reading, al Qaeda leader Ayman al Zawahiri was forced to distance himself from ISIS s bloody practices ISIS has promised to govern as effectively as it intimidates, but its talent lies in extortion and ethnic cleansing, not in sanitation and job creation. The definition of terrorism The international community has been trying for years to unanimously define terrorism but it seems extremely difficult to agree on the use of violence in the context of national liberation conflicts and the right to self-determination. As the 57 Hussain Abdul- Hussain and Lee Smith, The Weekly Standard, On the origin of ISIS, September, Elizabeth Schumacher, Deutsche Welle, Islamic State, A chronology of key developments, 14/09/2014, 59 Nick Thompson, Richard Allen Greene and Inez Torre, CNN, ISIS, everything you need to know about the rise of the militant group, November Sven Pöhle, Deutsche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East, 26/06/ Holly Yan, CNN, What s the difference between ISIS, al-nusra and the Khorasan Group?, September Steve Coll, The New Yorker, In search of a strategy, September United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 18

19 disputes continue, many states defined terrorism in their own ways in order to reassure stability and set the framework to examine such cases. For instance, the United Kingdom uses the following definition: terrorism covers the use of violent acts designed to influence the government or to intimidate the public, and for the purpose of advancing a political, religious, or ideological cause. 63 According to Dr. H. H.A. Cooper, terrorism is the international generation of massive fear by human beings for the purpose of securing or maintaining control over other human beings 64. What is underlined in his work is that the definition of terrorism should not be focused on who are victimized and the reasons they are targeted, but on what is done. This is also his explanation on what the already existing Conventions define as terrorist acts. As mentioned above, the international community has not yet been able to agree on a comprehensive definition of terrorism despite several attempts by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council in this regard. Most notably, in 1994 the General Assembly, in the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, declared that criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstances unjustifiable, whatever the consideration of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other nature that may be invoked to justify them. In 2004, the Security Council, in its resolution 1566, identified elements of a definition, referring to criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act. 65 It is also a fact that many would accuse states of terrorism. Israel has for many years been characterized by critics, especially in the Arab world, United Nations 63 Definition of Terrorism and Self-Determination, Harvard International Review, December 20, American Behavioral Scientist 2001; H. H.A. COOPER, Terrorism: The Problem of Definition Revisited, American Behavioral Scientist 65 UNODC, Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism, pg 16 _en.pdf United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 19

20 Resolutions, and human rights organizations, as perpetrating terrorism against the population of the territories it has occupied since 1967 Six Days War. Critics also accuse the United States of terrorism for backing not only the Israeli occupation, but other repressive regimes willing to terrorize their own citizens to maintain in power. Palestinian militants call Israel terrorist, Kurdish militants call Turkey terrorist, Tamil militants call Indonesia terrorist; and, of course, the nationstates call the militants who oppose their regimes terrorists. Long debates and negotiations finally led to two different definitions that were presented by UNbodies, however both were rejected. 66 The question that posed itself, was whether States wanted to work with a politically oriented definition based on existing frameworks such as the Geneva Conventions and adding the element of intimidation, or a more typical criminal law oriented definition that elevated terrorist acts into a separate international crime. In the end neither were adopted. Instead, the international community opted for a sectorial approach, which will be specified under the chapter International Action. A new question that raises itself, is whether the current frameworks and actions are still sufficient and applicable to organizations such as IS. Type of terrorism: Religious terrorism In order to define and understand better what religious terrorism really is, we should first compare it with the secular one. At first the quality of violence between secular and religious terrorism differs on the limitless religious terrorism scale of violence which has as a result the unconstrained choice of weapons and tactics. In secular terrorism the scale of violence is constrained and the choices of weapons and tactics adjust to the scale. Moreover in religious terrorism the scope of violence when it comes to define the targets is expansive, where in secular terrorism it is focused on specific targets. The result in the first case is the indiscriminate use of violence and in the second case the discrimination in the use of violence. 66 These can be found in pr. 164 of the Report of the High Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change "A more secure world: Our shared responsibility ( ) and Annex II, art Report of the Ad Hoc Committee established by General Assembly resolution 51/210 of 17 December 1996, Sixth session ( ) United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 20

21 Concerning the constituency profile, religious terrorism is narrow, insular, and isolated so it does not appeal to a broader audience. The secular terrorism on the other hand, is inclusive, for the championed group so it appeals to actual or potential supporters. This argument is questioned nowadays due to ISIS exposure which lead to thousands of Europeans flying to Iraq or Syria in order to join the jihadist group and fight in the name of their caliphate. Last but not least, religious terrorism s relation with the existing system seems to alienate the definition of true believers and as a result it completely reconfigures the social order. Especially in the case of Islam, the different interpretations of Quran led to misunderstanding and confusion on who and how a true believer is. Religious terrorism is a type of political violence motivated by an absolute belief that another worldly power has sanctioned and commanded terrorist violence for the greater glory of the faith. Acts committed in the name of the faith will be forgiven by the otherworldly power and perhaps rewarded in an afterlife. In essence, one s religious faith legitimizes violence as long as such violence is an expression of the will of one s deity. 67 Some terrorists are motivated primarily by faith, whereas others use religion secondarily. The latter movements are motivated by nationalism or other ideology as a primary inspiration but are united by an underlying religious identity. The goals of both primary and secondary religious terrorism are to construct a new society based on a religious or ethno-national identity. The terrorist behavior of both tendencies is active and public. State-sponsored religious terrorism arises in governments that pursue international agendas by mentoring and encouraging religious proxies. Cases of religious terrorism and state-sponsored religious terrorism will be examined later on. 68 International Action Both comprehensive and sectoral international legal instruments have been adopted to counter the rise of terrorism. The first comprehensive treaty to be signed was the Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism of 1937 (Geneva Convention of 1937), which however never entered into force due to its attempt to 67 Religious terrorism, pg.130,131, Religious terrorism, pg.130,131,153 as above United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 21

22 define acts of terrorism 69 in a way that was not welcomed by the required number of states for its entry into force 70. Nevertheless, despite the failure of the Geneva Convention to produce legally binding effects, the International Community did not cease its efforts to create sufficient legal instruments against terrorism. Thus, to this date the following comprehensive international Conventions have been drafted and adopted: Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents (1973), International Convention against the Taking of Hostages (1983), International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings (1997), International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999) and the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005). As far as sectoral international Conventions on terrorism are concerned, these include: Convention on Offenses and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft (1963), Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (1970) and its Supplementary Protocol (2010), Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation (1971) and its Protocol (1988), Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (1980) and its Amendments, Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (1988) and its Protocol (2005), Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continent Shelf (1988) and its Protocol, Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the purpose of Detection (1991) and the Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil Aviation (2010). Given the diversity and the length of the above-mentioned legal instruments, we believe it would be helpful to make some collective and comparative remarks with regards to the definition of terrorist acts, the obligations of states provided in the legal documents and issues of jurisdiction and extradition. As Galicki explains 71, sectoral Conventions were able to provide less disputed definitions of what 69 Article 1 par.1 defines acts of terrorism as criminal acts directed against a state or intended to create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons, or a group of persons, or the general public. 70 Zdzislaw Galicki, International Law and Terrorism, American Behavioral Scientist, SAGE Publications, Zdzislaw Galicki, as above. United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 22

23 constitutes a terrorist act due to the fact that their substantial scope of operation is limited to specific kinds and forms of terrorist activities. Thus, we have a series of universal sectoral definitions of terrorist acts, including such offenses as unlawful acts against safety of civil aviation (in 1971), crimes against internationally protected persons, including diplomatic agents (in 1973), taking hostages (in 1979), theft, robbery or any other unlawful taking of nuclear material or of credible threat thereof (in 1979), unlawful acts of violence at airports serving international civil aviation (in 1988), unlawful acts against the safety of fixed platforms located on the continental shelf (in 1988), terrorist bombings (in 1997), and financing of terrorism (in 1999). In virtue of all these sectoral Conventions, state-parties are obliged to criminalize acts described by these treaties as offenses. Encouraging as that may seem, the truth is that to this day no comprehensive definition on international terrorism has been unanimously endorsed. The UN Ad Hoc Committee on Terrorism, which was first created in 1972 and was revived in 1996, has long been elaborating, along with the Legal Committee of the General Assembly, on a comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism. According to Galicki 72, the most problematic issue with regards to the definition of terrorist acts is not the definition itself rather than its exceptions and exclusions. For that reason, a compromise is deemed mandatory for the resolution of two major disputes among state-parties: which is the legally binding distinction between terrorist acts and armed liberation movements? This is not to be confused with the Right to Self-determination, as this can under no circumstance provide a justification for those acts that we typically consider as terrorist acts. Coming to the issue of jurisdiction, all antiterrorist conventions base states jurisdictional obligations and rights on the four fundamental principles of jurisdiction: territoriality, nationality, protection/security and universality, but with different extensions of their application. In fact, the Conventions concluded in the past few years have developed a variety of possibilities for optionally established jurisdiction. Though technical it might seem, the issue of jurisdiction, especially when based on the principle of universality, is of utmost importance in the issue under discussion since it constitutes one of the best guarantees for the effective 72 Zdzislaw Galicki, as above. United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 23

24 suppression of international terrorism through the punishment of terrorists whenever and wherever they may be found 73. With regards to extradition, the Conventions do not provide directly for mandatory extradition of the offenders to states obliged or entitled to establish their jurisdiction over them; still, there are some provisions on extradition based on the principle aut dedere aut punire (either extradite or punish). In any case the possibility of regarding a terrorist act as a political offense or as an offense connected with a political offense or as an offense inspired by political motives is eliminated, whereas all terrorist acts shall be deemed to be included as extraditable offenses in all extradition treaties 74. Before reaching our closing remarks on what concerns the analysis of the provisions of Antiterrorism Conventions, we could not but refer to the significant provisions on international cooperation and on the potential role that the Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (2000) can play in the fight against terrorism. Firstly, in all above-mentioned legal instruments there are meticulous provisions on mutual assistance in connection with investigations or criminal or extradition proceedings in respect to the offenses in question, including assistance in obtaining evidence necessary for the proceedings and wide cooperation in the domain of prevention. This continuous development of international legal norms cannot but be considered of paramount importance to the end of diversifying the methods and forms of counter-terrorism strategies. Finally, as Galicki underlines, given the legal lacuna in terms of defining what constitutes a terrorist act, the Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (2000) can prove to be a useful legal tool within the concept of measures to eliminate international terrorism since its wide definition of organized criminal groups could be applicable 75 to international terrorist groups 76. Apart from the adoption of the international antiterrorist Conventions, the International Community has been significantly mobilized with the purpose of addressing the issue of terrorism, especially in the Middle East, under the auspices of 73 Zdzislaw Galicki, as above. 74 Zdzislaw Galicki, as above. 75 The exact opposite is expressed by Elisavet Symeonidou-Kastanidou, who claims that terrorist acts essentially contain the majority of the component elements of organized crime, with the exception however of the use of commercial and business structures with the purpose of financial or other material benefit, which is fundamental for the definition of organized crime. More thorough analysis in Elisavet Symeonidou-Kastanidou,The definition of terrorism. 76 Zdzislaw Galicki, as above. United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 24

25 the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council. In fact, numerous are the Resolutions and Declarations voted upon by the UN General Assembly, all of which can be retrieved through the following link: Nevertheless, it is the actions of the Security Council to the end of preventing and suppressing terrorism that have had the most determining effects on counter-terrorism efforts and therefore demand closer attention on our behalf. Prior to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States, the Security Council had established the 1267 Committee 77 (UNSC RES 1267/1999), which is made up of all Council members and tasked with monitoring the sanctions against the Taliban and subsequently Al-Qaeda as of In the aftermath of the attack, the Council established a Counter Terrorism Committee 79 (UNSC RES 1373/2001), also comprising of all Council members. UNSC RES 1373 obliges Member States to take a number of measures to prevent terrorist activities and to criminalize various forms of terrorist actions, as well as to take measures that assist and promote cooperation among countries including adherence to international counter-terrorism instruments 80. In 2004 the Security Council unanimously adopted UNSC RES 1540/2004 under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, obliging States, inter alia, to refrain from supporting by any means non-state actors from developing, acquiring, manufacturing, possessing, transporting, transferring or using nuclear, chemical or biological weapons and their delivery systems 81 and establishing the 1540 Committee 82. Finally, in the same year the Council created the 1566 Working Group, pursuant to UNSC RES 1566/ , made up of all Council members to recommend practical measures against individuals and 77 Official website of the 1267 Committee ( 78 Security Council Actions to Counter Terrorism ( 79 Official Website of the Counter Terrorism Committee ( 80 United Nations Actions to Counter Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Related Bodies ( 81 United Nations Actions to Counter Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Related Bodies, as above. 82 Official Website of the 1540 Committee ( 83 Official Document of UNSC RES 1566/2004 ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 25

26 groups engaged in terrorist activities that were not subject to the 1267 Committee's review, as well as to explore the possibility of setting up a compensation fund for victims of terrorism 84. As far as resolution drafting is concerned, solely since the beginning of 2014 the Security Council has adopted 6 resolutions: UNSC RES 2133/ , on suppressing, inter alia, the financing of terrorist acts, UNSC RES 2160/ , on concrete measures, under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, aiming to resolve the security predicament in Afghanistan, exacerbated by the activity of Taliban, Al-Qaeda and other extremist groups, UNSC RES 2161/ , on specific propositions under Chapter VII to the end of addressing the challenges arisen mostly by the activity of Al-Qaeda, UNSC RES 2169/ , on tackling the security situation in Iraq, aggravated by the presence of ISIS, under the auspices of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI), UNSC RES 2170/ on suppressing, under Chapter VII, the recruitment of foreign terrorist fighters and the financing of terrorist groups and examining the imposing of sanctions, and UNSC RES 2178/ , on international cooperation, under Chapter VII, with the purpose of countering violent extremism as a means to prevent terrorism. Finally, it is definitely notable that the first prominent UNSC Resolution was 1373/ , which was adopted immediately following the terrorist attacks on the United States of America on 11 September 2001 and which imposes extensive counter-terrorism legal obligations on all States. 84 United Nations Actions to Counter Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Related Bodies, as above. 85 Official Document of UNSC RES 2133/2014 ( 86 Official Document of UNSC RES 2160/2014 ( 87 Official Document of UNSC RES 2161/2014 ( 88 Official Document of UNSC RES 2169/2014 ( 89 Official Document of UNSC RES 2170/2014 ( 90 Official Document of UNSC RES 2178/2014 ( 91 Official Document of UNSC RES 1373/2001 ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 26

27 Its binding provisions require every country to freeze the financial assets of those who commit or attempt to commit acts of terrorism and their supporters, deny them travel or safe haven and prevent terrorist recruitment and weapons supply 92. At this point it would be useful to mention the UN Global Terrorism Strategy 93, concluded in 2006, The Hague-Marrakech Memorandum on Good Practices for a More Effective Response to the Foreign Terrorist Fighters Phenomenon 94, the Abu Dhabi Memorandum on Good Practices for Countering Violent Extremism and Education 95, The Hague Memorandum on Good Practices for the Judiciary in Adjudicating Terrorism Offenses 96, the Recommendations for Using and Protecting Intelligence Information in Rule of Law-Based, Criminal Justice Sector-Led Investigations and Prosecutions 97 and the Algiers Memorandum on Good Practices for Preventing and Denying the Benefits of Kidnapping for Ransom by Terrorists 98, all of which constitute initiatives that fuel the governments and international operations against terrorism with valuable good practices and propositions 99. Last but certainly not least, given the immense threat that the violent activity of ISIS currently poses both to the sovereignty and stability of the Middle Eastern states and to international peace and security, it would be negligent on our behalf not to refer, even in brief, to the recent actions of the US-led Coalition, mainly comprising of UK, France, Australia, the Netherlands, Germany, Canada, Turkey, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Qatar, Bahrain and the Iraqi Kurdistan, 92 UNODC, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism, Criminal Justice Handbook Series, 2009 ( _en.pdf) 93 UN Global Counter Terrorism Strategy ( 94 FTF Initiative ( Marrakech+FTF+Memorandum.pdf) 95 Abu Dhabi Memorandum ( 96 The Hague Memorandum ( 97 Recommendations ( 98 Algiers Memorandum ( venting+and+denying+the+benefits+of+kfr+by+terrorists-english) 99 Apart from the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly, all the remaining documents were adopted by the Global Counter-Terrorism Forum. United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 27

28 and Iran with the aim of suppressing the forceful march of ISIS. On the 8 th of August 2014 US military aircrafts conducted strikes on ISIS artillery 100, an operation which signaled the inauguration of a large scale air campaign as well as the dispatch of ground forces on behalf of the USA and its allies. As the American President Barack Obama has declared, it is a matter of hunting down terrorists who threaten America wherever they are 101. In terms of what has been done by some of USA s major allies 102, Australia has participated in airstrikes, has offered aircrafts to the United Arab Emirates and contributes to the resolution of the humanitarian crisis with the dispatch of humanitarian aid. The Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott has played down, though, the possibility of Australian troops involvement in ground fighting 103. As far as Great Britain is concerned, the Royal Air Force has conducted airstrikes whereas the British government supports the Iraqi government, helps arm Kurdish forces and keeps supplying humanitarian aid 104. France has already launched reconnaissance flights over Iraq, participating also in air operations, and keeps providing ammunition to antiterrorist fighters and making humanitarian drops, while Canada offers equipment and ammunition likewise and has deployed operations troops to Iraq to serve as adviser missions 105. Finally, Iranian President Hassan Rowhani vowed to support the Shiite-led Iraqi government in its battle against ISIS, during a diplomatic meeting with his Iraqi counterpart Prime Minister Haidar al- Abadi 106, however Iran s Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei seems to reject the possibility of a cooperation between his country and the US-led Coalition, due to the fact that he perceives their involvement as an attempt to seize control over the region Brett Logiurato, US conducts air strike in Iraq, Business Insider, 8/8/2014 ( 101 Tom Cohen, Obama outlines ISIS strategy: Airstrikes in Syria, more US forces, CNN, 11/9/2014 ( 102 Ashley Fantz, Who is doing what in the coalition battle against ISIS?, CNN, 7/10/ Daniel Hurst and Katharine Murphy, First Australian air strike in Iraq bombs Isis target, says ADF, The Guardian, 9/10/2014( Ashley Fantz, as above. 105 Ashley Fantz, as above. 106 Iran s Rowhani vows to back Iraq against ISIS, Al Arabiya News, 21/10/2014 ( 107 Khamenei rejects cooperation with US against ISIS, Al Arabiya News, 15/9/2014 ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 28

29 Ideas for propositions The violent march of ISIS, which has resulted in indiscriminate killing and deliberate targeting of civilians, numerous atrocities, mass executions and extrajudicial killings, persecution of individuals and entire communities on the basis of their religion or belief, kidnapping of civilians, forced displacement of members of minority groups, killing and maiming of children, recruitment and use of children, rape and other forms of sexual violence, arbitrary detention, attacks on schools and hospitals, destruction of cultural and religious sites and obstruction of the exercise of economic, social and cultural rights 108, constitutes tangible proof that the issue of religious terrorism in the Middle East remains unresolved and utterly likely to compromise international peace and security. For these reasons, not only does the United Nations Security Council need to remain actively seized of the matter, but it also must designate an efficient and effective strategy for countering extremism in the Middle East as a means to establish peace and stability in the region. First of all, as underlined both by the Sixth (Legal) Committee of the UN General Assembly 109 and by the European Union Delegation to the UN 110, the completion of the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism is of utmost importance, mostly in order to regulate the issue of the definition of terrorism and distinguish the latter from the right to self-determination. Certainly, as equally important is deemed the ratification and full implementation of the existing related Conventions by States which have not complied with international legality so far. In this domain the Terrorism Prevention Branch of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime can be of great significance, since it is destined to assist States in becoming parties in Counter-Terrorism Conventions and help them implement them. Due to the fact that terrorist acts are not considered as core international crimes, terrorist crimes fall in the category of national criminal law of international 108 All these incidents, in the present layout, were condemned by UNSC RES 2170/ Legal Committee Urges Conclusion of Draft Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism, United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Releases, 8/10/2012 ( 110 EU Presidency Statement Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, European Union Delegation to the United Nations, 6/10/2005 ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 29

30 concern 111. Therefore, it is urgent that States develop adequate domestic capacity and reform their domestic legislation in compliance with international law and in specific with International Counter-Terrorism Conventions, UNSC Resolutions, International Human Rights Law, Humanitarian Law, Refugee Law and Customary Law. Legislative reforms need to include the criminalization of terrorist acts designated as such by the international legal instruments, as well as of the incitement to such activity, and a revision of domestic procedural law. Finally, to the end of monitoring States compliance with international norms, legal judicial institutions, the civil society and the public media need to be mobilized. Nevertheless, what constitutes the cornerstone of a criminal justice response is an effective international cooperation 112. In the judicial domain, the main mechanisms for the establishment of international cooperation and coordination of efforts are mutual legal assistance, extradition, transfer of prisoners, transfer of proceedings, assistance in obtaining evidence, confiscation and asset recovery. In a broader approach, States must develop increased information-sharing for the purpose of identifying foreign terrorist fighters, sharing and adoption of good practices as well as a bolstered cooperation with INTERPOL. Moreover, strengthening cooperation among States can be proven extremely crucial in combating crimes that might be connected with terrorism, such as drug trafficking, illicit arms trade, money laundering and arms smuggling. Finally, the establishment of cooperation between States and the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons could pave the way towards an effective response to the financing of terrorism and the acquisition of Weapons of Mass Destruction on behalf of terrorist groups 113. As it has been repeatedly pinpointed by the Security Council, the issue of foreign terrorist fighters, often recruited in European countries with the purpose of participating in international terrorist networks, is of undeniable significance. Thus, national measures are necessary in order to suppress the flow of foreign terrorist 111 UNODC, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism, as above. It was only recently though that UNSC RES 2170/2014 in operative clause 3 expressed that a terrorist act may constitute a crime against humanity. 112 UNODC, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism, as above. 113 UN General Assembly Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, as above. United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 30

31 fighters and bring them to justice. These measures may include border controls, controls on the issuance of identity papers and travel documents, advance passenger information provided to States intelligence agencies by airlines, detection mechanisms for alteration or fraudulent use of travel documents, exchange of information and cooperation among competent authorities. Finally, the designation of rehabilitation and reintegration strategies for returning foreign terrorist fighters should also not be neglected. It seems rather needless to mention that measures to prevent the direct or indirect supply, sale or transfer to terrorist groups of arms, weapons, ammunition, military vehicles and paramilitary equipment as well as technical advice, assistance or military training should also be taken. For instance, such an arms embargo could be imposed via the intensification and acceleration of the exchange of operational information regarding traffic in arms and via the enhancement of the coordination of efforts in this domain. However, given the fact that the effectiveness of terrorist groups relies greatly on their financial potential, it is mandatory that States prevent and suppress the financing of terrorist acts and refrain from providing any form of support, active or passive, to terrorist individuals of entities. In particular, States must ensure that no funds, financial assets or economic resources are made available, directly or indirectly, for the benefit of terrorist groups and prohibit their nationals or individuals/entities within their territories from creating such funds. After all, such measures fall within the scope of UNSC sanctions imposed on individuals, groups and entities associated with Al-Qaeda, such as ISIS and ANF, along with a travel ban and an arms embargo. At this point it would be useful to underline that despite the effectiveness of the above-mentioned propositions, no counter-terrorism strategy can be utterly successful unless it addresses the root causes of terrorism, which in the case of religious terrorism are summarized in violent extremism. Consequently, the prevention of radicalization, recruitment and mobilization of individuals into terrorist groups, mainly through the removal of extremist material from the Internet, must emerge as a priority. Furthermore, as the UNSC has previously proposed 114, States must engage relevant local communities and non- 114 UNSC RES 2178/2014 United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 31

32 governmental actors to address the conditions conducive to the spread of violent extremism through empowering the youth, families, women, religious, cultural and education leaders, adopting tailored approaches to countering recruitment and promoting social inclusion and cohesion. After all, as the United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has stated: The education sector has an important role to play. Member States must strengthen their education systems to promote tolerance and mutual understanding among our children and youth, and to foster a global alliance of civilizations. Stronger civil society participation is equally necessary. 115 A similar conclusion is reached by Sara De Silva, RMS fellow at the International Center for Political Violence and Terrorism Research: with regards to suicide attacks and the ways to prevent them, she proposes a monitoring and threat assessment, proactive preventive measures, incident response and a consequence management. However, what she considers of paramount importance, especially on what concerns religious terrorism, is a sociopolitical approach, which will enable us to understand the motivations behind terrorism and create a vigilant society. In the field of religious terrorism, such an approach translates in the combat against the extremist religious ideology and the creation of a dialectical space to condemn suicide bombings, both practically and ideologically 116. Last but not least, pursuant to the UN General Assembly Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, counter-terrorism measures can under no circumstances ignore or damage human rights. Hence, such measures need to be structured in compliance with international human rights law, refugee law and humanitarian law, whereas States must develop and maintain effective and rule-of-law-based national criminal justice systems. Bloc positions and key players USA In an address from the State Flour of the White House, US President Barack Obama designated his strategy on combating ISIS: Working with the Iraqi government, we 115 UN News Center, At UN meeting, tolerance and education highlighted as critical allies against terrorism, 30/9/2014 ( 116 Sara De Silva, Preventing Suicide Terrorism, Terrorism Risk Debriefing, June 2009 ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 32

33 will expand our efforts beyond protecting our own people and humanitarian missions, so that we re hitting ISIL targets as Iraqi forces go on offense.[ ] I will not hesitate to take action against ISIL in Syria, as well as Iraq. This is a core principle of my presidency: If you threaten America, you will find no safe haven.[ ]I [have] deployed several hundred American service members to Iraq to assess how we can best support Iraqi security forces.[ ] These American forces will not have a combat mission [ ] but they are needed to support Iraqi and Kurdish forces with training, intelligence and equipment.[ ] Across the border, in Syria, we have ramped up our military assistance to the Syrian opposition.[ ] In the fight against ISIL, we cannot rely on an Assad regime that terrorizes its own people.[ ] Instead, we must strengthen the opposition as the best counterweight to extremists like ISIL, while pursuing the political solution necessary to solve Syria s crisis once and for all.[ ] Working with our partners, we will redouble our efforts to cut off its funding; improve our intelligence; strengthen our defenses; counter its warped ideology; and stem the flow of foreign fighters into and out of the Middle East 117. UK In the words of British Prime Minister David Cameron: The Joint Terrorism Analysis Center has increased the threat level in the United Kingdom from substantial to severe.[ ] The ambition to create an extremist caliphate in the heart of Iraq and Syria is a threat to our own security here in the U.K. And that is in addition to the many other Al Qaeda-inspired terrorist groups that exist in that region.[ ] This threat cannot solved simply be dealing with the perceived grievances over Western foreign policy. Nor can it be dealt with by addressing poverty, dictatorship or instability in the region, as important as these things are. The root cause of this threat to our security is quite clear. It is a poisonous ideology of Islamic extremism that is condemned by all faiths and all faith leaders.[ ] [It] is a battle between Islam on the one hand and extremists who want to abuse Islam on the other. It is absolutely vital that we make this distinction between religion and political ideology. [ ] Islamist extremism is a poisonous political ideology supported by a minority. These extremists, often funded by fanatics living comfortably far away from the battlefields, pervert the Islamic faith as a way of justifying their warped and barbaric ideology.[ ] The key point is that military force is just one element of what we can do and we need a much wider approach working with neighbors in the region and addressing not just 117 David Hudson, Barack Obama: We will degrade and ultimately destroy ISIL, The White House Blog, 10/9/2014 ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 33

34 security but politics too. We know that terrorist organizations thrive where there is political instability and weak or dysfunctional political institutions. So we must support [ ] the rule of law, the independence of the judiciary, the rights of minorities, free media, free association.[ ] We are stopping suspects from traveling by seizing passports, we're barring foreign nationals from reentering the U.K., we're depriving people of citizenship and we are legislating so we can prosecute people for all terrorist activity even where that activity takes place overseas.[ ] We need a tough, intelligent, patient and comprehensive approach to defeat the terrorist threat at its source 118. France As declared by M. Bernard Cazeneuve, Minister of the Interior, in response to questions in the National Assembly: We are determined to prevent these acts of barbarism. This is why we've set up a platform for people to report information, leading to the mobilization via prefects and public prosecutors, on French territory, of all France's government departments so that these young nationals do not succumb to their temptation of falling in with terrorist groups in Iraq and Syria. We are also taking preventive measures by bringing in, under the act passed by a large majority in Parliament, an official ban on leaving French territory; this ban prevents our nationals from becoming part of these terrorist groups and committing despicable crimes such as those of which images were released only recently. We are also taking preventive measures by proposing that, under the control of the administrative judge, websites and blogs inciting terrorism are blocked, since 90% of those who join terrorist groups in Iraq and Syria leave because of propaganda put out on the Internet. We also want to render harmless those who return by creating a new offence - that of an individual terrorist undertaking - so that judges can bring within the jurisdiction of the courts all situations arising when terrorists return. Finally, we are cooperating internationally by trying, with the European Union interior ministers, to set up the PNR, deepen Schengen and monitor these jihadists when they return to our countries so as to be able to render them harmless David Cameron Speech on ISIS, CNN Newsroom transcripts, 29/8/2014 ( 119 M. Bernard Cazeneuve Statements on ISIS, France Diplomatie, Foreign Policy Statements, 18/11/2014( #Chapitre1) United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 34

35 Russia As the Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov underlined in September: Terrorist threats must be eliminated and terrorists liquidated.[ ]We have repeatedly suggested to the US, the EU and leading European states to realize the extent of this threat. We have called on the UN to resolutely condemn terrorist attacks staged by Islamists in Syria. But we were told that it was Bashar Assad s politics that gave rise to terrorism, and that denouncing such acts was possible only alongside with the demand for his resignation. [ ]In Moscow s view, this represents a double standard and an attempt to justify terrorism. [ ]Up until the Syrian conflict, Russia and the West were unanimous that terrorism cannot be justified no matter what motive was behind them. [ ]But in the case of Syria the West had a different, twofaced stance. It was only when the terrorism threat which originated in Libya crept to Lebanon and then Iraq that Western countries realized it was time to deal with that.[ ] Having admitted it with a huge delay, western partners for some reason think that this threat should be eliminated on the territory of Iraq, while on the territory of Syria it might be left to the consideration of those who conduct the operation.[ ]There are reasons to suspect that air strikes on Syrian territory may target not only areas controlled by Islamic State militants, but the government troops may also be attacked on the quiet to weaken the positions of Bashar Assad s army.[ ] Not a single country should have its own plans on such issues. There can be only combined, collective, univocal actions. Only this way can a result be achieved. 120 China So far China remains reluctant in launching tangible action against ISIS 121. Discreet are its official statements: China supports Iraq in upholding independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity, accelerating political reconstruction and national reconciliation and fighting against terrorism. All factions in Iraq should build up solidarity, form an inclusive government as soon as possible and make concrete efforts for political reconciliation and economic reconstruction 122. [ ]The Chinese government staunchly fights against any form of terrorism. [ ] The international community should increase cooperation on the basis of mutual respect and 120 Lavrov: West may use ISIS as pretext to bomb Syrian govt forces, RT, 9/9/2014 ( 121 Zihao Liu, Why China will not fight ISIS?, The Diplomacist, 21/9/2014 ( 122 Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hong Lei's Regular Press Conference, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 4/7/2014 ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 35

36 equality, effectively combat terrorism and safeguard security and stability of the world and the region 123. Israel Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has warned that ISIS has got to be defeated because it's doing what all these militant Islamists are trying to do. They all want to first dominate their part of the Middle East, and then go on for their twisted idea of world domination.[ ] The difference between ISIS and Hamas and ISIS and Iran and so on is they all agree that the world should be an Islamist hill, but... each of them wants to be the king of the hill.[ ]Israel is ready to help in any way that we re asked.[ ] The greatest danger that I see from these militant Islamists is that they will marry their mad ideologies to weapons of mass death. That is a threat not only to my people, the Jewish people and the Jewish state of Israel, but to your people. They view us as one because of our tolerant societies, whom they think is weak and corrupt 124. Iran On the 25 th of September 2014, Iranian President Hassan Rouhani addressed the UN General Assembly: To the East and West of my country, extremists threaten our neighbors, resort to violence and shed blood. They of course do not speak a single language; [ ] they have come to the Middle East from around the world. They do however have a single ideology: violence and extremism. They also have a single goal: the destruction of civilization, giving rise to Islamophobia and creating a fertile ground for further intervention of foreign forces in our region. Extremism is not a regional issue that just the nations of our region would have to grapple with; extremism is a global issue. Certain states have helped creating it and are now failing to withstand it. [ ] Certain intelligence agencies have put blades in the hand of madmen, who now spare no one. All those who have played a role in founding and supporting these terror groups must acknowledge their errors that have led to extremism.[ ] To fight the underlying causes of terrorism, one must know its roots and dry its source fountains. Terrorism germinates in poverty, unemployment, discrimination, humiliation and injustice. And it grows with the culture of violence. To uproot extremism, we must spread justice and development and disallow the 123 Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hua Chunying's Regular Press Conference, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 10/9/2014 ( 124 Rebecca Kaplan, Netanyahu: ISIS, Hamas, Iran all want to be "king of the hill", Face the Nation, CBS News, 5/10/2014 ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 36

37 distortion of divine teachings to justify brutality and cruelty. The pain is made greater when these terrorists spill blood in the name of religion and behead in the name of Islam. [ ] I am astonished that these murderous groups call themselves an Islamic group. What is more astonishing is that the Western media, in line with them, repeats this false claim, which provokes the hatred of all Muslims.[ ] The experience of creation of Al-Qaeda, the Taliban, and modern extremist groups have demonstrated that one cannot use extremist groups to counter an opposing state and remain impervious to the consequences of rising extremism. The repetition of these mistakes despite many costly experiences is perplexing.[ ] The right solution to this important quandary comes from within the region and regionally provided solution with international support and not from the outside the region 125. EU Following the EU Foreign Ministers meeting in Luxembourg this past October, High Representative Catherine Ashton declared: We remain extremely concerned about the security and humanitarian situation in Iraq and Syria. And we all agreed on the fact that the actions of ISIS are totally unacceptable and we need to do all we can to contribute to the international efforts to defeat such terrorist groups 126. Among the conclusions reached by the participant ministers were the following: EU is committed to tackling in a comprehensive and coordinated manner the regional threat posed by terrorism and violent extremism and addressing the underlying instability and violence which has given ISIS and other terrorist groups a foothold. The EU supports efforts by more than sixty States to tackle the threat from ISIS, including military action in accordance with international law. It notes that military action in this context is necessary but not sufficient to defeat ISIS and it is part of a wider effort comprising measures in the political/diplomatic, counter-terrorism and terrorism funding, humanitarian and communication field. The EU calls on all partners to enforce relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions, including 2170 and 2178 and to step up efforts at national level to deny ISIS the benefits of illicit oil sales and other goods. [ ]As a consequence of its policies and actions, the Assad regime cannot be a partner in the fight against ISIS. [ ]EU reiterates its firm 125 Full text of Iran s Hassan Rouhani at UN, The Times of Israel, 25/9/2014 ( 126 EU Ministers support fight against Ebola, condemn ISIL & discuss Ukraine, EUROPA, 21/10/2014 ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 37

38 commitment to counter the serious problem of foreign fighters who have joined the ranks of ISIS and other terrorist groups. The Council endorses the EU counter terrorism / foreign fighters strategy, which is an integral part of the response to the August 2014 European Council Conclusions and to United Nations Security Council Resolutions 2170 and Arab League Arab League chief Nabil El-Araby stated in October that the Arab League would like to see progress and stability in Iraq despite the difficulties it now faces. The entire Arab world is facing a period unlike any it has gone through, including ideas and ideologies incompatible with the modern era. In a joint news conference with the Arab League delegation, Iraqi Foreign Minister Ibrahim Jaafari noted that some Arab states have pledged to help Iraq with arms, humanitarian aid, logistics, air power, intelligence and training; however they would not be sending ground troops. An Arab coalition including Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and Qatar have been working with the U.S. and Britain, France and Australia, to conduct airstrikes against Islamic State militants who have seized wide areas of Syria and Iraq. Kuwaiti Foreign Minister Sabah al Khaled al Sabah stated that Arab states must work together to battle the extremist ideas of Islamic State militants. He added that Arab states pledged to support the Iraqi government at a conference in Jeddah on September 11, both politically and with humanitarian aid and by stopping extremist ideas and financial support from nearby states."the Arab League should get engaged more and more with Iraq, especially in its fight against ISIS, and also in national reconciliation," said Iraqi parliament member and former national security adviser Mowaffak al Rubaie, adding that "we need to mobilize all our resources and encourage members to make it difficult for any money transfers to ISIS from Arab countries, movement of young men from these countries to Iraq and also any logistical or political support from the Arab League Press Release on the 3340 th Meeting on Foreign Affairs, 20/10/2014 ( 128 Edward Yeranian, Arab League Reaffirms Support for Iraq in Fight Against IS Militants, Voice of America, 19/10/2014 ( United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 38

39 Issues to be addressed during debate and resolution-writing What is the definition of terrorism, if any? Which are the disputed issues with regards to it? Is a definition needed? At what point does the character of faith-motivated activism become extremist and terrorist? Are there any economic or socio-political factors that help religious terrorism strive? If so, how can they be faced? Did foreign powers play a role in this destabilization? Which are the principal terrorist groups based on the Middle East today? Is terrorism in the Middle East inherent to Islam? How did terrorist organizations evolve? How are they maintaining their power? How or why do religious terrorist organizations keep finding new recruits and financial means? What can be done to prevent this? Which international legal instruments have been adopted to this day and which UN SC Resolutions address the issue of religious terrorism in the Middle East? How sufficient do you consider their provisions and, given the ongoing ISISrelated crisis in Iraq and Syria, which further measures would you propose for the resolution of the crisis? Is there a possibility that the situation will deter further, creating a permanent breeding ground for terrorists? Are there other armed groups active in the Middle east that are not considered terrorist organizations? If so, what is their role? Can terrorist be effectively disarmed and if so, how? Are groups such as IS a new phenomenon? Should it be dealt with differently? What is the significance of drafting a UNSC Resolution under Chapter VII of the UN Charter? Conclusion Violent extremism leading to religious terrorism is now more real than ever. Recent terrorist activity in one the economically and politically most destabilized regions in the world, the Middle East, constitutes solid proof that terrorism has an international dimension which can readily compromise international peace and security, seeing that terrorist organizations have developed clear geopolitical United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 39

40 ambitions. For these reasons, the need for the international community to effectively tackle this threat has emerged as imperative and the role of the United Nations Security Council can be determining. Bibliography -Definition of Terrorism and Self-Determination, Harvard International Review, December 20, H. H.A. Cooper, Terrorism: The Problem of Definition Revisited, American Behavioral Scientist, Cornell University Law School, Legal Information Institute, Self-determination (International law) -Patricia Carley, U.S. Responses to self-determination movements: Strategies for Nonviolent Outcomes and Alternatives to Secession, July Karen Parker, Presentation to First International Conference on the Right to Self- Determination, Understanding Self- determination: The basics, United Nations, Geneva, August Amy Zalman, State terrorism, a definition of state terrorism -Various definitions of terrorism pdf -Lone-Wolf Terrorism, Instituut voor Veiligheids en Crisismanagment, Final draft, 6/7/ Wolf%20Terrorism.pdf -History, Crusades United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 40

41 -Amy Zalman, Religious Terrorism, A Short Primer on Religion and Terrorism, -Vladimir Tomek, Religiously motivated terrorism, Terrorist acts by Christians and members of other faiths, Amy Zalman, The history of Terrorism -What is the difference between Sunni and Shi a Muslims? -Phillip Blond and Adrian Pabst, The roots of Islamic Terrorism, The New York Times, Prof Michel Chossudovsky, The 9/11 Reader. The September 11, 2001 Terror Attacks, Global Research, September 11th Hijackers Fast Facts, CNN Library, September 11th Fast Facts, CNN Library, Australian National Security, Listed Terrorist Organizations Nusra.aspx -Stanford University, Mapping Militant Organizations -Sven Pöhle, Deutche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East, 26/06/ United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 41

42 -Aaron Y. Zelin, The Washington Institute, Know Your Ansar al-sharia, US Department of State, Terrorist Designations of Three Ansar al-shari'a Organizations and Leaders, Office of the Spokesman, Washington DC, Oxford dictionary, Hezbollah -Amy Zalman, Hezbollah, a profile of the Lebanese Militant Group -Jonathan Masters, Zachary Laub, Council on foreign relations, Hezbollah, Gregory Baskin, Liberty Voice, Gaza Strip: A short history of Hamas, William Booth, The Washington Post, The UN says, 7 in 10 Palestinians killed in Gaza were civilians. Israel disagrees, August palestinians-killed-in-gaza-were-civilians-israel- disagrees/2014/08/29/44edc598-2faa-11e4-9b _story.html -Amy Zalman, Hamas -William Booth, The Washington Post, Here s what really happened in the Gaza war (according to the Israelis), September Timeline: Key events in the history of Al Qaeda, CBC News, May Timeline Al Qaeda, The Guardian, Abdulrahman al-masri, Michele Chabin, Mona Alami, Sarah Lynch, Al Qaeda hasn t gone away, and is gaining, Al Qaeda continues to grow in the Middle East, USA Today, United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 42

43 -Global Security, Al-Quida, Al-Qaeda, (the base) -Leah Farrall, How Al Qaeda works, What the organization Subsidiaries say about its strength, Foreign Affairs, Amy Zalman, Al Qaeda, Profile of al Qaeda, -Al Qaeda remaining leaders, BBC News, Ray Sanchez, ISIS, ISIL or the Islamic State? CNN, September ISIS Fast Facts, CNN, November Hussain Abdul-Hussain and Lee Smith, On the origin of ISIS, The Weekly Standard, September Elizabeth Schumacher, Islamic State, A chronology of key developments, Deutche Welle, 14/09/ Nick Thompson, Richard Allen Greene and Inez Torre, ISIS, everything you need to know about the rise of the militant group, CNN, November Sven Pöhle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East, Deutche Welle, 26/06/ Holly Yan, What s the difference between ISIS, al-nusra and the Khorasan Group?, CNN, September United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 43

44 -Steve Coll, In search of a strategy, The New Yorker, September Ben Saul, Definition of Terrorism in the UN Security Council: , Oxford Journals, UN, Terrorism -Human Rights Voices, UN 101, There is no UN definition of terrorism -Sudha Setty, WHAT S IN A NAME? HOW NATIONS DEFINE TERRORISM TEN YEARS AFTER 9/11, ll.1(2011).pdf -Christian Walter, Defining terrorism in national and international law -Thalif Deen, UN: defining terrorism -The UN remains unable to draw a distinction between "freedom fighters" and "state sponsored terrorism", Patrick Goodenough, Almost 10 Years After 9/11, U.N. Still Grappling to Define Terrorism, CNS news, Anton Hsu, Defining Terrorism and the State Sponsors of Terrorism, Global Research, US Department of State, Chapter 6. Foreign Terrorist Organizations, United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 44

45 -Ian Black, Arab cooperation is symbolic win for US, but uneasy allies face many tests, The Guardian, Mullen Jethro, Yet another beheading. What's the world going to do about ISIS, CNN, Middle East, Encyclopedia Britannica -Gus Martin, Essentials of Terrorism: Concepts and Controversies, SAGE Publications, Akbar Ganji, Confronting Terrorism and Instability in the Middle East: The Common National Interests of Iran and the United States, Huffington Post, 23/6/ Zdzislaw Galicki, International Law and Terrorism, American Behavioral Scientist, SAGE Publications, Elisavet Symeonidou-Kastanidou, The definition of terrorism. -Security Council Actions to Counter Terrorism -United Nations Actions to Counter Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Related Bodies -UNODC, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism, Criminal Justice Handbook Series, onses_to_terrorism_en.pdf United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 45

46 -UN Global Counter Terrorism Strategy -Brett Logiurato, US conducts air strike in Iraq, Business Insider, 8/8/ Tom Cohen, Obama outlines ISIS strategy: Airstrikes in Syria, more US forces, CNN, 11/9/ Ashley Fantz, Who is doing what in the coalition battle against ISIS?, CNN, 7/10/2014 -Daniel Hurst and Katharine Murphy, First Australian air strike in Iraq bombs Isis target, says ADF, The Guardian, 9/10/ Iran s Rowhani vows to back Iraq against ISIS, Al Arabiya News, 21/10/ Khamenei rejects cooperation with US against ISIS, Al Arabiya News, 15/9/ Legal Committee Urges Conclusion of Draft Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism, United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Releases, 8/10/ EU Presidency Statement Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, European Union Delegation to the United Nations, 6/10/ U.N. Security Council blacklists ISIS militants, Al Arabiya News, 15/8/ United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 46

47 -UN News Center, At UN meeting, tolerance and education highlighted as critical allies against terrorism, 30/9/ U.K. leader on plans to "root out extremism", CBS News, 14/11/ Sara De Silva, Preventing Suicide Terrorism, Terrorism Risk Debriefing, June David Hudson, Barack Obama: We will degrade and ultimately destroy ISIL, The White House Blog, 10/9/ David Cameron Speech on ISIS, CNN Newsroom transcripts, 29/8/ M. Bernard Cazeneuve Statements on ISIS, France Diplomatie, Foreign Policy Statements, 18/11/ e=baen#chapitre1 -Lavrov: West may use ISIS as pretext to bomb Syrian government forces, RT, 9/9/ Zihao Liu, Why China will not fight ISIS?, The Diplomacist, 21/9/ Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hong Lei's Regular Press Conference, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 4/7/ Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hua Chunying's Regular Press Conference, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 10/9/ United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 47

48 -Rebecca Kaplan, Netanyahu: ISIS, Hamas, Iran all want to be "king of the hill", Face the Nation, CBS News, 5/10/ Full text of Iran s Hassan Rouhani at UN, The Times of Israel, 25/9/ EU Ministers support fight against Ebola, condemn ISIL & discuss Ukraine, EUROPA, 21/10/ Press Release on the 3340 th Meeting on Foreign Affairs, 20/10/ pdf -Edward Yeranian, Arab League Reaffirms Support for Iraq in Fight Against IS Militants, Voice of America, 19/10/ United Nations Security Council Topic Area A 48