School Psychology Newsletter

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1 Psychological Services, Burke County Public Schools School Psychology Newsletter 2013 School Psychology Awareness Week Governor Nathan Deal has proclaimed the week of November 11-15, 2013 as a time to acknowledge the role School Psychologists play in the lives of Georgia s children. This year's theme, We're All In! Teams Work, centers on the notion that school psychologists are committed to student success in school and in life through collaborative team efforts. In Burke County Public Schools, there are 2 School Psychologists assigned to serve the county s schools and programs. School Psychologists are highly trained in both psychology and education, completing approximately three years of intensive graduate work and field experience in addition to meeting state certification requirements. School Psychologists provide a wide variety of services to find the best solution for each student and situation. They conduct comprehensive evaluations with students, interpret assessment results, and provide recommendations that will assist with educational planning decisions. School Psychologists work collaboratively with parents and school personnel to address student needs, and they also provide consultation to teachers and administrators. School Psychologists across the state are engaging in various activities as part of School Psychology Awareness Week. Newsletter Committee Editors: Chiquida Brinson Ed. S Ashlee Earley Ed. S Contributors: National Association of School Psychologists website ( INSIDE THIS ISSUE 1 From the Editors 1 School Psychology Awareness Week 2-4 Defusing Violent Behavior 5-6 Teacher Behavioral Strategies 7-8 Emotionally Unpredictable Children 8-10 Helping students with ADHD 11 Oppositional Defiant Disorder Children with Challenging Behavior 13 Wonderful Websites Psychological Processing Fall 2013 From the Editors... Burke County School Psychologists wear a number of hats and consult with parents and school personnel on a wide range of issues affecting Burke County students. This issue of the School Psychology Newsletter focuses on highlighting some of the concerns we commonly observe with students. Readers will obtain a greater understanding of the topics discussed, and will also be provided with strategies and recommendations for helping students. As always, please feel free to contact us with any questions we hope you enjoy the issue! This form was adapted from Clayton County Schools School Psychologists newsletter. 1

2 Defusing Violent Behavior in Young Children: An Ounce of Prevention: Information for School Principals By Diane Smallwood, PsyD, NCSP South Brunswick (NJ) School District It is Thursday morning and time for Ms. Smith s first graders to move from reading to art class. Most students put away their workbooks and line up as requested. Sixyear-old Andy ignores her instructions, even when she repeats them. Another student tells Andy to hurry up. Suddenly Andy swears loudly and hurls his book across the room, banging his fists on the desk. Ms. Smith tells Andy to stop and to pick up the book. Andy screams he wants to kill her, knocks over his chair, and proceeds to kick and hit nearby desks. Ms. Smith asks the class to wait while she brings Andy, struggling, to your office where he breaks down into angry tears. This is the third such episode in two weeks. Three days earlier, Andy had thrown his lunch tray on the ground when the cafeteria monitor told the table to quiet down. The week before, he threatened to smash in the face of a classmate who complained that Andy s rhythmic kicking of the chair leg was bothering him. Visits to your office, talks with the counselor, and restriction of privileges do not seem to be changing Andy s behavior. If this scenario sounds familiar, you are not alone. The explosive behavior typified by Andy is at the extreme end of a growing trend in violent behavior among young children. Many elementary school principals and teachers spend an inordinate amount of time managing outbursts and stopping bullying or other forms of physical and verbal aggression. The exact cause of the trend is not clear but experts cite a number of societal and family factors as well as an increase in psychiatric disorders in children and the loss of social development time in the early elementary classroom. The costs, however, are clear. Violent or aggressive behavior undermines the integrity of the learning environment, interferes with children s academic and social outcomes, contributes to staff and student stress, and threatens school safety. Addressing the problem in the preschool and early elementary grades is paramount. Redirecting inappropriate behavior in its beginning stages will more likely prevent later development of intractable patterns of violence and disruption. Violent behavior among young children does not necessarily reflect willfulness; often the child lacks the requisite social skills skills that schools can help them learn. The key is to preserve the safety and learning experience of all students and to promote improved behavior on the part of the child in question. Changing Violent Behavior Children who exhibit explosive or noncompliant behavior like Andy present the most difficult challenge to school personnel and parents. These children are chronically violent or aggressive and may be defiant, start fights, push, kick, hit or grab, throw things, verbally threaten classmates or staff, or destroy property. Some children respond to verbal prompts to interrupt and stop this type 2 of behavior. Others melt down with little obvious provocation and, once they lose it, cannot be reached until they have exhausted their rage. Typically, these children do not handle transitions or unexpected change well and have low tolerance for frustration. This is different from violent behavior that is episodic (i.e., out of the norm for the child and perhaps the result of an isolated event at school or home) or goal oriented (i.e., employed to achieve a specific desire or targeted at a specific person). The underlying cause(s) of explosive/noncompliant behavior are complex and may be accompanied by other negative behaviors or problems. Leading experts like Dr. Ross Greene, author of The Explosive Child, suggest that the most effective way to help such children is to give them the mechanisms to recognize and prevent outbursts before they happen. While the intensity and specificity of interventions may differ, the basic strategies outlined below can help build and reinforce positive behavior in all students. Facilitate prevention and problem solving. Principals are instrumental to creating a school environment in which children learn positive behavior skills. Much of the time administrators spend with children like Andy is focused on disciplining or cleaning up after a meltdown, often with little long-term benefit. Certainly discipline plays a role in violence prevention, but it should be employed as a teaching mechanism, not just a means of containing the behavior. You will significantly increase your effectiveness if you put in place comprehensive prevention strategies and develop an intervention process that emphasizes problem solving, not punishment, and facilitates collaboration between staff, parents, and students. (See inset box.) Effective strategies focus on: Prevention at both the system and individual levels. Understanding the underlying impetus for the behavior. Identifying and building the necessary skills to make more appropriate choices. Prevention and Problem Solving Strategies Implement a school-wide approach to build positive behavior skills for all students. Communicate to students, staff, and parents expectations for behavior and how specific social skills will help students achieve that behavior. Reinforce behavior values and desired skills throughout the building by using bulletin boards, wall charts, morning announcements, etc. Have teachers introduce expectations at the beginning of the year and regularly incorporate opportunities for learning coping skills into the school day. Congratulate children when you see them make a good choice.

3 Model the skills you want the children to learn. Provide teachers and support staff, including playground aides, lunchroom monitors, and bus drivers, with training. Develop a problem solving, team approach with your staff. Designate an office or special place as a time out room for children who need to regain safe control. Make sure children know where it is and what adult(s) will be there to help them. This is often the counselor s office or your office. Reach out to parents. Invite them to let you know if they are concerned about behavior problems at home. Offer to be a resource. Build trust with students by being accessible and encouraging. Create a positive framework for changing behavior. Although explosive/noncompliant children need individual assessment and interventions, they benefit like all children from school-wide programs that promote positive behavior skills. Many schools have adopted social skills programs as part of the curriculum with great success. These programs emphasize teaching positive skills, not punishing negative behavior; provide a universal language or set of steps to facilitate learning desired behaviors; and foster values of empathy, caring, respect, self-awareness, and self-restraint. Your school psychologist or counselor can help select and implement a well-established program that is best suited to your school. A school-wide approach helps children with violent behavior in four important ways: Provides them the natural opportunity to learn and practice alternative skills under a variety of daily circumstances. Lays out an action plan for children to help themselves and each other behave appropriately. Gives children a common language with which to express their feelings and communicate with peers and adults. Puts the aggressive child s need for more intensive interventions within the positive context of learning something everyone else is learning, too. Normalizing social learning enables children to understand that classmates like Andy need extra help from the teacher to learn to cope with frustration, just as Susie may need special help learning to read. You also want to help children distinguish between unacceptable behavior and acceptable differences in learning and socialization. Clearly Andy s reaction was inappropriate, but his need to complete his work or transition differently than his classmates is not. This perspective helps preserve the troubled child s self-esteem and is a valuable message in teaching children tolerance. Identify the underlying impetus of the behavior. The 3 first and crucial step to changing behavior is to determine why the child resorts to violence or aggression in the first place. Ultimately the behavior is accomplishing what the child wants or feels he wants and it is important to know why. Is he frustrated or angry, avoiding an undesirable task or anticipated stressor, seeking attention, exacting revenge, or modeling behavior of others? He also may be exhibiting symptoms of a psychiatric disorder. Explosive/noncompliant behavior is often linked to a psychiatric diagnosis, such as bipolar disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, ADHD, Tourette Syndrome, Asperger s disorder, and depression. You can work with the parents, teacher, and school psychologist to identify the cause as well as triggers for the behavior, and to determine if a more thorough psychiatric evaluation is warranted. The goal is to address the underlying issue(s) and help the child reframe his objective (e.g., learning to master the task instead of avoiding it) at the same time he is building communication and self-control skills. Determine the circumstances that trigger outbursts. Identifying a pattern of when and how the child acts out helps define the factors that trigger the behavior and, subsequently, suggests strategies that will most effectively correct it. For instance, is the child aggravated by a particular kind of activity like writing or because he is slower than his classmates; uncomfortable in a specific setting; responding to interaction with a certain child; resistant to an adult command; or unnerved by the transition process? In some cases, the best approach may be to keep the child away from those situations that prove especially difficult, modify situational demands to reduce stress, or directly teach the child necessary coping or performance skills. You and the teacher may also need to ignore certain non-risky behaviors (e.g., walking around in the middle of class) that, when interrupted, set the child off. At a minimum you want to establish alternatives that he and the teacher know are acceptable. It is also a good idea to ask your school psychologist to develop uniform criteria for assessing behavior. This helps minimize inconsistencies in referrals due to different behavior tolerances among teachers. Stay in front of the meltdown. Everyone is better off the child, his classmates, and the staff if adults can help the child stop the meltdown before it starts. Not only does this minimize the negative impact on others, it changes the child s expectation that losing it is his only option. In the beginning, school staff may need to intervene quite a bit, but the eventual objective is to enable the child to manage his reactions himself. Identifying the precursor behaviors that indicate the child is getting upset is important. Children usually have a pattern of behaviors that express their growing frustration, e.g., clenching their fists, jiggling their leg, or making sounds of exasperation. These clue the teacher as to when to intervene. It also is important to teach the child to recognize these signs and the corresponding feelings and thoughts in order to implement coping strategies before losing control. Again, you want to work with all of the adults involved and the student to determine what approaches are most effective. If applicable, these strategies would be incorporated into the child s IEP.

4 Examples include establishing a safe place in the classroom where the child can collect himself, developing a signal between the teacher and student that says, I am having trouble, allowing the child extra time to complete work or transition to another activity, or providing alternative means to do an assignment. Even eliciting the help of a classmate can be effective. Asking Tyler to help Andy organize his things not only minimizes Andy s frustration but also fosters positive social interactions between the two boys. Show the child that you are an advocate for his success. As a principal, you advocate for every student s success, but children with serious behavior problems may need extra encouragement to feel supported. Begin interactions with the child by acknowledging some strength or example of his competency. Go out of your way to catch him succeeding. Try to spend some time with him other than in the midst of a crisis. For instance, eat lunch together or play a favorite game at recess. Convey that your involvement in a problem does not signal a failure on his part but rather your commitment to help him, his teacher and parents find a solution. This problem-solving approach is not only more effective, it also helps establish a sense of trust with the student and reduces parent defensiveness. Engage parents as partners. The cooperation of the child s parents is essential to changing difficult behavior. The child is almost certainly exhibiting similar behavior at home. The parents themselves may be worried or frustrated. They may also need to adjust some of their own behavior or approach to the problem and may feel they are being judged. Do not try to establish your relationship with them over the phone. Schedule a meeting. Good face-toface communications from the start will minimize confrontation and help parents view you and your staff as a resource. Avoid beginning the conversation with a litany of negatives. Instead emphasize the child s strengths and how they can be built into the problem solving process. Ask the parents to identify triggers and precursor behaviors that they have observed and to recommend coping strategies that work at home. Maintain open communication and determine how they prefer to be contacted if their child is having difficulty, e.g., a phone call, note home, or . An Ounce of Prevention Is Worth a Pound of Cure. The upfront work involved in helping an explosive noncompliant child may seem daunting but the investment is worth it. These children have the potential to become positive contributors to or serious problems for society in the future. The skills they learn in elementary school will carry them through later school experiences and into adulthood. As in all areas of life, the cost of prevention strategies is far lower than the cost of remediating or containing far more serious problems down the road. Resources: The ACCEPTS Program, &id=0365 The Explosive Child, Dr. Ross Greene, The FAST Track Program (Families and Schools Together, The Incredible Years Parents Teachers and Children Training Series, National Association of School Psychologists publications, Helping Children at Home and School: Handouts From Your School Psychologist, The PREPARE Curriculum: Teaching Prosocial Competencies, Primary Mental Health Project, Diane Smallwood, PsyD, NCSP, is a past president of NASP and is a school psychologist in the South Brunswick (NJ) School District. 2003, National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Highway, Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814, (301) An adapted version of this article first appeared in the National Association of Elementary School Principals newsletter, Here s How, spring,

5 Teacher Behavioral Strategies: A Menu Here is a sampling of strategies that teachers can use either to head off or to provide consequences for low- to medium-level student misbehavior: Prior to Occurrence of Behavior(s): Break student tasks into manageable 'chunks': Students may misbehave to escape activities that they find too hard or tedious. Consider breaking a larger task into smaller or easier 'chunks' that the student will more willingly undertake. If the student must complete a large number of subtasks, include an occasional 'fun break'. Increase 'reinforcement' quality of classroom: If a student is acting out to be ejected from a classroom, it may be that student does not find the classroom setting and/or routine to be very rewarding. The teacher can make the classroom environment more attractive in a number of ways, including by posting interesting instructional materials (e.g., bulletin board displays), boosting the pace of (and degree of student interaction in) class lecture or discussion, and including additional instructional activities of high interest to students. Offer choice: When students are offered opportunities to make simple but meaningful choices in their classroom routine, their behaviors can improve. Examples of choice include permitting students to select who they work with on a project, negotiate when an assignment will be due, and choose what book to read for an assignment. Offer help strategies: Misbehavior may occur when students are stuck on a work assignment and do not know how to quickly and appropriately request help without drawing undue attention to themselves. Teachers can address this problem by teaching the entire class how to request assistance in a non-disruptive way. A teacher may, for example, instruct students with questions during seatwork to post a help-signal and continue working on other assignments or approach a peer-helper for assistance. Preview rules/behavioral expectations: Some students misbehave because they are impulsive and do not always think through the consequences of their misbehavior before they act. These students can benefit from having the teacher briefly review rules and/or behavioral expectations just before the students go into a potentially challenging situation or setting (e.g., passing through the halls; going to an assembly). If the instructor has a classroom reward system in place, he or she can strengthen the rules preview by reminding students that the class can win points for good behavior. Provide skills instruction: If the teacher determines that a child engages in inappropriate behaviors because the student lacks alternative, 'replacement' skills, the instructor should set up a plan to provide the child with the necessary skills. Any skills instruction should include plenty of examples to illustrate the skill-set being taught, demonstration (e.g., modeling, role-play) and a 'checkup' (e.g., student demonstration and verbal 'walk-through' of steps to skill) to confirm to the teacher's satisfaction that the student has acquired the skill. Teach student to take 'calm-down' break: Students who frequently become angry at peers or who may be set off by the excitement of large groups may be taught to (1) identify when they are getting too tense, excited, or angry, and (2) take a short break away from the setting or situation until they have calmed down sufficiently. During and After Occurrence of Behavior(s): Apology: Apologies are one way that humans repair the social fabric after a conflict. The student may be asked to apologize to the offended party (e.g., teacher, student, principal) in writing or in person. It is important, though, that the offending student accept blame for the incident and demonstrate authentic regret in offering the apology, or neither party will be satisfied with the outcome. Behavioral contract: The student and teacher hammer out a written agreement that outlines: specific positive behaviors that the student is to engage in (or specific negative behaviors that he or she is to avoid), the privileges or rewards that the student will earn for complying with the behavioral contract, and the terms by which the student is to earn the rewards (e.g., staying in his or her seat during independent reading period for three consecutive days). Ignoring: When the student displays a problem behavior, the teacher 'ignores' the behavior (that is, the teacher does not give the student attention for the behavior). Loss of privileges: The child is informed in advance that he or she can access a series of privileges (e.g., access to games to play, the opportunity to have 5 minutes of free time) if his or her behavior remains appropriate. The instructor instructs the student about what kind and intensity of problem behavior may result in the loss of privileges, and for how long. After this introductory phase, the instructor withdraws privileges as agreed upon whenever the student misbehaves. Modeling (Vicarious Learning): While the target child is observing, the teacher gives specific public praise to children other than the target student when they show appropriate behaviors. When praising these behaviors, the teacher clearly describes the praiseworthy behaviors. When the target child 'imitates' the same or similar appropriate behaviors, the teacher immediately praises him or her. Office referral: The instructor writes up a referral documenting the student's misbehavior and sends both the referral and student to the principal's office for intervention. 5

6 Over-correction: The student is required repetitively to practice a skill that will 'replace' or improve upon an inappropriate or problem behavior. For example, a student who wanders the halls without permission when taking an unsupervised bathroom break may have to stay after school one afternoon and take multiple 'practice' trips to the school bathroom. In this example, the instructor might accompany the student to monitor how promptly the student walked to, and returned from, the bathroom and to give the student feedback about how much this target behavior has improved. Parent contact: The teacher calls, sends a note home to, or s the student's parent(s) regarding the behavioral problems. The parent may be asked for advice on how the teacher can better reach and teach the child at school. The teacher may offer suggestions for appropriate parent involvement (e.g., "You may want to talk with your child about this incident, which we view as serious."). Peer Consequences: If the teacher finds that classmates play (or could play) an important role in influencing a target child's behavior(s), the teacher may try to influence the target child's behaviors indirectly by providing consequences for selected peer behaviors. For example, if classmates encourage the target student to make inappropriate comments by giving positive social attention (e.g., laughing), the teacher may start a group response-cost program and deduct points from the class total whenever a peer laughs at inappropriate comments. Or a teacher who wants to increase the social interactions that a socially isolated child has with her peers may reward selected peers with praise each time that they approach the isolated child in a positive manner. Praise: When the student engages in a positive behavior that the teacher has selected to increase, the teacher praises the student for that behavior. Along with positive comments (e.g., "Great job!"), the praise statement should give specifics about the behavior the child demonstrated that is being singled our for praise (e.g., "You really kept your attention focused on me during that last question, even when kids around you were talking!"). Private approach to student: The instructor quietly approaches the student, points out the problem behavior and how it is interfering with class work or interrupting instruction. The instructor reminds the student of the academic task in which he or she should be engaged. The student is given an opportunity to explain his or her actions. The student is politely offered the choice to improve behavior or accept a negative consequence. Privately approaching a student can help him or her to save face and reduce the likelihood that the student will become defensive or defiant. Promise: The instructor approaches the misbehaving student and informs him or her that the student has behaved inappropriately. The teacher asks the student to state an appropriate alternative behavior that he or she should have followed. The teacher then requests that the student promise the instructor (verbally or in writing) that he or she will not engage in this misbehavior again. Redirection: The teacher interrupts problem behavior by calling on the student to answer a question, assigning him or her a task to carry out, or otherwise refocusing the child's attention. Reprimand: In the typical reprimand, the instructor approaches the student, states that the student is misbehaving, and instructs the student to stop the misbehavior immediately. Reprimands should be used sparingly, as students may become defiant if confronted by an angry teacher in a public manner. When used, reprimands should be kept short, to avoid arguments with the student. Response Cost: Usually, response cost programs first award a student a certain number of tokens with no conditions attached. Throughout the monitoring period, the student has a token withdrawn whenever he or she displays a behavior that is inappropriate. (These behaviors would usually have been agreed upon in advance.) The student is permitted to 'cash in' any points that he or she still retains at the end of the monitoring period or may be allowed to 'bank' the points toward a future reward or privilege. Restitution: The student engages in an activity that actually or symbolically restores the environment, setting, or social situation that his or her misbehavior had damaged. For example, a student who marks up a wall with graffiti may be required to work afterschool under supervision of custodial staff to wash the wall and removing the offending markings. Rewarding alternative (positive) behaviors: The instructor calls on the student or provides other positive attention or incentives only during those times that the student is showing appropriate social and academic behaviors. The same positive attention or consequences are withheld during times when the student misbehaves or does not engage in academics. Rules review: The teacher approaches the misbehaving student and (a) has him or her read off the posted class rules, (b) asks the student which of those rules his or her current behavior is violating, and (c) has the student state what positive behavior he or she will engage in instead. Timeout/Detention/Inschool suspension: The student is removed from the classroom because of a behavioral infraction. In timeout, the student's exclusion from the classroom may be very short (3-5 minutes). With in-school suspension, the student may be removed from instruction for longer periods (e.g., half a day). Detention may require that the student spend time in a non-rewarding setting but that consequence may be deferred until after school to prevent loss of learning. Reference 6

7 Strategies for Working With Emotionally Unpredictable Students Stage 1: Frustration Warning Signs: The student may bite nails or lips grimace mutter or grumble appear flushed or tense seem 'stuck' on a topic or issue Strategies to prevent or reduce the intensity of student frustration: Antiseptic bounce: Send the student from the room on an errand or task. Permit student to go to quiet spot within or outside of classroom on 'respite break' (brief cool-down period). Teach the student appropriate ways to seek help when stuck on academic assignment. Spend 5 minutes talking through issue with student (or send student to another caring adult) Give student an 'IOU' to meet with adult to talk over issue at more convenient time. Teach student to recognize signs of emotional upset and to use 'self-calming' strategies. Teach the student how to negotiate with instructors about assignments or work expectations. Use motivation strategies to make learning more inviting (see Finding the Spark) Stage 2: Defensiveness Warning Signs: The student may lash out verbally at others. withdraw (emotionally or physically). challenge the authority of the instructor or other adult. refuse to comply with adult requests or to follow classroom routines. project blame onto others. Strategies to prevent or reduce the intensity of student defensiveness: Avoid discussions of "who is right" or "who is in control". Approach the student privately, make eye contact, address the student in a quiet voice about his or her behavior. Use humor to 'defuse' conflict situation. Consider an apology if you have inadvertently wronged or offended the student. Impose appropriate consequences on peers if they are provoking the student through teasing, taunts, verbal challenges, or physical horseplay. Help the student to identify appropriate range of responses for the situation and to select one. Permit student some 'leeway' on assignment or classroom expectations (as an acknowledgement of the life- or situational stress that they might be experiencing). Teach the student non-stigmatizing ways to get academic help, support in the classroom. Direct the student to write down the main points of his or her concerns. Promise that you will read through the student's account and meet individually to discuss the problem. Use effective 'teacher commands' to direct the student: (1) keep each command brief, (2) state command directly rather than in "Could you please " format, (3) use businesslike tone, avoiding anger and sarcasm, (4) avoid lengthy explanations for why you are making the request, (4) repeat command once if student fails to comply, then follow up with pre-determined consequences. Use planned ignoring (NOTE: This strategy works best when the student lacks an audience). Stage 3: Aggression Warning Signs: The student may make verbal threats. use abusive language. assume threatening posture (e.g., with fists raised). physically strike out at peers or adults. Strategies to react to, prepare for or respond to student verbal or physical aggression: Remove other students or adults from the immediate vicinity of student (to protect their safety, eliminate an audience) Adopt a 'supportive stance': step slightly to the side of the student and orient your body so that you face the student obliquely at a 45- to 90-degree angle. Respect the student's 'personal space.' Most people interpret the distance extending outward from their body to a distance of 2-1/2 to 3 feet as a bubble of 'personal space.' To both ensure your physical safety and reduce the student's sense of threat, always stand at least a leg's length away from the student. 7

8 Use supportive 'paraverbal' and non-verbal communication. Children are adept at 'reading' our moods and feelings through non-verbal signals such as facial expressions, and body language. Maintain a calm tone of voice and body posture to project acceptance and support for the student. Do not block the door. Unless you have a compelling reason to do so (e.g., with very young children), try not to block the upset child's access to the door as you approach the student. The student may interpret a blocked exit as a threat and attempt to go around or even through you to escape. Deliver a clear statement of choices. Here is a 3-step approach for making requests to upset students: 1. Give the student two clear choices with clear consequences. Order the choices so that the student hears the teacher-preferred choice last e.g., "John, you can refuse to participate in the math assignment and be written up for detention or you can start the math assignment now and not be written up." Make sure above all that you can enforce any consequences that you present to the student. 2. If the student fails to comply in a reasonable amount of time to Step 1, state clearly and firmly what you want the student to do. Include a time limit for student compliance and specify a location if necessary. For example, a teacher may tell the student, "John, I want you to return to your desk [location] now [time-frame] and begin your math assignment [requested behavior]." 3. If the student still fails to comply with your request, enforce alternative consequences that you have selected in advance. References Long, N.J., Morse, W.C., Newman, R.G. (1980). Conflict in the classroom. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Myles, B.S., & Simpson, R.L. (1994). Prevention and management considerations for aggressive and violent children and youth. Education & Treatment of Children, 17, Steiger, L.K. (1987). Nonviolent Crisis Intervention: A program focusing on management of disruptive, assaultive, or out-of-control behavior. Brookfield, WI: National Crisis Prevention Institute. Walker, H.M., & Walker, J.E. (1991). Coping with non-compliance in the classroom: A positive approach for teachers. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed, Inc. Helping the Student with ADHD in the Classroom: Strategies for Teachers Affecting three to five percent of the population, Attention Deficit /Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common of the childhood behavior disorders. Associated with this disorder's core symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity are a variety of disruptive classroom behaviors (e.g., calling out, leaving seat, interrupting activities, etc.). Consequently, it is not surprising that these students are at risk for school failure. Increased expectations for the use of classroom interventions for students with ADHD have been generated by Section 504 of the Vocational and Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of Section 504 has been used to require the development of general education accommodation plans. These plans are designed to ensure that the student with ADHD is provided a free and appropriate education. Among the recommended components of these plans are a variety of classroom interventions (including behavior management), with a special emphasis on environmental modifications. Similarly, the recent reauthorization of IDEA, with its requirements for functional assessments, should increase the frequency with which classroom-based behavioral interventions are considered for these students. General behavior intervention suggestions Classroom interventions for the student with ADHD should be based upon a solid foundation of general behavior intervention principles. While students with ADHD do have a core of common problems, this group is fairly heterogeneous. Thus, instead of focusing on ADHD symptoms, management should first directly target the specific problem behavior. Next, an alternative behavior, incompatible with the problem behavior, should be selected. It is important to keep both behaviors in mind. Not only do we want to make it clear to students what behavior is unacceptable (what we don't want them to do), but we also want to make it clear what behavior is acceptable (what we want them to do). These behaviors should be carefully defined so that the teacher will be able to accurately monitor them. It is also important to ensure that the behavior intervention plan is based upon a careful functional assessment of behavior. Antecedents and consequences of both the problem and replacement behaviors need to be studied. Antecedents will suggest environmental changes that set up the student for success or failure. Analysis of consequences, on the other hand, will identify those environmental contingencies that serve to reinforce both desired and undesired behavior. The function of the problem behavior should guide intervention plans. For example, if the behavior is maintained by negative reinforcement (e.g., avoidance of an undesired task), then the intervention should ensure that this goal is not obtained by the problem behavior. At the same time the intervention should teach the student that the desirable behavior is a more effective way of obtaining the behavioral goal. 8

9 Environmental and instructional considerations Task duration To accommodate to the student's short attention span, academic assignments should be brief and feedback regarding accuracy immediate. Longer projects should be broken up into manageable parts. Short time limits for task completion should be specified and can be enforced with timers. Direct instruction Attention to task is improved when the student with ADHD is engaged in teacher-directed as opposed to independent seat-work activities. Also, the teaching of note-taking strategies increases the benefits of direct instruction. Both comprehension and on-task behavior improve with the development of these skills. Peer tutoring-class-wide peer tutoring provides many of the instructional variables known to be important in setting up students with ADHD for success. For example, it provides frequent and immediate feedback. When combined with a token economy, peer tutoring has been found to yield dramatic academic gains. Scheduling-Based on evidence that the on-task behavior of students with ADHD progressively worsens over the course of the day, it is suggested that academic instruction be provided in the morning. During the after-noon, when problem solving skills are especially poor, more active, nonacademic activities should be scheduled. Novelty- Presentation of novel, interesting, highly motivating material will improve attention. For example, in-creasing the novelty and interest level of tasks through use of increased stimulation (e.g., color, shape, texture) reduces activity level, enhances attention and improves overall performance. Structure and organization- Lessons should be carefully structured and important points clearly identified. For example, providing a lecture outline is a helpful note-taking aid that increases memory of main ideas. Students with ADHD perform better on memory tasks when material is meaningfully structured for them. Rule reminders and visual cues- The rules given to students with ADHD must be well defined, specific and frequently reinforced through visible modes of presentation. Well-defined rules with clear consequences are essential. Relying on the student's memory of rules is not sufficient. Visual rule reminders or cues should be placed throughout the classroom. It is also helpful if rules are reviewed before activity transitions and following school breaks. For example, token economy systems are especially effective when the rules for these programs are reviewed daily. Auditory cues- Providing students with ADHD auditory cues that prompt appropriate classroom behavior is helpful. For example, use of a tape with tones placed at irregular intervals to remind students to monitor their on-task behavior has been found to improve arithmetic productivity. Pacing of work- When possible, it is helpful to allow students with ADHD to set their own pace for task completion. The intensity of problematic ADHD behaviors is less when work is self paced, as compared to situations where work is paced by others. Instructions-Because students with ADHD have difficulty following multi-step directions, it is important for instruction to be short, specific and direct. Further, to ensure understanding, it is helpful if these students are asked to rephrase directions in their own words. Additionally, teachers must be prepared to repeat directions frequently, and recognize that students often may not have paid attention to what was said. Productive physical movement- The student with ADHD may have difficulty sitting still. Thus, productive physical movement should be planned. It is appropriate to allow the student with ADHD opportunities for controlled movement and to develop a repertoire of physical activities for the entire class such as stretch breaks. Other examples might include a trip to the office, a chance to sharpen a pencil, taking a note to another teacher, watering the plants, feeding classroom pets, or simply standing at a desk while completing classwork. Alternating seat work activities with other activities that allow for movement is essential. It is also important to keep in mind that on some days it will be more difficult for the student to sit still than on others. Thus, teachers need to be flexible and modify instructional demands accordingly. Active vs. passive involvement- In line with the idea of providing for productive physical movement, tasks that require active (as opposed to passive) responses may help hyperactive students channel their disruptive behaviors into constructive responses. While it may be problematic for these children to sit and listen to a long lecture, teachers might find that students with ADHD can be successful participants in the same lecture when asked to help (e.g., help with audio-visual aids, write important points on the chalk board, etc.). Distractions- Generally, research has not supported the effectiveness of complete elimination of all irrelevant stimuli from the student's environment. However, as these students have difficulty paying attention to begin with, it is important that attractive alternatives to the task at hand be minimized. For example, activity centers, mobiles, aquariums and terrariums should not be placed within the student's visual field. Anticipation- Knowledge of ADHD and its primary symptoms is helpful in anticipating difficult situations. It is important to keep in mind that some situations will be more difficult for than others. For example, effortful problem solving tasks are especially problematic. These situations should be anticipated and appropriate accommodations made. When presenting a task that the teacher suspects might exceed the student's attentional capacity, it is appropriate to reduce assignment length and emphasize quality as opposed to quantity. Contingency management: Encouraging appropriate behavior- Although classroom environment changes can be helpful in reducing problematic behaviors and learn-ing difficulties, by themselves they are typically not sufficient. 9

10 Thus, contingencies need to be available that reinforce appropriate or desired behaviors, and discourage inappropriate or undesired behaviors. Powerful external reinforcement- First, it is important to keep in mind that the contingencies or consequences used with these students must be delivered more immediately and frequently than is typically the case. Additionally, the consequences used need to be more powerful and of a higher magnitude than is required for students without ADHD. Students with ADHD need external criteria for success and need a pay-off for increased performance. Relying on intangible rewards is not enough. o Use of both negative and positive consequences are essential when working with ADHD students. However, before negative consequences can be implemented, appropriate and rich incentives should first be developed to reinforce desired behavior. It is important to give much encouragement, praise and affection as these students are easily discouraged. When negative consequences are administered, they should be given in a fashion that does not embarrass or put down students. Also, it is important to keep in mind that the rewards used with these students lose their reinforcing power quickly and must be changed or rotated frequently. Token economy systems- These systems are an example of a behavioral strategy proven to be helpful in improving both the academic and behavioral functioning of students with ADHD. These systems typically involved giving students tokens (e.g., poker chips) when they display appropriate behavior. These tokens are in turn ex-changed for tangible rewards or privileges at specified times. Response-cost programs- While verbal reprimands are sufficient for some students, more powerful negative consequences, such as response-cost programs, are needed for others. These programs provide mild punishment when problem behavior is displayed. For example, a student may lose earned points or privileges when previously specified rules are broken. There is evidence that such programming decreases ADHD symptoms such as impulsivity. A specific response-cost program found to be effective with ADHD students involves giving a specific number of points at the start of each day. When a rule is broken (a problem behavior is dis-played), points are taken away. Thus, to maintain their points students must avoid breaking the rule. At the end of the period or day, students are typically allowed to exchange the points they have earned for a tangible reward or privilege. Time-out- Removing the student from positive reinforcement, or time-out, typically involves removing the student from classroom activities. Time-out can be effective in reducing aggressive and disruptive actions in the classroom, especially when these behaviors are strengthened by peer attention. They are not helpful, however, when problem behavior is a result of the students desire to avoid school work. The time-out area should be a pleasant environment and a student should be placed in it for only a short time. Time-out is ended based upon the student's attitude. At its conclusion a discussion of what went wrong and how to prevent the problem in the future takes place. While these procedures are effective with ADHD students, it is recommended that they be used only with the most disruptive classroom behaviors and only when there is a trained staff. Summary As students with ADHD are a heterogeneous group, there is no one intervention (or set of interventions) that wili improve the classroom functioning of all of these students. Thus, it is suggested that classroom modifications be tailored to the unique needs of each student. In developing these modifications it is per-haps best to begin by examining how the classroom environment might be changed to set up the student with ADHD for success. The next step is to consider the implementation of a contingency management system designed to provide external incentives for appropriate classroom behaviors. In doing so it is important to remember that behavior management programs must be consistently applied. Further, it is essential to avoid excessive use of negative consequences (such as reprimands, time-out). In all cost programs, it is important to avoid the use of unrealistic standards that result in excessive point or privilege loss. Students must experience success. In other words, it is essential that students be frequently reinforced for what we want them to do, rather than simply punished for what we do not want them to do. References: Abramowitz, A. J., & O'Leary, S. G. (1991). Behavioral interventions for the classroom: Implications for students with ADHD. School Psychology Review, 20, American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Bender, W. N., & Mathes, M. Y. (1995). Students with ADHD in the inclusive classroom: A hierarchical approach to strategy selection. Intervention in School and Clinic, 30, DuPaul, G. J., Eckert, T. L., & McGoey, K. E., (1997). Interventions for students with Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder: One size does not fit all. School Psychology Review, 26, Fiore, T. A., Becker, E. A., & Nero, R. C. (1993). Educational interventions for students with Attention Deficit Disorder. Exceptional Children, 18, Gordon, M., Thomason, D., Cooper, S., & Ivers, C. L. (1991). Nonmedical treatment of ADHD/hyperactivity: The Attention Training System. Journal of School Psychology, 29, Kemp, K., Fister, S., & McLaughlin, P. J. (1995). Academic strategies for children with ADD. Intervention in School and Clinic, 30, O'Neill, M. E., & Douglas, V. l. (1991). Study strategies and story recall in Attention Deficit Disorder and reading disability. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 19, Pfiffner, L. J., & Barkley, R. A. (1990). Educational placement and classroom management. In R. A. Barkley, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (pp ). New York: Guilford. Reid, R., & Katsiyannis, A. (1995). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Section 504. Remedial and Special Education, 16,

11 Sandoval, J. (1982). Hyperactive children: 12 ways to help them in the classroom. Academic Therapy, 18, Resources for Educators Barkley, R. A. (1 990). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford. Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: Guilford. DuPaul, G. J., & Stoner, G. (1994). ADHD in the schools: Assessment and intervention strategies. New York: Guilford. Goldstein, S., & Goldstein, M. (1990). Managing attention disorders in children: A guide for practitioners. New York: Wiley. Parker, H. (1992). The ADD hyperactivity handbook for schools. Plantation, FL: Impact Publications. Smallwood, D. (Ed.) (1997). Attention disorders in children: Resources for school psychologists. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Stephen E. Brock, Ph.D., NCSP, is the Lead Psychologist for the Lodi Unified School District (Lodi, Califomia). He is also a lecturer at the University of California, Davis, and California State University, Sacramento. Oppositional Defiant Disorder By Anne Stair, Ed.S. Being oppositional can occur at different points in a child s life. For example, when children are not feeling well, they may become argumentative or defiant toward others (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry [AACAP], 2009). While some may view this form of defiance as oppositional, it is a typical behavior in young children and teenagers and should not be considered abnormal for these populations. However, there is a difference between defiance and aggression, and when this type of aggressive behavior is exhibited more severely than same age peers it can be cause for concern (AACAP, 2009). Therefore, it is important to consider the difference between a child who is defiant and one that has an Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) in order to provide intervention for that child. A defiant child who does not have ODD may display similar behaviors, but the presence of ODD can only be determined through a comprehensive evaluation by a mental health professional. Also, given that this disorder can coexist with other disorders, it is important to consult with a mental health professional. According to AACAP (2009), children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) demonstrate an ongoing pattern of uncooperative, defiant, and hostile behavior toward authority figures that seriously interferes with the youngster s day to day functioning. Symptoms Frequent temper tantrums Excessive arguing with adults Often questioning rules Deliberate attempts to annoy or upset people Blaming others for his or her mistakes or misbehavior Easily annoyed by others Mean and hateful talking when upset Treatment Parent Training Programs Individual Therapy Group Therapy Social Skill Training Family Therapy Reference American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. (2009). Children with oppositional defiant disorder. Facts for Families (72). Retrieved from children_with_oppositional_defiant_disorder Identifying and Supporting Students with Challenging Behaviors By Will Snyder, M.S. School Psychologists commonly receive questions about the Special Education eligibility category of Emotional Behavioral Disorder (EBD). Although EBD prevalence rates only represent about 1% of the total student population in Georgia, EBD eligibilities represent a full 9.5% of all Special Education placements. To establish EBD eligibility in Georgia, one of five criteria must be demonstrated across a significant amount of time and to a heightened degree of frequency and intensity. In this article, readers will be provided with details about this disorder, common courses of action when it is observed in the school environment, and suggestions for supporting the needs of 11

12 students. 1. An inability to build or maintain proper interpersonal relationships. 2. An inability to learn that is not caused by intellectual, hearing or vision, or medical impairments 3. Chronic inappropriate behavior or feelings. 4. A persistent mood of unhappiness or depression. 5. A tendency to display unexpected physical symptoms or fears that significantly impede a student s functioning. What Happens Next? Characteristics of Emotional Behavioral Disorder May not have a lot of friends Fights, teases, or engages in other hurtful behaviors Intentionally draws negative attention to themselves Withdraws from interaction with others Does not participate in the classroom Vision/hearing screenings are conducted Individual Health Plans are obtained to document medical concerns Intellectual screeners (e.g., KBIT 2) are sometimes given as part of a Tier 3 Student Support Team (SST) screening Comprehensive intelligence tests are administered by the School Psychologist as part of the DES evaluation Common reason for Tier 3 SST referrals Often characterized by emotional/behavioral outbursts Inappropriate feelings under normal conditions Sadness, frequent sleeping in class, withdrawal Loss of interest in activities Bodily complaints (e.g., headaches or stomachaches) can be a sign of depressive symptoms Internalize sadness or anger with few outward signs of distress Frequently identified in early preschool or Kindergarten Severe forms of separation or stranger anxiety Chronic phobias Bodily complaints (e.g., headaches or stomachaches) due to emotional distress When a student first exhibits emotional behavioral concerns that interfere with their educational performance and/or interpersonal relationships, they are provided with interventions and support through a four tiered Response to Intervention (RTI) model. Parent conferences are held, interventions are implemented with increasing frequency and intensity, and data is collected to assist in the decision making process. If a student does not make sufficient progress despite these interventions and supports, the Tier 3 Student Support Team may request a referral for a comprehensive evaluation to be conducted by the School Psychologist. When conducting an evaluation, the School Psychologist attempts to form a thorough understanding of the student s day to day functioning, as well as determine if there are triggers in the student s environment that may be impacting behavior. School Psychologists often conduct direct observations of the student, as well as interviews with other individuals in the student s life (e.g., parent and teachers). Later, more complex assessments may be used to obtain a more in depth assessment of social, emotional, and behavioral functioning. MANAGING CHALLENGING BEHAVIORS What Can We Do? Gather School Wide Data. School wide programs can be an excellent way to quickly and conveniently gauge a school s emotional health. This can be a robust, empirically supported program like Teen Screen, or as simple as user generated handouts completed during guidance lessons (e.g., School makes me feel or My mood is followed by the student circling a face that is smiling or frowning). Identify Students Needing Support. Teachers are often considered the first line of defense in terms of identifying problems exhibited by students; however, they should not stand alone in their efforts. Given that administrators frequently meet with students who receive discipline referrals, they can also play a role in identifying those who may need a greater level of intervention and support. Additionally, research exists indicating correlations between bullying behavior and emotional behavioral disorders (among both bullies and victims), so it is important to make sure that we are monitoring 12

13 these students. Consult with Others. As always, the School Psychologist can serve as an excellent resource for best practice strategies and information on district and state procedures. Some students also need more immediate care such as individual and/or group counseling. This can occur at the school level when parental consent is provided. Additionally, the School Psychologist may work closely with the School Counselor and/or School Social Worker to provide parents with training, as well as resources for community based support. While it must be said that students with EBD can present especially challenging classroom interactions, it is also heartening to know that many, if not most, students respond very well to thoughtful, yet powerful interventions that are implemented with consistency and fidelity. References: Gini, G. (2008). Associations between bullying behavior, psychosomatic complaints, emotional and behavioral problems. Pediatric Child Health, 44(9), Teen Screen (2011). Retrieved from Wonderful Websites How Does Psychological Processing Relate to Education? By Jill Stewart, M.S., NCSP Processing refers to how an individual understands and interprets information through various avenues and functions. Some of the most common avenues in which individuals process information include auditory processing, visual processing, phonological processing, spatial relations and the memory component of each. In understanding individual processing strengths and weaknesses, an instructor can tailor the learning environment to enhance skill development. An instructor can also use an individual s processing strengths to compensate for processing weaknesses and therefore facilitate an easier path to learning. When and where are psychological processing strengths and weaknesses identified? Psychological processing strengths and weaknesses are identified in most psychological evaluations conducted by School Psychologists and private Psychologists. A comprehensive evaluation is conducted in the schools in order to determine special education eligibility as well as aid in designing a specialized educational approach for students with disabilities. 13

14 AUDITORY PROCESSING Understanding information that is heard EDUCATIONALIMPACT Auditory Discrimination: Hearing the differences between sounds An auditory processing deficit may impact performance with listening Auditory Sequencing: Organizing information that is heard comprehension, following oral Auditory Reasoning: Expressing an understanding of questions directions, oral reading, listening to Auditory Memory: Retrieving information that is heard lectures, and answering reading comprehension questions. VISUAL PROCESSING Understanding information that is seen EDUCATIONALIMPACT Visual Tracking: Following along with visual material A visual processing deficit can impact Visual Discrimination: Paying attention to visual details performance with retention of math Visual Motor: Coordinating eye to hand facts, copying from the board, following along in a reading passage or word Visual Sequencing: Organizing visual information problem, written expression, Visual Memory: Recalling information that is seen on a short/long term basis understanding math concepts, and Visual Processing Speed: Rate of scanning/interpreting visual information speed/accuracy when completing math Visual Reasoning: Observing and applying information for problem solving calculation tasks. PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING Understanding sound/syllable relationships EDUCATIONALIMPACT Word Discrimination: Hearing sound syllable differences within word pairs A phonological processing deficit may Phonological segmentation: Manipulating phonemes within a word impact performance with basic Phonological blending: Generating words by combining individual sounds reading, reading fluency, spelling, Phonological Memory: Remembering sounds/syllables heard timed reading, oral speech, and Phonological Speed: Rate of recall with sounds/syllables retention of reading information. SPATIAL REASONING Visualizing & manipulating/sequencing spatial patterns EDUCATIONALIMPACT Visual Spatial: Understanding part to whole visual concepts A spatial reasoning deficit can impact performance with hands on activities, Kinesthetic: Dexterity in use of hands on task geometry, multi step math problems, Abstract Reasoning: Manipulating three dimensional figures handwriting, note taking speed, and drawing three dimensional objects. References Kringle, N. (2010). Auditory processing disorder and its educational impact. Tacoma Special Education Examiner. Retrieved from education in tacoma/auditory processing disorder and its educational impact 1 Zieman, G. (2000). Nonverbal learning disability: The math and handwriting problem. Parenting New Mexico. Retrieved from 14