NCAA Division I Athletes' Attitudes Toward Seeking Sport Psychology Consultation: The Development of an Objective Instrument

Transcription

1 The Sport Psychologist, 1997,11, O 1997 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. NCAA Division I Athletes' Attitudes Toward Seeking Sport Psychology Consultation: The Development of an Objective Instrument Scott B. Martin University of North Texas Craig A. Wrisberg, Patricia A. Beitel, and John Lounsbury University of Tennessee A 50-item questionnaire measuring athletes' attitudes toward seeking a sport psychology consultant (ATSSPCQ) was initially developed and then administered to 48 African American and 177 Caucasian student-athletes at a NCAA Division I university. Principal components factor analyses were conducted to extract initial factors and then varimax orthogonal rotation was performed. The analyses produced three dimensions of athlete attitude that accounted for 35% of the variance: stigma tolerance, confidence in a SPCIrecognition of need, and interpersonal opemess/willingness to try a SPC. A MANOVA and follow-up discriminant function analyses were then performed to identify the factors that maximized differences between gender and race. Significant differences in stigma tolerance were found for both gender and race. SPCs were stigmatized more by male athletes than by female athletes and more by African American athletes than by Caucasian athletes. No other significant effects were obtained. Key Words: Athletes, attitudes, gender, perceptions, questionnaire, race, sport psychology consultation Every year an increasing number of sport psychology consultants (SPCs) work with athletes, coaches, and teams (Gordon, 1990; Halliwell, 1990; Loehr, Scott B. Martin is with the Department of Kinesiology, Health Promotion, and Recreation at the University of North Texas, Denton, TX Craig A. Wrisberg and Patricia A. Beitel both are with the Cultural Studies Unit and John Lounsbury is with the Department of Psychology, all at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN

2 202 Martin, Wrisberg, Beifel, and bunsbu y 1990; Murphy & Ferrante, 1989; Ravizza, 1990; Rotella, 1990). Despite a substantial growth in the number of SPCs, many athletes and coaches remain reluctant to use their services (Ravizza, 1988). This has prompted several researchers to assess athletes' perceptions of psychological skills and their attitudes toward the services being offered by SPCs. Ravizza (1988) identified three significant barriers facing SPCs who wish to work with an athlete, coach, or team: (a) negative connotations related to the "sport psychology-shrink" image, (b) lack of sport-specific knowledge, and (c) inadequate knowledge of and experience with the politics of the sport environment. Additional hurdles mentioned included the lack of cross-cultural and cross-gender awareness by the sport psychology practitioner. Lee and Rotella (1991) further pointed out that the largest percentage of SPCs have typically been White, middle-class males who may have different values and perspectives than those of minority and/ or female athletes. The combination of these and other issues may increase the difficulty of SPCs gaining acceptance with certain subgroups of athletes. The majority of studies investigating the perceptions and attitudes of people toward SPCs typically have assessed consultants' insights (Gordon, 1990; Halliwell, 1990; Ravizza, 1988, 1990) or the opinions of athletes who have already been exposed to a supervised mental training program (Fenker & Lambiotte, 1987; Gould, Petlichkoff, Hodge, & Simons, 1990; Gould, Tammen, Murphy, & May, 1989; Gould, Murphy, Tammen, & May, 1991; Grove & Hanrahan, 1988; Hellstedt, 1987; Orlick & Partington, 1987; Partington & Orlick, 1987; Van Raalte, Brewer, Brewer, & Linder, 1992). Other studies have focused on the attitudes and perceptions of populations having had little or no experience working with an SPC (Francis, 1992; Linder, Brewer, Van Raalte, & DeLange, 1991; Linder, Pillow, & Reno, 1989; Silva, 1984; Sullivan & Hodge, 1991; Van Raalte, Brewer, Linder, & DeLange, 1990). To date, only a few published papers have addressed issues facing the SPC who works with individuals of the opposite gender (Henschen, 1991; Yambor & Connelly, 1991) or of a different race (Anshel, 1990; Anshel & Sailes, 1990; Lee & Rotella, 1991). Past sport research targeting the issue of race has primarily involved Black players' perceptions of their White coach. A comparative study of White and Black athletes' perceptions of their White coach (Evans, 1978) indicated that Black athletes were less trusting of their coach than were White athletes. Evans and Quarterman (1983) also found that trust was an important factor determining the relationship between Black female basketball players and their coach, particularly for higher skilled players. A more recent study by Anshel (1990) revealed clear differences, both physically and mentally, between the approaches to sport preparation taken by White and Black football players. Black athletes indicated that they did not like to get caught up in head games, but preferred to focus internally, and tune out what the coach was saying. In fact, prior to competition, Black athletes said they felt that coaches were too authoritative and verbally assertive. They also perceived that their coaches viewed them more as performers than as individuals with interests outside of sport. Taken together, these findings suggest that Black athletes may tend to mistrust and feel distant from their White coaches. Research in counseling has indicated similar attitudes of Black clients toward White counselors. Watkins and Terrell (1988) found that Blacks who were highly mistrustful of Whites and who were assigned to White counselors had lower expectations of counseling. Watkins, Terrell, Miller, and Terrell(1989) also found

3 Athletes' Attitudes 203 that highly mistrustful Blacks regarded the White counselor as less credible and less able to help them with general anxiety, shyness, inferiority feelings, and dating difficulties. Consistent with the notion that racial similarity may contribute to the success of the counseling process, Wade and Bernstein (1991) found that Black clients returned to see Black counselors more often than they did White counselors. In addition to possible differences in the perceptions of Black and White athletes toward SPCs, it has been suggested that gender differences may also exist in the attitudes of athletes toward SPCs. While all student-athletes face similar pressures associated with being both an athlete and a student,yambor and Connelly (1991) contend that, due to the masculine orientation of competitive sport, males may be more resistant than females to sport psychology consultation because they do not want to be perceived as "weak" or in need of such services. Therefore, males may be less open to the consultation process and more reluctant to express their emotions and feelings to a SPC than are females. Several sport psychologists have suggested that differences in the gender of the SPC and the athlete may influence consultant effectiveness. Yambor and Connelly (1991) believe that their credibility with male athletes is hindered because they are females, whereas Henschen (1991) feels that being a male SPC gives him credibility with female athletes due to cultural norms and stereotypes favoring a masculine orientation in competitive sport. Except for these reports, there has been little published work exploring possible differences in male and female athletes' perceptions of SPCs. In the only study directly addressing differences in athletes' perceptions of SPCs as a function of both race and gender, Wrisberg and Martin (1994) surveyed collegiate athletes at one NCAA Division 1 institution. With respect to racial differences, they found greater reservations about consulting with a SPC among African American athletes than among Caucasian athletes. In particular, African American athletes indicated they were more unsure about what a SPC actually does than were Caucasian athletes. Compared to Caucasian athletes, African American athletes also believed that they would be harassed by teammates to a greater extent if they used the services of a SPC. While there were no significant gender differences, Caucasian female athletes indicated that they viewed the SPC as another type of coach and felt that a SPC could help them improve their mental toughness to a significantly greater extent than did African American female athletes. Consistent with the findings of earlier research (Anshel, 1990; Atkinson, Furlong, & Poston, 1986; Wade & Bernstein, 1991), African American women indicated that they would be more comfortable with a SPC if he or she were of the same race as them. The results of this investigation suggested preliminary support for the notion that race and, to a lesser extent, gender may be factors influencing athletes' attitudes toward SPCs. In the present study, an attempt was made to extend the work of Wrisberg and Martin (1994) by surveying a larger number of collegiate athletes from a variety of sports in order to determine whether their perceptions of psychological skills and/or attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation differed as a function of gender and race. Prior to data collection, modifications of the questionnaire used by Wrisberg and Martin (1994) were made in order to increase the validity and reliability of the instrument and to identify principal factors that influence athletes' perceptions of psychological skills as well as their attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation. Based on the findings of Wrisberg and Martin (1994) and the previously mentioned literature, it was hypothesized that (a) there

4 204 Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel, and Lounsbu y would be a significant difference between African American and Caucasian athletes' perceptions of psychological skills and attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation; (b) there would be no significant difference between male and female athletes7 perceptions of psychological skills and attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation; and (c) there would be no significant Race X Gender interaction for athletes' perceptions of psychological skills and their attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation. Participants Method Forty-eight African American (14 female and 34 male) and 177 Caucasian (79 female and 98 male) scholarship athletes ranging from 17 to 23 years of age at a NCAA Division I university volunteered to participate in the study. Informed consent was obtained from each athlete prior to participation. Represented in the sample were athletes from the sports of baseball, basketball, crew, football, golf, swimming, tennis, track and cross country, and volleyball. Instrument The instrument used in this study was a refined version of the questionnaire developed by Wrisberg and Martin (1994) that was designed to measure athletes' perceptions about sport psychology and their attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation. An aggregate list of appropriate test items hypothesized to tap athletes' attitudes about sport psychology was developed from the sport psychology and counseling psychology literature. Existing inventory content from previous sport psychology studies (Francis, 1992; Gould, Hodge, Peterson, & Petlichkoff, 1987; Gould et al., 1991; Wrisberg & Martin, 1994) and counseling psychology research (Fischer & Turner, 1970; Tinsley, 1982), was used in an attempt to develop appropriate questions and to provide ideas for format and organization. These inventories were selected because they were designed to measure important constructs dealing with attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Based on the theory supporting each of five constructs, succinct operational definitions were developed, along with key words or phrases. Stigmatization. A brand or mark that represents a deterrent to associating with a particular person or profession. Recognition of Need. The personal realization that there is a need for assistance, for example, an individual feeling that he or she should not have to work alone through periods of adjustment. Confidence in Sport Psychology. The reflected expression of faith in the abilities of a sport psychology consultant to help. Social Desirability. The tendency of an individual to associate and accept the important values or views of a particular group. Interpersonal Openness. A condition in which persons are willing and able to discuss problems or concerns with others, for example, they disclose information more readily to an appropriate professional. The initial item pool was examined to match each item with the construct it best represented. Decisions were based on question content; assessing the question

5 Athletes' Attitudes 205 "meaning" and grouping items of similar content to the construct with the theoretical definition that matched those items. A systematic gathering of question content was achieved by obtaining input from a panel that included one psychology professor, two sport psychology professors, and two sport psychology doctoral students. Items and operational definitions for each component were evaluated by the panel. All panel members read each item and, when appropriate, made wording changes to reduce ambiguity. The revised questionnaire was reviewed and then pilot tested on five collegiate basketball players. Throughout item construction and adaptation, efforts were made to keep questions brief and the wording simple. The vocabulary was chosen to ensure ease of comprehension by the athletes completing the inventory. As a result of pilot testing and subsequent discussion with the players and the panel, three items were deleted. One item was eliminated because it was a compound sentence (i.e., "Getting a sport psychology consultant would be a last resort because a. person should work their own problems out."). Two additional items were removed because they resembled other existing items that were stated more clearly. The final revision of the Athletes' Attitudes Toward Seeking Sport Psychology Consultation Questionnaire (ATSSPCQ) was comprised of 50 items, with 10 items corresponding to each of the five constructs. In responding to the ATSSPCQ, participants are asked to indicate the extent to which each item is reflective of their behavior or of a personal trait by selecting from a 7-point Likert scale anchored by the terms "Strongly Disagree" and "Strongly Agree." Higher scores represent greater agreement about the occurrence of the behavior or the presence of the trait. Eight items are negatively worded to allow for an honesty test and a social desirability check. 1tems from each construct are alternated such that two items from one construct are never positioned in succession. Procedure The participants were recruited from the men's and women's athletic departments of a major southeastern university. All head coaches (n = 15) consented to their team's participation in the study and team meetings for each sport were arranged. During each meeting, athletes were asked to complete the ATSSPCQ and to provide demographic and sport background information regarding gender, race, education level (i.e., high school, college), year in school (i.e., first year, sophomore, junior, senior), major, primary sport, completed years of college sports participation, and number of consultations with a SPC. All athletes were instructed to respond to each item as honestly as possible. The ATSSPCQ and demographic information took approximately 15 minutes to complete. Descriptive Statistics Results A total of 284 questionnaires were distributed at team meetings. Of this total, 230 complete and usable inventories were returned, representing an 8 1 % response rate. However, the data of Hispanic (n = 1) and Asian (n = 4) student-athletes were not included in the analyses. Thus, all analyses were based on completed information from 225 athletes (Table 1).

6 206 Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel, and Lounsbu y Table 1 Distribution and Response Rate of Athletes That Adequately Completed the Questionnaire African Group American Caucasian Total Males Baseball Basketball Football Golf Swimming Tennis Track & Cross Country Total Females Basketball Crew Golf Swimming Tennis Track & Cross Country Volleyball - Total The participants' ages ranged Erom 17 to 23 years, with a mean age of 19.7 years (SD = 1.4). Of the 225 respondents, 74 were first-year students, 53 were sophomores, 64 were juniors, and 34 were seniors. The participants had a mean of 1.3 years of completed college sport experience. Eighty-four (37%) had seen a SPC at some point in their college sport career, with 50 (22%) having had one to three consultations, 11 (5%) having had four or five personal contacts, and 23 (10%) having had more than five contacts. Descriptive statistics for each item from the initial administration of the ATSSPCQ (N = 225) are presented in Table 2. The relatively large skewness observed for many of the items was not unexpected. It was anticipated that on some items the mean response would approach the ceiling value on the 7-point scale. Means and standard deviations of each item by race and gender are shown in Table 3. Factor Analyses Principal components factor analyses were conducted to extract initial factors. Five criteria were considered in determining the number of factors to rotate: (a) the number of components with eigenvalues of at least 1.0, (b) the scree test, (c) the percentage of variance accounted for by each component, (d) the percentage of total variance accounted for by the retained principal components, and (e) the

7 Athletes' Attitudes 207 Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Skewness for Each Item on the ATSSPCQ Item SD ATSSPCQ Skew Item SD Skew SO number of interpretable components (Tinsley & Tinsley, 1987). Based on the five criteria, a three-factor solution with varimax rotation was performed to transform the initial matrix to orthogonal simple structure to aid in interpretation. The resultant three-factor solution accounted for 35% of the overall response variance. The items that loaded at least 0.5 or greater were used to name the factors. The inventory items that loaded highest on each of the three factors (stigma tolerance, confidence in sport psychology consultation/recognition of need, and personal openness/openness to sport psychology consultation) are presented in Tables 4,5, and 6, respectively. All 50 factor loadings had a value of 0.23 or greater. Because the ATSSPCQ was considered to be a seminal instrument to assess athletes' perceptions and because Cattell (1978) has suggested that loadings as low as 0.15 are salient, it was decided that all 50 items would be retained. The first factor (stigma tolerance) was comprised of items describing expected negative consequences of seeking sport psychology consultation, and it

8 208 Martin, Wrisberg, Beifel, and Lounsbu y Table 3 Means and Standard Deviations for Each Item by Race and Gender African American Participants Caucasian Male Female Male Female (n = 34) (n = 14) (n = 98) (n = 79) Item M SD M SD M SD M SD

9 Athletes' Attitudes 209 Table 3 (continued) Participants African American Caucasian Male Female Male Female (n = 34) (n = 14) (n = 98) (n = 79) Item M SD M SD M SD M SD accounted for 21.0% of the variance of the scores on the ATSSPCQ. Three items loaded in a negative direction on this factor (17, 30, and 42). However, two of these items (17 and 42) also loaded highly on Factor 2. The other negatively loaded item (30), "women should be free to participate in any sport," appeared to be related to sociocultural stigma. After reversing items 17, 30, and 42, high scores on this factor indicated a stigma toward seeking sport psychology consultation and sociocultural relations. The second factor (confidence in sport psychology consultation/recognition of need) consisted of items that dealt with a person's confidence in SPCs and their ability to recognize the need to receive help. This factor accounted for 7.2% of the total variance. Six items (1,6, 14,33,34, and 49) negatively loaded on this factor. After reversing these items, high scores on this factor represented higher confidence in sport psychology consultation and the recognition of a need for assistance. The third factor (personal openness/openness to sport psychology consultation) accounted for 6.4% of the total variance and was comprised of items dealing with respondents' interpersonal openness and willingness to try sport psychology consultation. A high score on this factor suggested that the athlete was receptive to mental training and willing to listen to others. The factor structure of these items was not as simple as desired. For example, three of the items comprising Factor 3 loaded less than 0.3 on this factor. Although the correlations were significant, higher loadings would have been preferred. Some items not included in this factor (e.g., Item 2) loaded more highly on Factor 3 than did some of the items that comprised it. This was because an item, selected for a factor by its highest loading, may have had relatively heavy weights on two factors. An ideal criterion for selecting an item for a test is that it loads on one factor only, producing a unifactorial test (Kline, 1994). Such items load on their respective scales and do not load highly on others. It should be noted that this was not completely the case for the ATSSPCQ.

10 210 * Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel, and Lounsbury Table 4 Items That Loaded Highly on Factor 1 Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor More comfortable with a SPC if were the same race. 47. Coach would think less of me if I went to a SPC. 22. Feel uneasy going to a SPC because people would disapprove. 27. Seeing a SPC is bad for an athlete's reputation. 38. Not want my coach to know that I went to a SPC. 5. Respect the opinions of my own culture more than other cultures. 43. Not want my teammates to know that I went to a SPC. 12. Would not go to a SPC because my teammates would harass me. 40. Resent people that have a higher socioeconomic status. 17. Would support a teammate that went to a SPC. 35. Relate better to people with a similar socioeconomic status as my own. 23. Resent anybody who wants to know about my personal difficulties. 7. SPCs only help athletes who have serious emotional problems. 10. Not take advice from the opposite sex about my sport performance. 39. Due to time and expense, a SPC would be of doubtful value for me. 25. There are great differences between people of different races. 21. Would prefer feelings of too much pressure than seek help from a SPC. 37. Not want someone to know about me receiving help from a SPC. 48. Difficulty talking about personal problems with educated people. 42. If needed, I would get help no matter who knew about it. 30. Women should be free to participate in any sport. 15. People I associate with on my team are of the same race as me. Scale Reliabilities and Intercowelations Cronbach's alpha was calculated for the entire ATSSPCQ and for each of the derived factors in order to determine levels of internal consistency of the entire instrument and of the derived factors. The Cronbach coefficient alpha for total item responses (i.e., 50) for the ATSSPCQ was.7 1. Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients of.89,.8 1, and.64 were obtained for Factors 1,2, and 3, respectively. These results

11 Athletes' Attitudes 211 Table 5 Items That Loaded Highly on Factor 2 Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor A SPC would help me perform better under pressure Would get help from a SPC if upset about my sport performance. -.I Would like the help of a SPC to better understand myself. -.I SPC could help me fine tune my sport performance If teammate asked my advice, I might recommend a SPC My first thought would be to get professional help Have felt lost and would have welcomed professional advice. -.I Getting a SPC would be a last resort A SPC can help improve mental toughness Athletes with a strong character overcome conflicts by themselves Would go to my coach instead of going to a SPC Would only go to a SPC if my coach told me to Do not have much respect for SPCs Would go to a SPC if a teammate were going also Emotional difficulties tend to work themselves out in time Would feel most secure in receiving help from a SPC compare favorably with the alpha value of.6 recommended by Nunnally (1978) for scales to be used in basic research. The raw variable alpha was used because all items were scored on the same scale. The correlations among the three factor scores were calculated for the same sample (N = 225), and none of the painvise correlations were significant (Factor 1 and Factor 2: r =.04, p = 0.54; Factor 1 and Factor 3: r =.02, p = 0.79; Factor 2 and Factor 3: r =.03, p = 0.66). Test-Retest Reliability (Stability) To estimate stability over time, the instrument was administered twice to a sample of 16 student-athletes from a diet/nutrition class over an eight-week period. None of these athletes were members of the original sample. Correlated t-tests were calculated to determine the extent of difference between scores on the two administrations of the test. The test-retest correlation for the entire ATSSPCQ was 39. Furthermore, test-retest correlations of.93,.88, and.85 were obtained for the three subscales: stigma tolerance, confidence in sport psychology consultation/recognition of need, and personal opennessjopenness to sport psychology consultation, respectively. All test-retest correlations for the 50 items were also very high, ranging from.69 to.98, with no correlation below.69, and 27 correlations above.90. Thus, it appears that the ATSSPCQ has acceptable stability over time.

12 212 * Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel, and Lounsbu y Table 6 Items That Loaded Highly on Factor 3 Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 4. Need to develop a mental plan prior to competition. 3. Would really try to follow suggestions a SPC gave to me. 46. Would have more confidence in a SPC if had similar sport experience. 9. Would respect a teammate that went to a SPC. 13. Certain problems should not be discussed outside one's family. 8. I might discuss personal matters with a SPC, if it would help me. 28. There are experiences in my life that I would not discuss with anyone. 18. Good idea for avoiding womes is to keep one's mind on a job. 24. Something respectable about willing to cope with conflicts. 20. Easily speak about my personal life with the opposite sex. 45. Would be more comfortable with a SPC if they were of the same sex. 32. Ashamed when I have a mental letdown during a sport performance. Concurrent Validity of the Instrument A nomological network was performed using the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help (ATSPPH) questionnaire (Fischer & Turner, 1970). Fischer and Turner (1970) reported test-retest reliability over a two-week period of.89, and over an eight-week period of.84. The internal consistency of the ATSPPH was.83. Scores on the ATSPPH have been shown to discriminate between respondents who have never sought out psychological assistance from those who have, thus providing evidence of construct validity (Fischer &Turner, 1970). In the present study, group validity was examined by performing paired t-tests on the items from the two questionnaires. None of the comparisons produced significant differences (p >.05). Tests of Hypotheses Regarding Athletes' Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology Consultation as a Function of Race, Gender, and the Interaction of Race and Gender In order to determine whether NCAA Division I athletes' attitudes toward sport psychology consultation could be differentiated by race, gender, or the interaction of race and gender, factor scores were created for each respondent on all three

13 Athletes' Attitudes 213 factors, and these were used as dependent variables in a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Race. It was hypothesized that there would be a significant difference between African American and Caucasian athletes' perceptions of psychological skills and attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation. The MANOVA indicated a significant main effect for race, Wilks' Lambda =.90, F (3,211) = 7.09, p = Follow-up discriminant function analysis revealed that Factor 1, stigma tolerance, was the only factor that significantly maximized differences among racial groups, F (1, 210) = 19.36, p = -0001, w2=.07. Specifically, the scores of African American athletes revealed that they were more likely to stigmatize SPCs than were Caucasian athletes. Thus, the race hypothesis was supported only for the stigma tolerance factor. Gender. It also was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference between male and female athletes' perceptions of psychological skills and attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation. The results of the MANOVA indicated a significant main effect for gender, Willcs' Lambda =.88, F (3,211) = 9.69, p = Follow-up discriminant function analysis was then conducted to identify which factors maximized differences among males and females. Factor 1, stigma tolerance, was the only dependent variable that was significant, F (1,210) = 44.13, p =.0001, w2 =.16; the responses of male athletes indicated that they were more likely to stigmatize SPCs than were female athletes. Therefore, the gender hypothesis was rejected with respect to the stigma tolerance factor only. Race X Genderlnteraction. Finally, it was hypothesized that there would be no significant Race X Gender interaction with respect to athletes' perceptions of psychological skills and their attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation. The MANOVA indicated a nonsignificant interaction for Race X Gender, Wilks' Lambda =.97, F (3, 21 1) = 2.05, p =.11. Therefore, this hypothesis was not rejected. Discussion Although the receptivity of high-performance athletes to sport psychology consultants (SPCs), and the mental training services they offer, seems to be increasing (Orlick & Partington, 1987; Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1991), relatively little is known about athletes' perceptions of SPCs. Ravizza (1988) has suggested that the average athlete views SPCs with a degree of apprehension due to the feeling that the services they offer are primarily for people with psychological problems. Because they do not want to be perceived by significant others as people who need psychological assistance, some athletes may therefore be reluctant to seek the services of a SPC. The findings of the present study suggest that race and gender may be factors that contribute to athletes' perceptions of SPCs. Specifically, Black athletes were found to have a greater stigma toward SPCs than did White athletes, and male athletes were found to have a greater stigma toward SPCs than did female athletes. Black collegiate athletes often come from very different backgrounds than those of the rest of the student body. Sellers (1993) has suggested that Black athletes are even different from the two student constituencies with whom they share the most in common, White athletes and Black nonathletes. As a result of sociocultural experiences with powerful others, particularly those who are White, Blacks

14 214 Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel, and Lounsbuy are more likely to perceive an external locus of control than do Whites (Messner, 1992). In order to advance in sport, Black athletes are regularly required to subject themselves to the authority of coaches, many of whom are White. While these athletes usually accede to this authority, there is evidence that they tend to mistrust and feel distant from their coaches (Anshel, 1990; Evans, 1978; Evans & Quarterman, 1983). The present findings suggest that, compared to White athletes, Black athletes stigmatize SPCs to a greater extent and are less likely to seek the assistance of a SPC. It is possible that the perceptions of these Black athletes were influenced by the fact that the SPCs available to them at their university are White. If so, this result would be consistent with the work of Watkins et al. (1989) who found that Blacks were leery of counseling, especially when it was provided by a White counselor. Therefore, it would not be surprising if Black athletes were mistrustful of representatives of a profession (i.e., sport psychology) that requires athletes to disclose their thoughts and feelings and that is predominantly comprised of White people. It is also possible that Black athletes' attitudes toward SPCs and the services they offer may be a reflection of the belief that sport performance is determined more by physical superiority than by psychological preparation. Anshel (1990) has suggested that Black athletes use different strategies for approaching competition than do their White counterparts. Compared to White athletes, Black athletes devote proportionately more attention to their physical training than to the development of mental skills. This tendency seems to be particularly pronounced for Black athletes in sports requiring high levels of strength and physical prowess. For example, Nation and LeUnes (1983) found that, compared to their White counterparts, Black football players tended to place more importance on physical factors than on psychological ones when explaining their sport performance. In light of the fact that the majority of Black male athletes surveyed in the present study (65%) were football players, it is possible that the scores of the total sample of Black athletes may have been biased in the direction of a stigma against mental training and the services of SPCs. Why male athletes in the present study stigmatized SPCs more than did female athletes may be due to differences in the way males and females are socialized into sport competition in the United States. Competitive sport has long been viewed by sport sociologists as an activity that separates the men from the boys and the men from women (Sabo, 1988). Yambor and Connelly (1991) suggest that male participation in sport is characterized by an emphasis on competition, success, and maintaining a macho image whereas female involvement emphasizes aesthetic qualities of the activity along with participation and affiliation factors. At an early age, males learn to avoid what the culture defines as feminine activities or traits (Sabo, 1988). The male drive to conform to masculine stereotypes is fueled not only by the desire to be manly, but by the fear of being seen as unmanly or feminine. Males are taught to withstand emotional distress and tolerate pain in stoic silence (Sabo, 1988). If they are "too emotional" or display any signs of weakness or of feminine sentiment, they run the risk of being labeled "sissies" or even branded as homosexuals (Messner, 1992). Thus, it is possible that male athletes in the present study responded with more negative perceptions of SPCs than did female athletes because they regard self-disclosures (to a SPC or anyone else) as a potential source of weakness and vulnerability that could jeopardize their masculine image (Sabo, 1988; Sellers, 1993). Such an

15 Athletes' Attitudes 215 interpretation would not be inconsistent with other literature on gender identity in sport (Messner, 1992; Nixon, 1993; Sabo, 1988). The questionnaire developed for the purposes of this study (i.e., the ATSSPCQ) appears to be a viable instrument for assessing athletes' attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation. The results of the factor analysis indicated that there are at least three dimensions underlying the attitudes of NCAA Division I athletes toward seeking sport psychology consultation. An analysis of the items that loaded on each factor revealed three constructs: (a) stigma tolerance (sport psychology and sociocultural), (b) confidence in sport psychology consultationlrecognition of need, and (c) personal openness/openness to sport psychology consultation. Estimates of reliability indicated that these constructs are internally consistent as well as stable over time. One drawback that surfaced during the development of the ATSSPCQ was the lack of a clear distinction between the initial constructs and the final factors derived for the auestionnaire. Therefore. it remains to be determined whether the dimensions, as iinalized, best represent the true dimensions of athlete attitude toward sport psychology consultation. An appropriate "next step" would be to conduct a Confirmatory FactorAnalysis of the questionnaire using a hew sample. This should be done to ascertain whether the factor structure derived in the present study can be replicated. In addition, this analysis should help determine whether sport-specific differences in college athletes' perceptions of sport psychology are based on underlying structures (i.e., the factor structure) or only oipreferences for particular attitudes (i.e., differences on individual factor items). The questionnaire also should be administered to a broader sample of athletes including those that participate in youth sports, high school, college, and the professional ranks. Qualitative research methods (e.g., phenomenological interviews) could additionally be employed to cross-validate information gained from the ATSSPCQ and to determine other factors besides race and gender that may influence athletes' attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation (Martens, 1987; Smith, 1988). The results of the present study suggest that type of sport may be one determining factor. In order to test this notion, the attitudes of White and Black males who participate in football might be compared to those of participants in sports like golf, tennis, and track and field, which have a history of greater openness to the use of SPCs. The results of such a study should help determine whether increased stigmatization of SPCs is due to the race of the athlete, the type of sport, or some interaction of these two factors. It should be noted that not all of the athletes in the present study viewed consultation negatively. Thus, it would be a mistake for consultants to assume that any Black or male athlete with whom they come in contact has a stigma toward SPCs or the services they offer. As always, the key to successful consultation lies in the SPC7s sensitivity to the background and needs of the athlete. For example, in a recent article, Lee and Rotella (1991) discussed special concerns and considerations that White SPCs should be aware of when working with Black studentathletes. In particular, they emphasized that the SPC should have an awareness of forms of Black expression and then suggested steps the White SPC might take to build trust with the Black athlete. In response to Lee and Rotella (1991), Andersen (1993) cautioned against SPCs drawing generalizations about individuals based on their cultural ethnicity, warning that stereotyped prejudgments may serve to divert the attention of the counselor away from the problem of importance to the client. Thus, it appears that SPCs would do well to become more aware of how the

16 216 Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel, and Lounsbu y past and present experiences of each athlete might influence the way they view their world (Wilson & Stith, 1993). SPCs also should give thoughtful consideration to the way their own personal values influence their views of athletes of different races, genders, socioeconomic backgrounds, etc., and how their values shape their assumptions about the athlete's needs and motivation for mental training (Anshel, 1990). When attempting to gain access to a consultation opportunity with any athlete, perhaps the best thing the SPC can do is to remind him or herself of the ancient and sage words of the Torah-people don't see the world the way it is, they see the world the way they are. References Andersen, M. (1993). Questionable sensitivity: A comment on Lee and Rotella. The Sport Psychologist, 7, 1-3. Anshel, M.H. (1990). Perceptions of Blackintercollegiate football players: Implications for sport psychology consultants. The Sport Psychologist, 4, Anshel, M.H., & Sailes, G. (1990). Discrepant attitudes of intercollegiate team athletes as a function of race. Journal of Sport Behavior, 13, Atkinson, D.R., Furlong, M.J., & Poston, W.C. (1986). Afro-American preferences for counselor characteristics. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, Cattell, R.B. (1978). The scientific use of factor analysis. New York: Plenum. Evans, V. (1978). A study of perceptions held by high school athletes toward coaches. International Review of Sport Sociology, 13, Evans, V., & Quarterman, J. (1983). Personality characteristics of successful and unsuccessful Black female basketball players. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 14, Fenker, R.M., & Lambiotte, J.G. (1987). A performance enhancement program for a college football team: One incredible season. The Sport Psychologist, 1, Fischer, E.H., & Turner, J.L. (1970). Orientations to seeking professional help: Development and research utility of an attitude scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35, Francis, N.C. (1992). Collegiate soccerplayers'perceptions of sportpsychology, sportpsychologists, and sport psychology services. Unpublished master's thesis, University of North Carolina, Greensboro. Gordon, S. (1990). A mental skills training program for the Western Australian state cricket team. The Sport Psychologist, 4, Gould, D., Hodge, K., Peterson, K., & Petlichkoff, L. (1987). Psychological foundations of coaching: Similarities and differences among intercollegiate wrestling coaches. The Sport Psychologist, 1, Gould, D., Eklund, R.C., &Jackson, S.A. (1992) U.S. Olympic wrestling excellence: I. Mental preparation, precompetitive cognition, and affect. The Sport Psychologist, 6, Gould, D., Murphy, S., Tammen, V., & May, J. (1991). An evaluation of the U.S. Olympic sport psychology consultant effectiveness. The Sport Psychologist, 5, Gould, D., Petlichkoff, L., Hodge, K., & Simons, J. (1990). Evaluating the effectiveness of a psychological skills educational workshop. The Sport Psychologist, 4, Gould, D., Tammen, V., Murphy, S., & May, J. (1989). An examination of U.S. Olympic sport psychology consultants and the services they provide. The Sport Psychologist, 3,

17 Athletes' Attitudes 217 Grove, J.R., & Hanrahan, S.J. (1988). Perceptions of mental training needs by elite field hockey players and their coaches. The Sport Psychologist, 2, Halliwell, W. (1990). Providing sport psychology consulting services in professional hockey. The Sport Psychologist, 4, Hellstedt, J.C. (1987). Sport psychology at a ski academy: Teaching mental skills to young athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 2, Henschen, K. (1991). Critical issues involving male consultants and female athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 5, Kline, P. (1994). An easy guide to factor analysis. New York: Routledge. Lee, C.L., & Rotella, R.J. (1991). Special concerns and considerations for sport psychology consulting with Black student athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 5, Linder, D.E., Brewer, B.W., Van Raalte, J.L., & DeLange, N. (1991). A negative halo for athletes who consult sport psychologists: Replication and extension. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, Lider, D.E., Pillow, D.R., & Reno, R.R. (1989). Shrinking jocks: Derogation of athletes who consult a sport psychologist. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, Loehr, J.E. (1990). Providing sport psychology consulting services to professional tennis players. The Sport Psychologist, 4, Martens, R. (1987). Science, knowledge, and sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 1, Messner, M.A. (1992). Power at play: Sports and the problem of masculinity. Boston: Beacon Press. Murphy, S., & Ferrante, A.P. (1989). Provision of sport psychology services to the U.S. team at the 1988 Summer Olympic Games. The Sport Psychologist, 3, Nation, J.R., & LeUnes, A. (1983). A personality profile of the Black athlete in college football. Journal of Human Behavior, 20, 1-3. Nixon, H.L. (1993). Accepting the risks of pain and injury in sport: Mediated cultural influences on playing hurt. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10, Nunnally, J.C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill. Orlick, T., & Partington, J. (1987). The sport psychology consultant: Analysis of critical components as viewed by Canadian Olympic athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 1,4: 17. Partington, J., & Orlick, T. (1987). The sport psychology consultant: Olympic coaches' views. The Sport Psychologist, 1, Ravizza, K. (1988). Gaining entry with athletic personnel for season-long consulting. The Sport Psychologist, 2, Ravizza, K. (1990). Sport psychology consultation issues in professional baseball. The Sport Psychologist, 4, Rotella, R.J. (1990). Providing sport psychology services to professional athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 4, Sabo, D. (1988). Sport patriarchy and male identity: New questions about men and sport. ARENA-Review, 12, Sellers, R.M. (1993). Black student athletes: Reaping the benefits or recovering from the exploitation? In D.D. Brooks & R.C. Althouse (Eds.), Racism in college athletes: The African American athlete's experience (pp ). Morgantown, WV: FIT, Inc. Silva, J.M. (1984). The status of sport psychology: A national survey of coaches. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 55,46-49.

18 218 Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel, and Lounsbuy Smith, R.E. (1988). The logic and design of case study research. The Sport Psychologist, 2, Sullivan, J., & Hodge, K.P. (1991). A survey of coaches and athletes about sport psychology in New Zealand. The Sport Psychologist, 5, Tinsley, H.E.A. (1982). Expectations about counseling. Unpublished test manual. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University, Department of Psychology. Tinsley, H.E.A., & Tinsley, D.J. (1987). Uses of factor analysis in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, B.W., Linder, D.E., & DeLange, N. (1990). Perception of sportoriented professionals: A multidimensional scaling analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 4, Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, B.W., Brewer, D.D., & Linder, D.E. (1992). NCAA Division I1 college football players' perceptions of an athlete who consults a sport psychologist. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 14, Wade, P., & Bemstein, B.L. (1991). Culture sensitivity training and counselor's race: Effects on Black female clients' perceptions and attrition. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38,9-15. Watkins, C.E., Jr., & Terrell, F. (1988). Mistrust level and its effects on counseling expectations in Black client-white counselor relationships: An analogue study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, Watkins, C.E., Jr., Terrell, F., Miller, F.S., & Terrell, S.L. (1989). Cultural mistrust and its effects on expectational variables in Black client-white counselor relationships. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, Wilson, L.L., & Stith, S.M. (1993). Culturally sensitive therapy with Black clients. In D.R. Atkinson, G. Morten, & D. Wing Sue, Counseling American minorities: A crossculturalperspective (4th ed., pp ). Dubuque, L4: Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc. Wrisberg, C.A., & Martin, S.B. (1994, October 5-9). Attitudes of African American and Caucasian athletes toward sport psychology consultants. Ninth Annual Conference of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, Lake Tahoe, NV. Yarnbor, J., & Connelly, D. (1991). Issues confronting female sport psychology consultants working with male student-athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 5, Acknowledgments This paper represents a portion of a doctoral dissertation completed by the first author while at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Appreciation is extended to the athletes and coaches for their participation in the study and to Ann Reed for assistance with the statistical analyses.