American High School Football Coaches Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology Consultation and Intentions to Use Sport Psychology Services

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1 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 6 Number American High School Football Coaches Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology Consultation and Intentions to Use Sport Psychology Services Rebecca A. Zakrajsek University of Tennessee, Department of Kinesiology Recreation, and Sport Studies, Knoxville, TN, USA raz@utk.edu Scott B. Martin University of North Texas, Department of KHPR, PO Box , Denton, TX, USA Scott.Martin@unt.edu Sam J. Zizzi West Virginia University, College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, PO Box 6116, Morgantown, WV, USA Sam.Zizzi@mail.evu.edu ABSTRACT This study examined 235 American high-school football coaches attitudes toward sport psychology (SP) consultation, intentions to use SP, and actual use of SP services. The coaches attitudinal data fit the a priori hypothesized four factor model (i.e., stigma tolerance, confidence in SP consultation, personal openness, and cultural preferences). Of the coaches surveyed, 13% reported being familiar with the Association of Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) certification for SP consultants, 3% had used SP services, and 62% did not intend to use SP services within the next six months. Past coaching experience, age, and education level influenced their stigma tolerance, confidence, and personal openness of using SP services. American high-school football coaches who were confident in SP outcomes and open to suggestions were more likely to consider using SP services. Key words: American Football, Attitudes, Sport Psychology Consulting, Stigma Tolerance Reviewers: Al Petitpas (Springfield College, USA) Mike Voight (Central Connecticut State University, USA)

2 462 American Football Coaches Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology INTRODUCTION Coaches hold a central role within the athletic environment and are often the ones who decide to initiate, continue, or terminate work with sport psychology (SP) consultants [1, 2]. Coach-athlete relationships and coaches attitudes toward mental training may influence athletes expectations and willingness to work with a SP consultant [3-6]. Research on coaches attitudes toward SP is limited and has often come from qualitative studies that involve elite level coaches. The studies that are available suggest that coaches SP knowledge and their previous sport and consulting/counseling experience may influence their expectations, confidence, and personal openness to seeking SP services in the future [1, 7-11]. Furthermore, factors such as stigma tolerance (i.e., the belief that athletes or coaches are negatively labeled if they seek assistance from a SP consultant), confidence in SP consultation (i.e., belief that SP consultation and mental training is useful), personal openness (i.e., willingness to try SP consultation and mental training), and cultural preference (i.e., identification with own cultural background and preference for working with a SP consultant with a similar background) have been identified as variables influencing help-seeking behaviors [5, 11-17]. SP practitioners must continually examine clients and potential clients needs, attitudes, expectations, and willingness to use their services. This knowledge, especially from those groups who tend to underutilize SP services, can provide a wealth of information that may influence marketing strategies and the delivery of the services offered. By examining coaches attitudes and behaviors in sport settings that traditionally underutilize SP services, practitioners may develop a better understanding of how to gain entry and build clientele. This knowledge can be quite advantageous for SP consultants, especially given the importance of the coach-athlete relationship and its influence on the attitudes and helpseeking behaviors of athletes. The interpersonal relationship formed between a coach and athlete has been reported as one of the most significant relationships within sport and an important influence in athlete development [4, 18]. For example, previous literature suggests that gender role socialization plays an important part of attitudinal development [19-23]. According to gender role socialization; cultural values, norms, and ideologies teach attitudes and behaviors about what it means to be a man or a woman in society [24]. Socialization into and through sports can result in a person displaying more masculine ideals and behaviors. Sport, especially those that involve physical contact, has been identified as a significant contextual influence on athletes construction of masculinity in which involvement may encourage individuals to view others as rivals [21]. These sports often promote power, dominance, and toughness through direct physical confrontation between competitors and reinforce the belief that being a man requires one to accept pain and physical risk [21]. American football is particularly influential in socializing young males and maintaining traditional values, such as patriarchal dominance [25]. Being socialized into and through a sport that values combative and aggressive behavior may lead some individuals to reject or be hesitant toward help-seeking behavior, or any behavior viewed as weak or feminine. In fact, high-school and college athletes who compete in physical contact sports, such as wrestling and American football, have been found to be more likely to associate a stigma with seeking SP consulting compared to physical noncontact sports [26, 27]. Likewise, college football players with higher gender role conflict also reported a stronger identification with their athlete role and associated higher stigma with seeking professional help [28]. Negative perceptions and stigma of help-seeking may form due to the macho dimension of sport participation, in which self-disclosure may be

3 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 6 Number viewed as a sign of weakness and vulnerability; therefore, males masculine image may be viewed as being jeopardized [20, 23, 29]. Underutilization of mental health services by athletes and coaches, in sports such as American football, may be linked to the negative attitudes associated with help-seeking [30, 31]. Athletes and coaches, especially males participating in American football, have been identified as a group that has particularly negative attitudes and views toward seeking help from professionals such as counselors [26, 29, 31, 32]. Previous research examining coaches attitudes toward seeking professional help is sparse, especially of those who coach adolescent physical contact sports and do not regularly use SP services. Given that many coaches are former athletes who played the same sport they coach, it is possible that their attitudes are influenced by their sport participation and continue this disparaging cycle. For example, while working with a football coach, Anshel [33] explored his acceptance of SP. The coach stated these guys don t need this stuff which implies that SP is for the weak and vulnerable [33, p. 148]. Research on the influence of past experience, age, competitive level on attitudes toward SP has been mixed. For instance, Anderson et al. [34] did not find age or competitive level to influence athletes attitudes toward SP consulting, whereas Martin [26] found high school athletes more likely to associate a stigma toward SP consulting compared to collegiate level athletes. However, it is possible that these findings may have been influenced by cultural differences given that Anderson et al. s [34] investigation involved athletes from New Zealand and Martin s [26] investigation involved athletes from the United States. To further understand the dynamics involved with improved marketing and usage of SP services, future research should be conducted to expand our understanding of how specific demographic variables (e.g., age, academic degree) and how cultural preferences and/or differences influence coaches attitudes toward SP consultation. Furthermore, it would be beneficial for SP professionals to examine how coaches attitudes toward SP consultation at various competition levels and across different sport environments influence coaches intentions and actual use of SP services. Recently, Zakrajsek and Zizzi [11] found that confidence, stigma tolerance, and expectations accounted for 38% of the total variance in collegiate swimming and track and field coaches intentions to use SP services. However, confidence controlled substantially more variance than stigma tolerance and expectations. Similarly, Anderson et al. [34] found confidence in SP consulting to be one of the variables that predicted a small sample of New Zealand athletes intentions to use SP services. Their sample represented a mixture of world class (21%), international (14%), developmental (26%), and junior (25%) level athletes [34]. Although neither of these studies [11, 34] assessed future behavioral patterns, intentions may lead to actual behavior and, at the least, reflect a willingness to enact a given behavior [35]. Given the studies above, belief in the effectiveness of SP consultation appears to be particularly important when deciding to use, or not use, SP services. Others confidence, or lack thereof, in SP services may be influenced by several factors. For example, previous positive exposure to mental skills training has been found to influence coaches and athletes belief in the effectiveness of a SP consultant as well as confidence in seeking the services of a SP consultant [1, 26]. In addition, coaches have also identified the availability of better resources and making mental skills more time efficient as factors that would influence their confidence in mental skills training [36]. Understanding coaches attitudes, intentions, and actual use of SP services in different sport environments may provide useful information toward marketing SP services to underserved groups, generating a new client-base. Given the particular influence that American high-school football has been found to have in socializing males masculinity attitudes and behaviors [25], it would be beneficial to

4 464 American Football Coaches Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology understand coaches attitudes toward SP consultation and willingness and intentions to use SP services. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine American football coaches attitudes toward SP consultation and their willingness and intentions to use SP services to better understand the socialization process of the athletes who play this particular sport. To examine their attitudes toward SP consultation and their intentions to use SP services an existing questionnaire was used, the Sport Psychology Attitudes Revised Coaches-2 (SPARC-2) [37]. The SPARC-2 is based on the Sport Psychology Attitudes Revised form [38] which stems from the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help (ATSPPH) [39, 40] and previous research on perceptions of sport and counseling psychology. These instruments represent the same constructs and contain similar items. For this reason, strictly confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) procedures were used to make sure the data from the current study fit the existing model structure (i.e., stigma tolerance, confidence in SP consultation, personal openness, and cultural preference) [37, 38]. Following these procedures, we were then able to examine which demographic variables (e.g., coaching experience, age, level of education, and job title) influence American football coaches attitudes toward SP services. Based on the previously mentioned research with athletes and coaches [11, 26, 28, 34, 37], it was hypothesized that American football coaches, like other physical contact sport participants, would have a stigma toward seeking SP services. It was also hypothesized that older coaches, coaches with head coaching or several years of coaching experience, and a graduate degree would have more positive attitudes toward SP than younger coaches, those with limited experience, and those without an advance degree [10, 26, 41]. In addition, we believed there would be a link between attitudes, intentions, and readiness to use SP services. Specifically, it was hypothesized that confidence and stigma tolerance would predict intentions to use SP services, with confidence being the strongest predictor [11, 34]. METHOD PARTICIPANTS Approximately 11,360 members attended the Texas High School Coaches Association (THSCA) convention, which included coaches (active or retired), athletic directors in the public school system, and others who support the THSCA (e.g., exhibitors, athletic trainers, physical education teachers). A total of 235 American football coaches from Texas participated in the study, in which 221 specified their gender and identified themselves as male with ages spread across the following categories: (n = 64), (n = 97), (n = 43), and 50+ (n = 28). Within the selected sample, 177 were Caucasian, 27 were Hispanic, 18 were African-American, three were American Indian and six specified other. Sixty coaches specified earning a master s degree or higher while 169 specified that their highest degree was either a high school or bachelor s degree. The majority of those surveyed (n = 217) coached at the high school level with the remaining coaching at the junior high (n = 11) and Division II (n = 1) levels. Included in the sample were 165 assistant coaches and 60 head coaches. Coaching experience (years) spread across the following categories: 0-6 (n = 76), 7-15 (n = 95) and 15+ (n = 55). Some coaches did not specify gender, age, ethnicity, or level of coaching, resulting in some missing data regarding the demographic variables. MEASURES Attitudes Toward SP. The Sport Psychology Attitudes Revised Coaches-2 (SPARC-2) [37] questionnaire was used to assess coaches attitudes toward SP consultation. The SPARC-2 is a 26-item instrument with four subscales: stigma tolerance (7 items); confidence in SP

5 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 6 Number consultation (8 items); personal openness (5 items); and cultural preference (6 items). Internal consistency reliability (Cronbach s alpha) estimates have been found to be good to excellent [37]: Stigma Tolerance (.90), Confidence in SP Consultation (.87), Cultural Preference (.82), Personal Openness (.79). The SPARC-2 is a more recent version of the Sport Psychology Attitudes Revised Coaches (SPA-RC) [11] questionnaire and is closely related to the Martin et al. [38] Sport Psychology Attitudes Revised (SPA-R) questionnaire developed for assessing athletes attitudes. Interpretation and scores are obtained by averaging the responses within each subscale. Higher scores (closer to six) indicate a more negative attitude toward seeking SP consultation (stigma tolerance); a belief that SP consultation and mental training is useful (confidence in SP consultation); an unwillingness to be involved in SP consultation and mental training (personal openness); and a strong identification to nationality, ethnicity, culture, or race (cultural preference). Intentions and Readiness. Four items were included to measure coaches intentions to use SP services. Items measured coaches intentions to contact a SP consultant or refer athletes for performance or personal concerns. Similar items have been used in previous research with coaches and athletes [11, 34, 37]. A total intentions score was obtained by summing the four questions with responses ranging from 1 (not at all likely) to 6 (very likely). Higher scores reflected stronger intentions to use SP services. A sample item is if one were available to your team, how likely is it that you would contact a SPC in the next week. The internal consistency (i.e., Cronbach s alpha) estimate for the four intention items was excellent (a =.85). Coaches readiness to use SP services was based on the Transtheoretical Model of behavior change [42] and was assessed with a single-item ladder. Using a singleitem ladder has been supported in previous literature [43]. Zizzi and Perna [44] found difficulty with using several items to assess stage of change and further supported a singleitem ladder to add clarity in stage assignment. Based on how they identified their plans for using SP services, coaches were classified in one of the following stages of readiness: precontemplation (not thinking of using SP services); contemplation (thinking of using SP services in the next 6 months); preparation (use SP services sometimes but not regularly); action (been using SP services within the last 6 months); and maintenance (been using SP services for longer than 6 months). Coaches were also classified into one of two categories: coaches who did not intend to use SP services (precomtemplation) and coaches who were thinking of using or were using services (contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance). PROCEDURES After institutional review board approval, permission was obtained by the executive director of the Texas High School Coaches Association for the primary investigator to recruit coaches for participation in the study. An exhibit booth was provided for the researcher from the association. The convention was approximately three and a half days and recruitment of participants occurred over a period of three days. The exhibit booth was in a central location within the exhibit hall. A brief explanation of the study and instructions regarding the consent form and questionnaire were presented to coaches who came by the exhibit booth. Coaches were informed that participation was voluntary. The questionnaire packet was completed at available seats at or near the exhibit booth and took approximately 10 to 20 minutes to complete.

6 466 American Football Coaches Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology DATA ANALYSIS Initially, a strictly CFA approach was used to determine whether the data obtained from the American high school football coaches fit the a priori hypothesized model measuring stigma tolerance, confidence, personal openness, and cultural preferences. In a strictly confirmatory situation, the researcher formulates one single model and obtains empirical data to test whether the model provides adequate approximation to the data [45]. Once this fit is established, it is possible to entertain other hypothesis testing based on this underlying theoretical model using other multivariate techniques [46]. Following the CFA, mean response scores were calculated for each participant for each of the four scales. Next, separate one-way ANOVAs were conducted to examine the differences between each independent variable and the dependent variables, attitudes toward SP consultation (i.e., stigma tolerance, confidence, personal openness, and cultural preferences). In addition, independent samples t-tests were conducted to assess coaches level of education and job title (independent variables) and attitudes toward SP services (dependent variable). Bivariate correlations were used to assess the relationship between attitudes and intentions and an independent samples t-test was used to assess the difference between high-school football coaches readiness and attitudes toward SP services. Lastly, a stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to assess if attitudes predicted intentions to use SP services. RESULTS USE OF AND INTEREST IN MENTAL SKILLS TRIANING On a scale from 1 (not at all important) to 6 (very important), American high-school football coaches reported that it was very important (M = 5.7, SD =.69) to their team s success for their athletes to have strong mental skills. Overall, the majority of coaches (n = 214; 91.1%) reported that athletes can learn mental skills and techniques as compared to being born with them. Twenty-two (9.4%) coaches reported that SP services were readily available to them whereas seven (3%) coaches indicated that a SP consultant was working with their team. Those who had a SP consultant working with their team reported being satisfied with the services they had received (M = 4.63, SD = 1.6). Of the coaches sampled, the majority (n = 147; 63.9%) reported that they do not intend to use SP within the next six months while 83 (36.1%) coaches reported thinking about using SP services or were currently using services. On a scale from 1 (not at all likely) to 6 (very likely), coaches overall intentions to use SP services were slightly below the 3.5 midpoint (i.e., M = 3.42, SD = 1.22). In addition, coaches were slightly more likely to contact a SP consultant in the next month (M = 3.36, SD = 1.48) compared to in the next week (M = 3.09, SD = 1.54). Lastly, coaches likelihood of referring an athlete for personal concerns (M = 3.84, SD = 1.45) or performance problems (M = 3.62, SD = 1.49) were slightly above the midpoint. Thirty (12.8%) coaches sampled were familiar with AASP certification for SP consulting. CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE SPARC-2 CFA was conducted with LISREL 8.8 [47] unweighted least squares (ULS) estimation procedures, using a covariance matrix as data input to evaluate data fit to the a priori hypothesized four-factor model (i.e., stigma tolerance, confidence, personal openness, and cultural preferences). The ULS method was used since the measurement units were the same for all four scales and the summative scales have previously been shown to have roughly interval properties. Although structural equation modeling fit indices have no single statistical test of significance that identifies a correct model given the sample data, Schumacker and Lomax [46] recommend that various goodness-of-fit (GOF) criteria be used

7 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 6 Number in combination to assess model fit, model comparison, and model parsimony. Chisquare/degrees of freedom ratio (χ 2 /df), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), the goodness of fit index (GFI), and the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) were evaluated to determine if the data fit the specified four-factor model. The analysis revealed a χ 2 /df ratio or Q value of 2.09 (613/293). Q values between 2 and 5 have been interpreted as indicating a good fit [48]. The analysis indicated an RMSEA of which indicates adequate fit [49]. Steiger [50] suggested that RMSEA values below 0.10 indicate a good fit to the data, values below 0.05 a very good fit to the data, and values below 0.01 indicate an outstanding fit to the data. The analysis revealed a SRMR of An SRMR value less than.08 is considered a good fit [46]. The analysis also revealed a GFI of 0.95 and AGFI of The GFI is based on a ratio of the sum of the squared discrepancies to the observed variance and the AGFI adjusts the GFI for degrees of freedom in the model. Both the GFI and AGFI ranges from 0 to 1, with values between 0.90 and 0.95 as acceptable, and those exceeding 0.95 indicating a good fit to the data [46, 48]. The GOF criteria were all within the acceptable range of model fit. Thus, the data fit the hypothesized model [11, 38]. Please refer to table 1 for the SPARC-2 subscales and items. OVERALL ATTITUDES TOWARD SP CONSULTING Overall, the sample of American high-school football coaches indicated relatively positive attitudes toward SP services. More specifically, coaches reported a low to moderate score on stigma tolerance (M = 2.63, SD =.94). A moderate score with regard to confidence in SP consultation (M = 4.03, SD =.70) displayed that coaches were slightly confident in SP consultation. Coaches reported a personal openness score that was near the 3.5 midpoint (M = 3.45, SD =.78), indicating that they were neither willing nor unwilling to be involved in SP consultation or mental training. Lastly, coaches reported a cultural preference score slightly below the midpoint (M = 3.16, SD =.98), indicating that coaches did not express a preference for hiring a SP consultant similar to themselves or their athletes. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND ATTITUDES A one-way ANOVA revealed a significant difference between American high-school football coaches experience and personal openness [F(2, 5.98) = 10.71, p <.001, η 2 =.09]. Multiple comparisons revealed that American high-school football coaches with greater than 15 years of experience were more open to SP consultation than coaches with 6 or less years of experience (p <.001). In addition, American high-school football coaches with 7 to 15 years of experience were more open to SP consultation as compared to coaches with 6 or less years of experience (p <.01). Likewise, a one-way ANOVA revealed a significant difference between American highschool football coaches age and stigma tolerance [F(3, 4.96) = 6.10, p <.01, η 2 =.08] and personal openness [F(3, 3.33) = 5.78, p <.01, η 2 =.07]. Multiple comparisons revealed that American high-school football coaches 50 years of age and older have significantly lower stigma toward SP consultation compared to coaches who are (p <.05), (p <.01), and (p <.001) years of age. Multiple comparisons also revealed that coaches who are years of age are less open to SP consultation compared to coaches (p <.05) years of age and 50 years of age and older (p <.05). An independent samples t-test revealed significant differences between American highschool football coaches education level and confidence in SP consultation [t(212) = -2.08, p <.05, d = -.34]. Overall, American high-school football coaches with a master s or doctorate

8 468 American Football Coaches Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology Table 1. SPARC-2 Subscales and Items Stigma Tolerance I would not want a SPC working with my athletes because other coaches would think less of me. I would feel uneasy having a SPC work with my athletes because some people would disapprove. If I utilized a SPC to help me coach better, I would not want other coaches to know about it. Having seen a SPC is bad for an athlete s reputation. I would not want someone else to know about my athletes receiving help from a SPC. If my athletes worked with a SPC, I would not want other coaches to know about it. I would think less of my athletes if they went to a SPC. Confidence in SPC A SPC can help athletes improve their mental toughness. If an athlete on my team asked my advice about personal feelings of failure related to sport, I would recommend that he/she see a SPC. I would like to have the assistance of a SPC to help me better understand my athletes. I feel that an athlete with emotional problems during sport performance would feel most secure in receiving assistance from a SPC. If I was worried or upset about my athletes performance, I would want to get help from a SPC. I think a SPC would help my athletes perform better under pressure. A SPC could help my athletes fine-tune their performance. At times I have felt lost and would have welcomed professional advice for a personal problem. Personal Openness A good idea for an athlete to avoid personal worries and concerns is to keep one s mind on the job. There is something respectable in the attitude of athletes who are willing to cope with their conflicts and fears without resorting to professional help. Athletes emotional difficulties tend to work themselves out in time. Athletes with a strong character can get over mental conflicts by themselves. Athletes should know how to handle problems without needing assistance from a SPC. Cultural Preference If I were to hire a SPC, I would take into account his/her race or ethnicity. There are great differences between people of different races or ethnicities. My athletes would be more comfortable with a SPC if he/she were of the same race or ethnicity as them. I would be more comfortable with a SPC if he/she were the same race or ethnicity as I am. An athlete may relate best to a SPC if he/she were the same race or ethnicity. I would be more comfortable hiring a SPC if he/she were from the same cultural background as my athletes.

9 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 6 Number degree (M = 4.19, SD =.64) were more confident in SP services compared to coaches with a bachelor s degree or high school diploma (M = 3.96, SD =.71). Lastly, an independent samples t-test revealed no significant difference between assistant football coaches and head football coaches for stigma tolerance, cultural preference, confidence, and personal openness. Please refer to Table 2 for means and standard deviations with demographic variables and attitudes toward SP consultation. COACHES INTENTIONS AND READINESS TO USE SP SERVICES Bivariate correlations revealed a moderately strong relationship between American highschool football coaches confidence in SP consultation and their overall intentions to use SP services (r =.54, p <.001). When examining specific intentions, correlations revealed moderate correlations between American high-school football coaches confidence in SP consultation and likelihood of contacting a SP consultant in the next week (r =.39, p <.001) or month (r =.39, p <.001) as well as their likelihood of referring athletes for personal concerns (r =.46, p <.001) or performance problems (r =.46, p <.001). An independent samples t-test revealed a significant difference between American highschool football coaches who were thinking of using SP services and football coaches not thinking of using SP services and confidence in SP consultation [t(213) = -3.89, p <.001, d =.57]. American high-school football coaches who were thinking about using services (M = 4.27, SD =.60) were more confident in SP consultation compared to coaches who were not thinking of using SP services in the near future (M = 3.89, SD =.72). ATTITUDES AND PREDICTING INTENTIONS TO USE SP SERVICES Bivariate correlations between the independent variables and collinearity statistics (i.e., tolerance and variance-inflation factor) indicated that multi-collinearity of independent variables was not a problem. In the regression model, stigma tolerance, confidence in SP consultation, personal openness, and cultural preference were entered as the predictors with intentions as the criterion variable. The stepwise multiple regression revealed a two variable solution [F(2) = 37.56, p <.001] that accounted for 29.9% of the total variance in football coaches intentions. Confidence in SP consultation (β =.487, p <.001) was the most significant predictor of football coaches intentions to use SP services and accounted for 27.3% of the variance and was followed by personal openness (β = -.165, p <.05, 2.6%). As confidence in SP consultation and personal openness increased, football coaches intentions to use SP services also increased. DISCUSSION Building on previous work with athletes [38] and coaches [11, 37], confirmatory factor analysis procedures with a new population supported the a priori hypothesized four-factor model (i.e., stigma tolerance, confidence, personal openness, and cultural preferences) which more clearly represents the initial constructs of previous clients attitudes toward seeking counseling model [41] and athletes and coaches attitudes toward seeking SP model [11, 37, 38]. The present study also attempted to explore the personal characteristics of coaches within a macho sport in an area of the United States that revolves around the culture of football [25] in an effort to gain insight about SP knowledge, attitudes, and intentions. Specifically, this study extends previous literature by providing the first quantitative data that reports highschool American football coaches knowledge of AASP certification, access and use of SP services, and attitudes toward SP. Regularly examining clients SP knowledge, expectations, and attitudes can help practitioners understand the various environments where sports are

10 470 American Football Coaches Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology Table 2. Demographic Characteristics and Attitudes toward Sport Psychology Consultation Stigma Tolerance Confidence Personal Openness Cultural Preference M SD M SD M SD M SD Coaching Experience 0-6 years years >15 years Coaches Age years years years years Education HighSchool/ Bachelor Master s/ Doctorate Job Title Assistant Coach Head Coach a. Scores closer to six indicate a more negative attitude toward sport psychology consultation (stigma tolerance), higher confidence, lower personal openness, and strong cultural preference.

11 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 6 Number played and the nature of those sports to enhance marketing and improve services that are provided. In addition, the results of this study can provide some comparative information with sports that are not male dominated and masculine oriented (e.g., non-contact sport such as swimming, golf, tennis, track/field). Although direct comparisons were not assessed, the highschool American football coaches in this study reported higher stigma than what has been reported in previous literature that examined high-school and club swimming coaches attitudes [37]. Furthermore, the high-school football coaches in the current study had lower confidence and willingness to use mental training and had higher cultural preference scores than the high-school and club swimming coaches [37], indicating a stronger preference for working with a SP consultant of a similar background to their athletes. When considering consumer characteristics, American high-school football coaches with six or fewer years of experience were significantly less willing to use SP services. Similarly, American high-school football coaches younger than 30 reported higher stigma toward SP consultation and were the least willing to be involved in SP consultation and mental training. Although there are many factors other than age and number of years of coaching experience that influence coaching attitudes and behaviors [51], it may be that older coaches with more years of coaching experience are just more likely to be exposed to SP services. In a recent investigation with NCAA Division I coaches, Wrisberg et al. [10] found that a level of positive exposure to SP was needed to increase openness to SP services. Perhaps younger coaches who have no or limited experience working with a SP consultant tend to focus their attention on learning the traditional aspects of coaching (e.g., tactical and technical) and may be less knowledgeable and comfortable with the mental aspect of the sport. They also may be less willing to be involved in SP consultation because they are unaware of how little they know, whereas experienced coaches with proficiency and expertise in the skills and strategies of the game have a better understanding of their limits related to their knowledge and skill in areas such as SP [52]. Lastly, depending on the generation in which they were raised (e.g., baby boomers, generation X, and generation Y), coaches and athletes may have been socialized differently and have different attitudes toward SP consultation. Future research should consider the stage of expert coach development and generational differences, as well as continue to explore other potential factors that may influence SP expectation, attitudes, and intentions. Based on these findings, it appears that younger coaches entering the coaching profession may need additional exposure, not only about the skills and strategies of the game, but also about SP to positively influence their attitudes toward seeking SP consultation. Continued positive experience and education is important given that coaches have identified lack of SP knowledge as one of the main reasons for the limited use of mental skills with their athletes [9, 36]. Although providing continuing education coursework or workshops on SP and mental training skills could enhance coaches knowledge and attitudes, SP literature suggests that just taking a course or workshop related to SP does not necessarily improve coaches perceptions of SP knowledge [9, 36, 53]. In order to continue to improve perceptions, especially with those in a physical contact sport such as football, it may be worthwhile to explore manifestations of masculinity and address concerns or uncertainty of using SP services and mental training. Thus, coaching education programs are needed that balance technical and tactical knowledge with others areas such as SP [54, 55]. The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) has published National Standards for Sport Coaches (NSSC) [56] and is continually working to prepare qualified coaches. Principles of SP are weaved throughout the domains and standards. This is an encouraging step which may help coaches who complete undergraduate and/or graduate programs in

12 472 American Football Coaches Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology coaching education increase their familiarity and knowledge of SP. The requirements to coach high-school football vary by state and organization and a minimal level of exposure to SP concepts and skills cannot be guaranteed. The increase interest in providing continuing education programs to coaches that include information on national standards (e.g., NSSC) may help emphasize the importance of integrating mental skills training and make it a higher priority in the future. Although the effect was small, football coaches with a graduate degree were more confident in SP consultation compared to coaches with a bachelors or high-school degree. There may be a link between education level and positive attitudes toward SP consultation. Related, Martin [26] found that high-school athletes had a slightly more negative attitude toward SP consultation compared to athletes at the collegiate level. This is also similar to non-sport research, in which education level has been linked to more positive attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help [41] as well as increased likelihood to seek medical help [57]. Researchers will need to determine whether coaching training or degree major is more influential for changing preconceived attitudes and expectations of coaches. Although the current investigation did not identify the major obtained, it would be interesting to investigate if coaches who received training from college coaching education programs designed to meet the NSSC standards would be more interested and willing to seek a SP consultant. Even though most of the American high-school football coaches in this study reported that mental skills can be learned and are very important to achieve overall team success, only a small percentage were currently using SP services. In addition, their overall intentions were low and the majority did not intend to use SP services within the next six months. To continue to understand coaches in various sports, particularly physical contact sports that underutilize SP services, it would be worthwhile to directly explore and measure how gender role conformity influences receptivity of SP services. This measure could be beneficial given the impact of the socialization process in and through sports on athletes and their attitudes and use of mental training. In addition, this gap between importance placed on mental skills and actual integration of mental training into practice is a trend that continues to be represented within the literature [1, 9, 11, 37, 58]. Within the theory of planned behavior, perception of behavioral control influences one s decision to carry out an intended behavior [59]. In addition, Ajzen [60] suggested designing interventions toward factors that have more room for change. Lastly, attitudes toward helpseeking behavior have been identified as a central aspect of the change process [61]. With the theory of planned behavior in mind as well as the current sample, there is evidence to suggest that access and confidence in SP consultation are two important variables to address with high-school football coaches. High-school football coaches intention to use SP services appears to be primarily influenced by their confidence in SP and their personal openness. As expected, coaches who were considering using services in the near future reported higher confidence in SP consultation as compared to coaches who were not thinking of using SP services. This suggestion supports previous research that attitudes may predict intentions to use SP services, in which confidence in SP consultation and mental training continues to be the most significant attitudinal factor contributing to the decision to use or not use SP services [11, 34]. The current sample of American high-school football coaches provides some insight into how to gain entry and build clientele with a contact sport such as football. For example, it may be beneficial to impact confidence by addressing the usefulness of SP as well as the myths and skepticism that may be related to SP consultation. For example, some coaches

13 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 6 Number have reported the difficulty in measuring the performance benefits of SP [62] and may fear that SP will not work or would lead to a decrease in performance due to the athletes thinking too much about the game [63]. Due to the nature of American football, which emphasizes physical dominance and toughness [25], SP professionals may consider making a direct link between mental skills training and mental toughness on the field when attempting to build confidence and gain entry with high-school American football coaches. In addition, SP practitioners may want to approach mental skills training differently with male coaches from a physical contact or combative sport that emphasizes masculinity [27]. For instance, using phrases such as mental toughness strategies or performance enhancement instead of using sport psychology skills may help to address the myths or skepticism related to SP and increase confidence in the usefulness of SP consultation. Lastly, framing services as developmentally focused as compared to pathology based may also be useful in which Martin [26] suggested reframing services as educational or as performance enhancement while providing information on what SP is, how SP consulting works, what is expected from the client, and what should be expected from the SP consultant. In the current study, an extremely small percentage of the sample reported having access to SP services and only a third who reported access were actually using SP services. Because these were primarily high-school coaches, they may have limited access to SP services compared to coaches at higher levels of competition. This information also provides insight into marketing services and gaining entry. In conjunction with addressing factors related to confidence and the value of SP, there may be a need to address perceived access as well as perceived controllability in initiating service use, especially at the high-school level. Confidence in ability to overcome barriers such as access (e.g., perceived behavioral control) has been reported to predict adolescent and adult athletes intentions to use SP services [34]. In addition, coaches at the high-school level have been found to report low perceived controllability in accessing and using SP services [37]. Perceived controllability was not assessed in the current sample; however, given the low percentage of access reported by high-school football coaches, it would only make sense for practitioners to further understand this factor and to work toward increasing coaches perceptions of their control in accessing and using SP consultation. Offering services that require different time commitments with varying price options may provide coaches, especially those at the highschool level, opportunities to select and choose what is currently best for them and their team. Furthermore, getting to know their past coaching and SP experience and coaching philosophy may help formulate a plan of action that identifies specific SP skills and strategies needed as well as when, where, and how to integrate the skills and strategies into the already existing training program. This approach may increase the perceived value, choice of services offered, and ease of integrating services into their already existing program structure. By addressing high-school football coaches perceived value (e.g., confidence in SP consultation) and controllability in accessing SP services it may be possible to impact intentions and subsequent SP service use. Conferences and workshops have been consistently identified by coaches as a common way to gather new information [7, 53, 64]. As stated previously, taking a SP workshop does not necessarily increase coaches perceptions of their SP knowledge. In addition, coaching conferences often place a higher emphasis on the physical training and technical skills of the sport and not on how to incorporate SP skills into the sport. With this in mind, working with sport organizations to consistently incorporate SP into coach development may be an appropriate avenue to continually expose and educate coaches on integrating SP into training, which may also serve to increase perceived accessibility, familiarity, knowledge of

14 474 American Football Coaches Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology SP, and confidence toward SP consultation. Given the low percentage of coaches that reported access to SP services, it would make sense to increase perceptions of accessibility by providing information regarding qualified SP professionals and the process of making a referral. In addition, only a small percentage of football coaches reported being familiar with AASP certification. With the potential for AASP to be the primary SP organization in the United States, it would seem important to increase coaches awareness of AASP certification and exposure to qualified SP consultants via the sport psychology consultant finder service on the AASP website. In addition to understanding the sport culture, knowledge of coaches and athletes past SP experience and their readiness to use mental skills can be helpful in marketing and delivering SP services to them. For example, coaches and athletes who are not even considering SP service use (i.e., precontemplation stage of change) may need to be presented information on how SP services provide an advantage. For example, how mental skills training can make a difference within their specific sport environment is an area of concern for many coaches [1]. In addition, this information will be more influential if it comes from another coach or athlete who has experienced high-level success. Consciousness raising (e.g., creating awareness in the advantages of SP) is one process that is helpful for moving coaches and athletes toward considering the use of SP services (contemplation stage of change) [see 65]. On the contrary, coaches and athletes who have positive past SP experiences and are in the preparation stage (i.e., who seriously intend to use SP services in the near future) may only need some basic information about when the SP consultant is available and the types of services offered to initiate contact. Coaches may not move quickly toward the adoption of SP services; however, understanding the specific sport culture, previous SP experience, and readiness to use services can facilitate building rapport and developing an effective relationship. Building rapport with coaches is ultimately the first step toward gaining access and this is especially critical with those who do not have much experience, or lack positive experience, with SP. Taking time to get to know coaches and their philosophy can help SP consultants become aware of the various barriers (e.g., stigma, confidence, time, money) that may be preventing coaches from integrating mental skills training into their program. Building rapport and developing a trusting relationship helps decrease some of the perceived barriers and will likely increase perceptions of the benefits and advantages of incorporating SP skills and strategies during the season and into the future, even with those who typically underutilize services. CONCLUSION The current investigation aimed to describe a sample of coaches in a physical contact sport traditionally viewed as a closed environment that may display more barriers for SP consultants to gain entry. High-school football coaches may also be hired and fired based on win/loss record, which may pose another unique factor contributing to their attitude and willingness to use SP services. The current investigation did not use a random representation of all high-school football coaches in the United States, nor in the state of Texas, which could lead to threats of external validity. In addition, coaches who participated in the study were those who chose to come by the exhibit booth. Future researchers may want to consider other ways of recruiting coaches at conferences which can increase the generalizability of results. For example, with permission from the host organization, researchers could attempt to recruit participants at registration and; therefore, the majority of coaches in attendance would at least be exposed to and aware of the study. In order to further increase generalizability, future

15 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 6 Number research should investigate attitudinal differences across different states with a broader sample of coaches from various levels of competition (e.g. youth, high school, college, and elite) and types of sports. Although the sample size was adequate for the CFA, for future studies to achieve more reliable estimations and provide an opportunity to conduct additional CFA procedures a larger sample size would be desirable. Compared to previous literature with coaches of a physical non-contact sport [37], the current sample of football coaches reported a greater negative attitude toward SP consultation. Even though this provides insight into possible differences, direct comparisons and conclusions regarding gender, type of sport, and competition level could not be made since the current sample consisted of all male coaches from one sport. Information such as this could help determine how socialization into and through sport influences coaches attitudes toward, expectations of, and intentions to use SP services. REFERENCES 1. Partington, J. and Orlick, T., The Sport Psychology Consultant: Olympic Coaches Views, The Sport Psychologist, 1987, 1, Voight, M. and Callaghan, J., The Use of Sport Psychology Services at NCAA Division I Universities, The Sport Psychologist, 2001, 15, Dieffenbach, K., Gould, D. and Moffett, A., The Coach s Role in Developing Champions, The International Journal of Volleyball Research, 2002, 5, Jowett, S. and Cockerill, I., Olympic Medalists Perspective of the Athlete-Coach Relationship, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2003, 4, Martin, S.B., Akers, A., Jackson, A.W., Wrisberg, C.A., Nelson, L., Leslie, P.J. et al., Male and Female Athletes and Nonathletes Expectations About Sport Psychology Consulting, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 2001, 13, Orlick, T. and Partington, J., The Sport Psychology Consultant: Analysis of Critical Components as Viewed by Canadian Olympic Athletes, The Sport Psychologist, 1987, 1, Gould, D., Damarjian, N. and Medbery, R., An Examination of Mental Skills Training in Junior Tennis Coaches, The Sport Psychologist, 1999, 13, Nelson, D.J., The Attitudes of Coaches Toward Sport Psychology Consultation, PhD Dissertation, Capella University, Sullivan, J. and Hodge, K.P., A Survey of Coaches and Athletes about Sport Psychology in New Zealand, The Sport Psychologist, 1991, Wrisberg, C.A., Loberg, L.A., Simpson, D., Withycombe, J.L. and Reed, A., An Exploratory Investigation of NCAA Division-I Coaches Support of Sport Psychology Consultants and Willingness to Seek Mental Training Services, The Sport Psychologist, In Press. 11. Zakrajsek, R.A. and Zizzi, S.J., Factors Influencing Track and Swimming Coaches Intentions to Use Sport Psychology Services, Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sport Psychology, 2007, 9(2), Retrieved September 29, 2007, from Martin, S.B., High School and College Athletes Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology Consulting, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 2005, 17, Martin, S.B., Lavallee, D., Kellmann, M. and Page, S.J., Attitudes Toward Sport Psychology Consulting of Adult Athletes from the United States, United Kingdom, and Germany, International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2004, 2, Martin, S.B., Wrisberg, C.A., Beitel, P.A. and Lounsbury, J., NCAA Division I Athletes Attitudes Toward Seeking Sport Psychology Consultation: The Development of an Objective Instrument, The Sport Psychologist, 1997, 11,

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