Academy of Management for the 2007 Conference in Philadelphia, USA

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1 Which competencies do management consultants need? A research study amongst senior management consultants. Paper submitted to the Management Consultancy Division, Academy of Management for the 2007 Conference in Philadelphia, USA Submission Number

2 Which competencies do management consultants need? A research study amongst senior management consultants. When a management consultant wants to get clear in which competencies he is good or weak, he can ask this question to himself, to a colleague or (maybe even more interesting) to a client. The results of this research study on competencies of management consultants, however, gives him another possibility. On the one hand by offering a language, jargon and a taxonomy to be able to talk about competencies. On the other hand by making explicit the tacit knowledge of experienced management consultants, by which a consultant can compare himself with the ones in this study. Through this study we want to contribute to the theory about interventions and competencies, but we also want to make a practical contribution to the development of the profession of the management consultant. Introduction In earlier studies we did research on relations between context variables and objectives and interventions (Reitsma et al., 2003). And we did found some relations. Up to now we did not make the connection to competencies of consultants. That is our focus in this study. The central research question is: Which competencies does a management consultant need to able to execute certain interventions (in change processes in organizations)? 2

3 This study is relevant to give insight in what management consultants need to have: it gives indications for training, development, professionalization and selection of management consultants. It gives this insight also an empirical grounding. Of course we know that the international association of management consultants has developed a Body of Knowledge and Skills (ICMCI), but there is not, as far as we know, any empirical research available. We made the choice in this study to make explicit the theories in practice of experienced management consultants. Experienced management consultants use implicit or explicit rules, heuristics and models to diagnose situations and to decide which approach or intervention will fit the situation. In most cases this knowledge is hidden in their heads and is tacit. In this study we want to investigate this collective experience. We want to investigate relations and insights that are developed in practice. To put it in other words: we emptied the heads of 40 very experienced management consultants. To design our research model we used existing literature in this area. We made lists of interventions and competencies from existing sources and literature (see section 1). We used these lists to structure the interviews that we had with these consultants. Of course we also documented remarks and insights that were not categorized in our lists. We gave the interviewees two, three or four cases, that represent a broad variety of problem situations. With these cases we asked our interviewees their view on the problem, the essential elements in the case, which interventions he would choose and which competencies are needed here (see section 2). 3

4 Of course this study gives new insights and new research questions for further investigations (see section 6). 1. Research model and theoretical framework. In this study we want to make explicit the connections between: - the context in which the change takes place - the general approach that is applied - the interventions that are chosen - and the competencies that the consultant needs to do this approach and these intervention(s). The research model looks as follows in figur 1.1. Context Competencies Basic competencies Approach Interventions Background Style of change Own repertoire Figure 1.1 Research model: Competencies of management consultants in change processes 4

5 The reasons for this choice is the following: A change takes place in a specific situation: the context (this is a combination of objectives of the change and characteristics of the situation). On the basis of this context the consultant decides on an approach and on interventions. To be able to execute these interventions, a consultant needs certain competencies. Some of these competencies are intervention specific (that means they are coupled to this intervention), some are basic competencies ( that means they are always needed, independent of the context or specific intervention). The approach that a consultant chooses, the interventions that he does and his competencies are related to background characteristics of the consultant. One can think of the type of training that he followed. The same holds true for the personal style of change of the consultant and the repertoire of interventions and competencies, that the consultant thinks he is very good in (the own repertoire). We operationalized these variables as follows: Operationalization of context We define context as the situation in which the consultants does interventions or in which changes take place. Thinking about context finds its roots in the literature of Lawrence and Lorsch (1967): contingency thinking. The essence of this approach is (see for instance: Lammers, Mijs and Van Noort, 1997) is that the best way to organize is specified by the situation. The right way to intervene in organizations is derived from (a cluster of) variables that play a dominant role in the situation. We assume that two main variables play a significant role in the context: the first has to do with the objectives of the change; the second has to do with the characteristics if the situation in which the change will take place. Objectives of the change 5

6 There are several theories that describe categories of the objectives and contents of change. We have chosen here for four types of objectives; (1) strategy and structure (2) products, services and processes (3) culture, interaction and leadership and (4) knowledge, skills and attitude (see for instance: Cummings and Worley ( 2005), de Caluwé and Vermaak (2006). We want to build in a variety of objectives in our research. We constructed four cases in which this variety of objectives is reflected. Context variables In the literature we found a lot of variables that influence the choice of a specific intervention. We needed however a theory that does not have a lot of variables, that has assumptions on the relationships between those variables and that is the same time rather complete. We found a theory with eight variables, in which each of these variables can take a certain value. The variables are related. Otto (2000), the inventor of this theory, also gives some rules of thumb about the connexion of the variables and about the degree in which certain change strategies are possible or impossible. His theory states that the value of each of these variables (and especially the configuration of these variables, combined with the objectives of the change) influences the choice of an intervention. We use the theory and the eight variables as a frame work for our research (see table.1.1). We want to investigate whether we can find empirical evidence for the relations between the objectives, the context variables and the choice for interventions. 6

7 Contextvariables What it can mean 1. Time pressure For what deadline must something be solved? Or is it close to the deadline already? Time pressure can be great or absent. But there can also be no time to work on the problem, because all the energy goes to daily operations. 2. Escalation Is the tension between parties high? Are parties capable of collective reflection? 3. Power differences Has one party possibilities to influence the behavior of others? Is there a power centre or an equilibrium between centers? Is approval needed by one of power centers? Can someone take the decision? 4. Dependencies Are the persons involved in their work strongly dependent upon each other? Or can they work independently? 5. Rules Are there rules and procedures for decision making? Are the authorities clearly described? 6. Identification with the organization 7. Capabilities for reflection 8. Knowledge and skills Does one identify with the organization? Or are many people spectators? Present or absent? High or low? Does one have all the knowledge and skills to cope with the problem? Or is outside expertise needed? Table 1.1 Context variables and what it can mean. We constructed four cases in which we have built in these variables systematically. These four cases are the contexts. With these cases we asked our interviewees: what is the problem, what are essential elements, which interventions will you choose and which competencies are needed. Table 1.2 is one example of the cases. 7

8 Case: The consultancy firm with financial problems. A consultancy firm has bad financial results. Inside the company there is an investigation what the causes might be. This investigation is done amongst the senior consultants by means of intensive talks. From these talks it becomes evident that the strategy of the firm is obsolete and that the internal structure does not fit with the developments in the market. The senior consultants say that we need to reconsider our strategy and to adapt our internal structure. Financial results go down further. Management is faced with a fast decision, because the firm will not live long when things go on like this. There is a lot of unrest within the organization: many consultants do not have enough work. Most of them feel very involved in the club and do not leave the firm. But the situation is precarious. People start looking at each other: do you spend enough time on acquisition and marketing? And are you too much internal work? Are we looking enough to the outside world? The various groups are doing selfassessments: what can we do to face this situation? They make analyses of the market and the conversations among one another is what every person can do the clear up this situation. Most of the people are experts in the area of strategic questions and in the area of the target groups they want to work for. The discussions are very interesting and valuable. But they did not result in a new strategy or structure. The management does not know how to cope with this problem and is considering to call for external help. (Objective: strategy, structure. 8

9 Contextvariables: time pressure: yes; escalation is high; small power differences; dependency low; high identification with the organization; high capability for reflection; much knowledge and skills.) Table 1.2 Example of one case and the variables in the context. Operationalization of approaches We define approach as a generic coping with the (problem) situation. In the literature we find a lot of categories of these approaches. They have different assumptions about change, different ways of steering the change process, different actors are involved. we listed some important authors in table 1.3. Author Boonstra (2000) Beer and Nohria (2000) Weick and Quinn (1999) Huy (2001) Chin & Benne (1970) Van der Zee (1995) Approaches Design Theory E Episodic/Planned change Develop Theory O Continuous/Emergent change Commanding Engineering Teaching Socializing Power/cocrcion Empirial-rational Barter/rewarding Normative-reeducative Directive Diffusion Interaction Development 9

10 Reitsma cs. (2003) De Caluwé and Vermaak (2002) Directive Tell-sell Negotiating Developing Yellowprint Blueprint Redprint Greenprint Whiteprint Table 1.3 Scheme of change approaches We make a clear distinction between two approaches: design of change and development of change. The first is a planned process with a lot of influence from the change manager and with not much attention to interaction.the second is a more evolving and emerging process with a lot of actors that can have influence and with very much attention to participation. If we look at the different categories of interventions (see further on in the text) we discovered that for all interventions one can choose for each of the two approaches. You can do for instance a strategy intervention expert wise, in a small group, from the drawing table. But you can also do this through participation, in a large group setting and as an emergent process. This we call a generic approach. In our study we use this dichotomy in the degree of participation on a ten point scale. The one end of this scale is: expert wise; small group, judgment or proposal of an expert. The other end is process approach, participative and involvement of employees (see table 1.4). 10

11 Expert approach Process approach One or small group Participative Judgment or proposal Involvement of employees of expert Table 1.4 Operationalization of the general approach Operationalization of interventions We define interventions as: one or a series of intended change activities aimed at the improvement of the functioning of the organization (Cummings and Worley, 2005; de Caluwé and Vermaak, 2006). Interventions can be aimed at the individual level, the group level or organization. We emphasize the group and organization level here. The literature on this subject is abundant. We were inspired by several authors and books: Kubr (2000). Cummings and Worley (2005), Schein (1969,1999), Boonstra (2004), Keuning and Eppink (2004). We developed from this literature a categorization that is presented in table 1.5. We show the relevant authors and their main thoughts that contributed to this categorization. Category interventions Interventions aimed at Cummings & Worley Schein Kubr Keuning & Eppink Organizationa l diagnosis Boonstra Learning and research 11

12 Category interventions orientation and awareness Interventions aimed at strategic questions and images of the future Interventions aimed at (temporarity) adaptation of the structure or ways of cooperation Interventions aimed at the improvement of business performance and business processes Interventions aimed at motivation of employees (with HRM instruments) Interventions aimed at governance and control Interventions aimed at training and development Interventions aimed at (social) processes between people Interventions aimed at continuous learning and Cummings & Worley Strategic programs Technostructural Technostructural Human resources management Human process Human process Schein Kubr Keuning & Eppink and problem solving techniques Strategy formation Coaching and counseling Agenda setting intervention s Feedback Structural suggestions Structural arrangements Compaign type, actionoriented change programs Compaign type, actionoriented change programs Compaign type, actionoriented change programs Training and developing people Organizationa l development techniques Design of organizatio n structure HRMinstruments Directive Boonstra in action Structuring organization s Business performance Employee motivation Leadership and culture Group Dynamics Inquiring, dialogue and narrative Learning 12

13 Category interventions changing by means of interaction Cummings & Worley Schein Kubr Keuning & Eppink Boonstra and research in action Table 1.5 Scheme of categories of interventions and the relevant authors In table 1.6 we have listed the interventions, the definitions and examples. Type of intervention 1.Interventions aimed at orientation and awareness. The acknowledgement of the nature and cause of a problem and the awareness of the need for change. 2. Interventions aimed at strategic questions and images of the future. The formation of images of the future of the organization and sharing of the images. 3. Interventions aimed at the (temporarily) adaptation of a structure or way of cooperation. The making of provisions and circumstances that are fit to make changes possible. Description of the intervention and examples SWOT analysis: mapping the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the own achievements and that of the competitors and to know the developments in the environment and to decide upon the strategy. Benchmarking: comparing own achievements with those of the best competitors to see on which parts the organization can improve. Balanced Score Card: mapping or measuring indicators for performance on finance, business processes, innovation and customers to see on which parts the organization performs according the expectations. Causal loop diagrams: mapping cause-effect relations to see repetitions and patterns. The diagrams show which factors can be influenced easily or only in a very complicated way. Other examples: Porter s model; Environment scan. Strategic change plan: making of a plan with objectives and means to realize a desired long term positioning of the organization in its environment, starting from where we are now. Search conference: using a conference method (large scale intervention) to create a well considered desired and reachable future. Strategic culture change: developing a strong and shared collective culture that is different of what we have now, but is important for the continuation of the organization Project organization: a person, group or entity that executes a clear defined assignment within the organization. Temporary groups: task forces that have clear defined tasks (developing new ideas; making priorities). Pilot project: experimenting on a small scale with one or some changes. New organization entities: the creation of one or more new parts of the organization for example to offer new services Adaptation of the structure: the clarification and adaptation of 13

14 Type of intervention 4. Interventions aimed at the improvement of business performance and business processes. Changing the business processes in order to improve results. 5. Interventions aimed at the motivation of employees with HRM instruments. Enhancing the motivation of workers to improve the flexibility or the achievements of the organization. 6. Interventions aimed at governance and control. Developing insight in the progress, quantity and quality of the work. 7. Interventions aimed at training and development. Learning van new thoughts, concepts, skills or insights. 8. Interventions aimed at (social) processes between people. Description of the intervention and examples the division of tasks, responsibilities and mechanisms for coordination. Outsourcing: placing activities that were executed within the organization outside. Other examples: mergers, joint ventures, reorganizations Business process redesign: a (large) shift or change in the working processes. Total quality: a permanent process to raise customer satisfaction by systematic work on the improvement of products or services. The conference model: using a conference method to reconsider working processes and to improve the relations with customers, following the strategy of the organization Rewarding system: a system to improve the performance and satisfaction of employees and to decrease undesired behavior by rules for rewards and promotion. Selection: placing the right man or woman on the right place. Career development: supporting people in their careers in the organization and the formulation of career goals. Task enlargement: expand parts of tasks on the same level. Task enrichment: expand parts of tasks with higher level work and more room for decision making. Control: see to it that the work is done properly. Report: making and giving reports on the performance or progress of activities for e certain period. Time sheets: reporting on how much time is spent on activities. Training: learning of skills by managers or employees. Workshops: making people sensible for the need to change, for trends, for different options or for certain methods or concepts. Feedback: letting individuals, groups or the organization see what the effect is of their behavior or performance on others. Coaching or counseling: giving individuals feedback to improve the personal effectiveness, to create more self confidence and to provide them with knowledge and skills. Coaching or counseling: giving individuals feedback to improve the personal effectiveness, to create more self confidence and to provide them with knowledge and skills. Gaming/simulations: experiencing through gaming what consequences or effects one s own behavior has. Survey feedback: gathering information and knowledge in an active process about problems and solutions and then execute activities based on that information Other examples: 360 degrees feedback Process consultation/teambuilding: helping a group to analyze its own functioning, to find solutions for dysfunctional group processes. 14

15 Type of intervention Improving social processes in organizations: interpersonal relations, functioning of a team, the relations between teams 9. Interventions aimed at continuous learning and changing by means of interaction. Keeping up the process of interaction and communication. Description of the intervention and examples Search conference: an organization wide meeting in order to find important values and to develop new ways to solve problems. Process management: facilitating decision making in complex situations. Third party: an independent third party helps the interaction and problem solving between parties. Other examples: T-groups; Organization confrontation meeting; intergroup relations; agenda setting. Action learning: creating a context in which one can learn with others. Essential is the exchange of experiences and collective reflection. Action research: creating cooperation between researchers and other actors to do research and to learn together. Dialogue: creating various ideas about reality, sharing them and constructing new realities on the basis of interaction. Narratives/ story telling: creating and finding stories, looking for different views and contradictions, reading between the lines and so creating new stories. Table 1.6 Interventions, descriptions and examples per intervention Operationalization of competencies Like Hoekstra and Van Sluijs (1999, 2003) we define competence as: something that someone is good at. That sounds simple. But there is a lot of discussion and confusion about the concept of competence. Is it skill, expertise, attitude, capabilities or knowledge? Competences has to do with generic characteristics of a person, with skills and attitude. The concept is not clear in detail. But we wanted to use this language and jargon to be able to communicate with our interviewees about the essential capabilities of a consultant. We collected several theoretical notions and lists of competencies from literature and assembled these to one list of competencies that might be important in the execution of a change process by a consultant. This list is a taxonomy that is based on the domains and competencies of Hoekstra and Van 15

16 Sluijs (2003), Yukl et al (1993), Volz et al (2000). We have also used many of their definitions. See table 1.7. Domain Competencies Description Enterprising 1. Boldness Taking certain risks in order to gain expected longterm benefits. 2. Individuality Seeking opportunities and taking action to exploit them. Acting on one s own initiative rather than passively awaiting events. 3. Independence Acting on the basis of one s convictions rather than on a desire to please others. Steering one s own course. 4. Intrapreneurship Identifying business opportunities and undertaking action, including calculated risks, to take advantage of them. 5. Market oriented Being well informed about developments in the market and technology. Using this information effectively in actions. Showing resilience Organizing 6. Adaptability Acting appropriately by expedient adaptation to changing environments, tasks or responsibilities and to different people. 7. Flexibility Changing one s style or approach when new opportunities require such a change. 8. Stress tolerance Performing steadily and effectively under time pressure, regardless of setbacks, disappointments or opposition. Reacting calmly and in proportion to the significance of the issue at hand 9. Restraint Being able to adequately control one s emotions and react effectively to those of others, even in emotionally taxing situations. Avoiding undesirable commitments and escalations. 10. Monitoring progress Effectively monitoring progress in one s work and that of others, given the available time and resources, anticipating future developments and taken appropriate timely measures 11. Planning Determining objectives and priorities effectively, planning timely measures in order to attain stated goals. 12. Organizing ability Identifying and recruiting people and other resources in order to carry out a plan; allocating them in such a way that the intended results are achieved. 13. Making coalitions Seeking and using support, help and sponsors to convince a person or a group. Performing 14. Result orientation Focusing one s actions and decisions on intended results and giving priority to the realization of stated 16

17 Domain Competencies Description objectives. 15. Attention to Paying attention to detail; being able to focus on and details deal with detailed information in a sustained way. 16. Persistence Sticking to a chosen approach or position until the intended results have been achieved 17. Quality orientation Setting high demands with respect to the quality of one s own work and that of others, striving continuously for improvements. 18. Energy Being able to be extremely active for long periods when necessary. Working hard; having stamina. 19. Ambition Demonstrating an aspiration to be successful in one s career; investing in personal development in order to achieve this. 20. Legitimating Showing the legitimacy of a request by the authority or claiming the right to do the request or showing that the request is in accordance with the policy, the rules or traditions in an organization. 21. Problem solving Signalizing of (potential) problems and solving these one self or with others. Analysing 22. Analytical skills Breaking a problem down into its component parts; describing its source and structure. Seeking possible causes and gathering relevant data. Considering 23. Conceptual thinking Providing wider or deeper understanding of situations or problems by applying another frame of reference or by connecting them with other information 24. Learning Showing an interest in new information, taking in orientation new ideas and developments and applying them effectively. 25. Creativity Suggesting original solutions for problems related to 26. Balanced judgment 27. Awareness of the external environment one s work; devising new ways of doing things. Comparing possible courses of action and assessing available information, applying relevant criteria. Making realistic judgments and decisions based on such assessments. Keeping well informed about societal and political developments and relevant issues in the environment; using this knowledge to the advantage of the organization. 28. Generating vision Identifying the main direction for the organization in relation to its environment; formulating long-term objectives and strategies. 29. Innovating Creating new and original ideas, ways of working and applications by combining formal and informal information, existing and new solutions and approaches 30. Awareness of Demonstrating an understanding of how things work 17

18 Domain Competencies Description Facilitating organizational context 31. Customer orientation in an organization, taking the consequences for one s own organization and that of the customer into account in one s action. Enquiring about the needs and wishes of customers and clients and showing that one s thinking and actions reflect them. appropriately and, where necessary, asking further questions. Achieving results without a waste of energy and resources. 32. Coaching Supporting others in the execution of their work. Motivating others and making them think about improving their own behaviour. Being a partner for talking and listening. 33. Co-operation Contributing actively to achieving a common aim, even when this is not in one s personal interest; fostering helpful communication. 34. Listening Picking up important signals and messages in oral communication and giving space to others to express themselves, paying attention to their reactions, responding 35. Sensitivity showing that you recognize feelings, attitude and motivation of others and be open for it. Understanding one s own influence on others and taking that into account. 36. Accuracy Acting careful and punctual. aimed at the anticipation of failures. Detailed execution of activities 37. Inspiring Creating enthusiasm for a request or proposal by evoking values, ideals and aspirations of a group or person or showing that a person or group has the qualities to do a task or achieve a goal. 38. Awareness of costs Taking into account returns and costs in short and long term. Recognize costs. 39. Personal appeal Making a personal appeal upon the loyalty or sympathy of a person or group. Influencing 40. Communication Communicating ideas and information clearly and correctly so that the essential message comes across and is fully understood. 41. Presentation Presenting oneself in such a way that the first impression is positive, turning such an impression into lasting respect or sympathy. 42. Persuasion Presenting ideas, points of view or plans convincingly to others so that they agree and approve, even after initial hesitation. 43. Sociability Making contacts easily and maintaining relations with others, when required for work purposes; 18

19 Domain Competencies Description mixing easily with all kinds of people. Managing 44. Decisiveness Making decisions by taking action or expressing an opinion, even when the situation is unclear or inherently hazardous. 45. Leadership Giving direction in an inspiring way. Being a role model. Encouraging and bringing about teamwork and maintaining good cooperation to achieve an intended goal. 46. Delegation Assigning clearly delimited tasks and responsibilities to the appropriate individual(s) when necessary, being able to entrust one s work to others. Inspiring confidence 47. Communicating vision: Communicating the direction in which the organization is developing in an appealing way and creating support for strategic objectives. 48. Consultation Letting people participate in the strategy, activity and change when support and assistance of them is required. Changing a proposal in such a way that interests and suggestions are taking in. 49. Negotiating skills Acting in the interest of one s own unit or organization in direct contacts with counterparts, in such a way that profitable results are attained without loss of mutual respect. 50. Diplomatic Capability to recognize interests of others, to assess them and take them in account tactfully. 51. Awareness of risk Recognize and assess risks and hindrances. Assessing the influence of them on persons, organization or environment. 52. Networking Developing and maintaining contacts and cooperation with others. 53. Integrity Maintaining social and ethical standards at work, even when under pressure to be less particular. Inspiring confidence in one s professional integrity. 54. Reliability Keeping to arrangements and promises and accepting their consequences. If things don t work out, taking responsibility for their consequences and, whenever possible, avoiding a negative impact on others. 55. Loyalty Complying with the policies and interests of the organization and group to which one belongs. In situations where there are conflicting interests, supporting the position of one s own group or at least avoiding damage to that position. 56. Creating a favourable atmosphere Giving compliments, seducing, being friendly or helpful to create a good mood with a person or a group. 19

20 Table 1.7 Domains, competencies and their definitions. Operationalization of other variables We looked for three variables in the background. First we documented characteristics of the interviewee: gender, age, experience, specialization, market sector. Second we gave the interviewees a test that measures their change preferences (through the so-called: puntentest). Thirdly we asked our interviewees, which interventions and competencies are part of their own repertoire. Our assumption is that these preferences might influence the choice of interventions and competencies. 2. Methodology We used four cases. We have constructed and written the cases on the basis of two main variables: (1) different objectives of the change and (2) eight variables in the situation. These four cases give a wide variety of problem situations that management consultants might encounter. For almost all interventions there is the fundamental choice for an expert approach or a participative approach. We used a simple ten point scale with each approach on one end of the scale. 20

21 We made a list of interventions under 9 main categories. In each category we had several examples. All terms and concepts are defined. In the same way we constructed a list of competencies. This list has 10 domains. Each domain has several competencies that are defined. The list has 56 competencies. We measured the background characteristics if the interviewees, their change preferences and their own repertoire of interventions and competencies. Selection of respondents (interviewees) The 40 management consultants that were interviewed are selected from the a list of members of the Dutch Association of Management Consultants and from the network of the researchers themselves. We used a reputation method for the selection. A minimum of 10 years of experience was needed. Nobody that was asked, refused to cooperate. Together these consultants represent more than 900 years of consultancy experience. Interviews The interviews took each 1,5 to 2 hours. Dependent upon the available time and pace we did 2, 3 or 4 cases per interviewee. After the interviewee had read one case, we asked what the essentials are according to him in this case. Then we asked what approach he would choose. After that, which intervention(s). And then what competencies are needed. This process was repeated for each case. Finally we asked for the basis competencies of a consultant. And we asked for the own repertoire of the consultant. 21

22 Processing of the data We used three methods. All the answers from the quantitative section are part of an interview protocol. These data are transformed through a code book in coded data. We then used statistical methods. The interview transcripts are analyzed by atlas.ti. Finally we used several citations from the interviews. 3. Analysis and results With the help of SPSS we looked for significant relationships between the variables. We also looked how strong this relationship is. The lines in Figure 3.1 give significant relationships (p<0,05). A non dotted line means that more than 60 % of our respondents mentions this relationship. Context Competencies Basic competencies Approach Interventions Background Style of change Own repertoire Figure 3.1 Overview of significant relations in the research model 22

23 The direction of the relationship is drawn as the direction of the arrows in the Figure 3.1. Most of the relations that we find here were expected. But there is one relation that we did not find in our analysis and which is remarkable: that between approach and intervention. They are not connected. The choice for an generic approach and for an intervention is very loose. As we stated before: most interventions can be done in either of both generic approaches. We now go to the core of our research: Which competencies does a management consultant need? Relation between approach and competencies We found several relations between approach and competencies. These are shown in table 3.1. Expertmatige approach aanpak durf, Boldness, onafhankelijkheid, Independence, ondernemerschap, Intrapreneurship, Market marktgericht, oriented, Result resultaatgericht, orientation, Quality kwaliteitsgericht, orientation, Analytical analytisch, Skills, Conceptual conceptueel den ken, thinking, Generating vision, Persuasion, Leadership, Consultation, visie ontwikkelen, overtuigingskracht, leiderschap, consulteren, Awareness of risk, Reliability, Loyalty, Creating a favourable risicobewust, atmosphere betrouwbaarheid, loyaliteit en gunstige sfeer cre ë ren Middle Midden approach aanpak analytisch, Analytical skills, omgevingsbewustzijn, Awareness of the external visie environment, ontwikkelen, Generating vision, Persuasion, Creating a favourable atmosphere overtuigingskracht en gunstige sfeer cre ë ren Process Procesmatige approach aanpak Restraint, Organizing ability, Making coalitions, Energy, Conceptual thinking, Learning orientation, Awareness of organizational context, Coaching, Listening, Sensitivity, Personal appeal, Decisiveness. Table 3.1 The competencies that consultants need in three approaches 23

24 Relation between interventions and competencies We found three patterns: - The hard interventions which are more instrumental (in the area of structure, business processes, HRM instruments, governance and control) correlate with competencies from the domains: Organizing and Performing. - The interventions aimed at diagnosing and direction seeking (orientation, awareness and strategy) correlate with competencies from the domains: Analyzing, Considering and Facilitating. - The soft interventions aimed at people (training and development, processes between people and continuous learning and changing) correlate with the domains: Considering and Facilitating. Table 3.2 gives a summary of the competencies that management consultants need for the execution of an intervention. 24

25 Orientation Verkenning and en bewustwording Awareness Strategy Strategie and en Images toekomstbeelden of the Future Structure Structuur Business process, Bedrijfsproces HRM-instruments HRM-instrument. Governance Beheersing and en Control controle analytisch, Analytical skills, conceptueel Conceptual denken, thinking, luisteren Listening, sensitiviteit Sensitivity Analytical analytisch, skills, visie Generating ontwikkelen vision, en organisatiebewustzijn Awareness of Organizational context Planning, plannen, Organizing organiseren ability, en Result resultaatgericht orientation durf, plannen, Boldness, resultaatgericht, Planning, Result omgang orientation, met details en Attention problemen to details, Problem oplossen solving Training and en Development ontwikkeling coachen Coaching en inspireren and Inspiring Processen between tussen people mensen Awareness organisatiebewustzijn, of organizational luisteren context, en sensitiviteit Listening, Sensitivity Duurzaam Continuous leren Learning en veranderen door Changing interactie Coaching, coachen, sensitiviteit Sensitivity and en inspireren Inspiring Table 3.2 The competencies needed for an intervention Basic competencies We asked all our respondents which competencies all management (independent from amount of experience) consultants need in change processes. Table 3.3 gives a summary. We listed the basic competency, when it was mentioned by at least 40 % of our respondents. Domain Basic competency Enterprising - Showing resilience Flexibility Organizing - Performing - Analyzing Analytical skills, Conceptual thinking, Learning orientation, Creativity Considering Balanced judgment, Awareness of external environment, Generating 25

26 vision Facilitating Listening, Sensitivity Influencing Communication, Presentation, Persuasion Managing - Inspiring Integrity, Reliability, Loyalty, Creating a favorable atmosphere confidence Table 3.3 Basic competencies of management consultants Total overview of basic competencies, approach specific competencies and intervention specific competencies By combining table 3.1 and 3.3 we can have the overview of the competencies that management consultants need as basic competencies and for execution of certain approaches and interventions. Table 3.4 gives the result for our main research question. Approach specific competencies Expert approach: Intrapreneurship, Market orientation, Boldness, Independence, Result orientation, Quality orientation, Leadership, Consultation, Awareness of risk Process approach: Restraint, Organizing, Making coalitions, Energy, Awareness of organizational context, Coaching, Personal appeal, Decisiveness Intervention specific competencies Interventions aimed of strategy, images of future, processes between people: Awareness of organizational Context Interventions aimed at adaptation of structure, improvement of business processes, motivation by HRM instruments: Planning, Organizing ability, Result orientation Interventions aimed at governance and control: Boldness, Planning, Result orientation, Attention to details, Problem Solving Interventions aimed at training, development and continuous 26

27 learning and changing: Coaching, Inspiring Basic competencies Showing resilience: flexibility Analyzing: Analytical skills, Conceptual thinking, Learning orientation, Creativity Considering: Balanced judgment, Awareness of external environment, Generating vision Facilitating: Listening, Sensitivity Influencing: Communication, Presentation, Persuasion Inspiring confidence: Integrity, Reliability, Loyalty, Creating a favorable atmosphere Table 3.4 Overview of basic competencies and approach specific and intervention specific competencies Some basic competencies are also listed under an intervention. All competencies for interventions aimed at orientation and awareness are part of the basic competencies: Analytical Skills, Conceptual Thinking, Listening and Sensitivity. In table 3.4 we listed them under basic competencies. The intervention: orientation and awareness is not shown in the table, because we think that this intervention obviously a basic intervention: something that every consultant must be able to apply. We found four clusters of interventions with similar competencies. They are: - Orientation and awareness, strategy and images of the future - Structure, business processes and HRM instruments - Governance and control 27

28 - Training and development, processes between people, continuous learning and development through interaction. Table 3.4 can be read as follows: At the bottom are the basic competencies that every consultant needs. At the left are the two generic approaches: expert and process. The competencies needed for these approaches are listed. At the right are the four clusters of interventions that are related. The competencies needed for each of these clusters are mentioned. Context variables We found the following results from our quantitative data: - In contexts with low time pressure and high escalation, one chooses for a process approach. - In contexts with high time pressure, reasonable degree of escalation, great power differences, high dependencies and low identification, low ability to reflect, and low knowledge, one chooses clearly for an expert approach. From our qualitative data we found that: - Management consultants look always and primarily for two of our variables: time pressure (if not present, there is not a problem!) and power differences (if there is not a powerful management, the consultant cannot help). Escalation is sometimes a relevant variable. - The other context variables are not seen as relevant. 28

29 4. Discussion and conclusions We ourselves learned a lot from this study. And many others also. The conceptualization of the study was a discovery trip in itself through relevant literature. Especially the construction of acceptable cases and acceptable lists of interventions and competencies was an enormous learning process. But almost all the interviews produced learning moments for all participants. We developed a self test for consultants based on the materials from this research. Some typical questions arise often about the area of this study. We will try to answer them. And we can draw the following conclusions: Is every consultant capable for all approaches and interventions? Or are there clusters of competencies that are needed for certain interventions and certain types of consultants? The basic competencies are important for every consultant. They must be part of every training program for consultants. We have indications that every consultant needs to know both approaches and be aware of the choice between them. That does not mean that one has to be strong in both approaches: one can choose not to do certain change process, because one knows already that the effectivity will be low. Interventions need intervention specific competencies. These competencies are related to clusters of interventions and thus to profiles of consultants. We think that some clusters fit a profile better than others. What type of consultant do you need for what kind of problem and for what kind of context? 29

30 Certain contexts ask for specific approaches, interventions and competencies. We did find strong relations. But we do not have simple prescriptions or recipes. The overview in table 3.4 is the clearest picture we can make. Are background characteristics of influence on the choice of approach or intervention? No. The choice of intervention is situational in this group of experienced consultants. They choose interventions, independent from their own style, preferences or repertoire. They make similar choices in similar situations. There must be something as a profession. Can we develop a typology of profiles for consultants with the related competencies? Yes, that is the outcome of this study. We found basic competencies, that everybody needs: young, old, experienced and new. Every consultant needs to know the two generic approaches and, if possible, execute them. Every consultant should have one or some dominant (clusters of) interventions in his repertoire and have the competencies that are needed for these. 5. Restrictions and future research In the four cases of our study not all the competencies were mentioned. Nevertheless we do not want to restrict the list of 56 competencies. Because our four cases is a selection in itself, that does not cover all the possible problem situations for consultants. We want to gain some more experience with the present list and reconsider this in a later phase. 30

31 An important disadvantage of our study is, that it studies espoused theory i.e.: what consultants say that they are going to do. Not: what they do. We have tried to minimize this disadvantage through the use of real practice based cases and to stimulate the respondents to paraphrase the text in their own words and understandings. We noticed that all of the respondents could see the cases as real. In a future study we want study consultants in a simulated environment, in which the consultancy process is done by role play. Then it is better possible to study what they actually do. We selected very experienced consultants. Experience is an important aspect for this study. But it could mean that we select a biased part of the world of consultants: the older consultant that was trained and got experience in the past. The younger generation might look different. 6. Implications for practice We expect that this study can be used by consultants, training institutions and firms. Many aspects of this study can be used for learning purposes: introspection; duo-learning; intervision, coaching, action research, reflective talks, assessments and so on. To support this, we made a self test. This is a 360 degree feedback instrument. A consultant fills in the lists of interventions and competencies and questions for reflection. He asks the same to do this about him by a colleague, his boss, his employees. By comparing the lists and by opening the dialogue about the differences and similarities one can find out strengths and weaknesses and discover chances and points for development and learning. 31

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