The Politics of Education in Contemporary Hungary: The Higher Education System

Transcription

1 The Politics of Education in Contemporary Hungary: The Higher Education System Ferris State University April 10, 2014 Éva Kardos Institute for English and American Studies University of Debrecen

2 Outline 1. A Brief Historical Background: Socialism vs. Democracy 2. New Goals in Democratic Hungary 3. Some Changes and Challenges of the Past Two Decades 3.1 The Bologna System 3.2 Student and Teacher Mobility 3.3 The Foreign Language Requirement 3.4 The Financing of Higher Education 3.5 Qualification, Promotion, and Research Goals 4. Conclusions

3 1. A Brief Historical Background : Hungary is under socialist rule. End of 1940s Beginning of 1950s: The Communist seizure of power brings about a profound transformation of Hungarian society. The higher education system is restructured in line with the Soviet model. Numerous universities are established in line with the Soviet economic planning system. Medical schools become independent institutions. There is an increasing tendency for students to enrol in higher education programs. 1960s: A number of post-secondary vocational programs (technical high schools or technicums) are introduced. End of 1970s and 1980s: This period is characterized by stagnation or a slight increase in student enrolment.

4 1. A Brief Historical Background: Education in Socialist Hungary Education is heavily centralized. Teaching and research activities are monitored by the Hungarian Socialist Workers Party. Universities and various institutes of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences are completely dependent on government funding. Universities generally offer five-year programs in most fields. There is no undergraduate-graduate division in higher education. Higher education institutions fall into two groups: colleges and universities. The former offer shorter (3 years) and more practical programs, whereas the latter offer longer (5 years) and more theoretical programs.

5 1. A Brief Historical Background: Education in Socialist Hungary The enrollment rate in higher education is low in comparison to what is observable in developed countries. Degrees and various certificates are more important than actual knowledge and competencies (Mateju et al. 2007). Professionals use the higher educational system for reproducing social status (Hanley and McKeever 1997). Cadres use their bureaucratic authority and social connections to obtain positions for their children in higher educational institutions, regardless of their children s scholastic ability (Hanley and McKeever 1997).

6 1. A Brief Historical Background: Education in Socialist Hungary There are very limited opportunities for students and teachers to gain experience abroad. Russian is a compulsory subject as of 1949 and the teaching of foreign languages like English is not encouraged at all. There is no freedom of speech in the classroom. The principles of Marxism appear in most textbooks. Religious education is highly restricted. Frontal teaching characterizes most classes. The education system requires rote learning of facts and dates. Students are generally not given the opportunity to improve their critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

7 1. A Brief Historical Background 1989: Hungary becomes a democratic country mid 2000s: Higher education is now accessible to the masses; private higher education institutions appear on the scene. There is a 400% growth in the number of students between 1990 and 2005 (Polónyi 2008). 2006: The Bologna System is introduced present: A new higher education strategic plan is under construction.

8 2. New Goals in Democratic Hungary To build independence and a national identity; To ensure integration into Europe; To become a member state of the European Union. To become competitive internationally; To ensure that the educational output be congruent with the economy.

9 3. Some Changes and Challenges of The Bologna System the Past Two Decades Student and Teacher Mobility The Foreign Language Requirement Changes in the Financing of Higher Education Qualification, Promotion, and Research Goals

10 3.1 The Bologna System What is it? A top-down reform of the higher education system first initiated by European governments in What is the main objective behind this initiative? To create a European Higher Education Area. Who are the main participants of the reform? governments, buffer organizations, higher education institutions, students

11 3.1 The Bologna System Some general objectives: To ensure transparent and comparable degrees across Europe thereby facilitating employability and competitiveness across borders. To introduce a two-cyle system in which undergraduate programs of minimum three years lead to graduate programs, where the latter fall into two types, i.e. master and PhD programs. To foster academic mobility thereby promoting cultural and scientific unity. To ensure transferability of credits thereby facilitating mobility.

12 3.1 The Bologna System Some more objectives behind this initiative in the Hungarian context: To strenghten political legitimacy the new system is a means for political transformation; To shrink certain education programs; To respond to various needs of the labor market the new system is a means for economic transformation; To seek international recognition.

13 3.1 The Bologna System The Hungarian context: a brief timeline 2002: A buffer organization is set up in an effort to foster the Bologna process. 2006: Programs offering bachelor s degrees are introduced. 2009: Programs offering master s degrees are introduced. 2013: Teacher training programs become independent of the Bologna system. They are restructured in a way that they become single-span systems again.

14 3.1 The Bologna System Some positive consequences of the reform: The Bologna System provides a solution for problems of student growth rates. Instead of spending 5-6 years at university, most students finish their studies after 3-4 years. There is now a sharper dividing line between mass education, where instruction is more practical, and elite education, where the focus is on a more in-depth understanding of sometimes highly theoretical problems. It is much easier for students to gain international experience either by earning educational credits during their study-abroad semester/year or by doing a master s degree or a PhD at a foreign institution.

15 3.1 The Bologna System New challenges: Some programs have become rather marginalized as a result of the introduction of the two-cycle system. This is especially troubling for programs in the humanities. Universities have had to realize that they now need to compete with each other for students or else they will have to discontinue some of their programs. This of course has to do with recent changes in the financing of higher education as well. Undergraduate education is still highly theoretical in some cases and needs further restructuring. Industries are not fully aware of the difference between bachelor s and master s degrees.

16 3.2 Teacher and Student Mobility Recent tendencies: Academic mobility has become an important characteristic of higher education. Both teachers and students are encouraged to apply to short-term or long-term programs in a foreign country. NB: This is a relatively new phenomenon. Under socialism such opportunities were extremely rare in Hungary. Some study-abroad programs: the Erasmus Program, the International Student Exchange Program (ISEP), the Fulbright Program, DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service), exchanges based on various bilateral agreements between universities

17 3.2 Teacher and Student Mobility The Erasmus Program What is it? A European Union exchange program established in At this point 33 countries participate in this program with educational institutions. What is the main objective of this program? To foster cooperation between universities and individuals. Who can benefit from Erasmus? Mainly students, educators, and administrative staff. Why is it a successful program? Students with international experience are more likely to find employment after graduation.

18 3.2 Teacher and Student Mobility How many students participate in this program? In the academic year , 4353 students participated in the Erasmus program. How much time do students spend abroad in this program? They spend 3-12 months at a foreign university. How much financial support do students receive? They receive a monthly stipend of EUR 440. How popular is it at the University of Debrecen (UD)? It is the most successful exchange program at this university. UD has over 300 bilateral agreements in this program.

19 3.3 The Foreign Language Requirement Bachelor s and Master s programs: Students are required to attain basic or intermediate-level competence in one or two foreign languages. They must complete a language exam in a state-certified testing center. Students in competitive fields like medicine, law, economics generally complete this requirement before they begin their university studies in order to earn extra points in the application process.

20 PhD programs: 3.3 The Foreign Language Requirement Students are often required to have basic or intermediate competence in two foreign languages. This is necessary for two main reasons: (i) PhD students are expected to attend international conferences and publish in international journals and (ii) the language of instruction in numerous PhD programs is often a foreign language, e.g. English.

21 3.3 The Foreign Language Requirement What kind of help is provided for students with the foreign language requirement? Universities often provide free language classes for a period of two or three semesters. In some programs language courses are a mandatory part of the curriculum. What are the consequences of this requirement? More and more students can now work in international environments in Hungary or outside the borders of Hungary. A significant number of students do not graduate in time for failing to complete this requirement. There are now students who cannot complete their university studies for failing to complete the language requirement (EDULINE). (In the academic year , there were students in higher education (Office of Education).)

22 3.4 The Financing of Higher Education Changes in the financing of higher education after 1989 (Polónyi 2008): Mid 1990s: Governmental support decreases due to problems of the budget deficit. In 1996 Hungary spends approx. 0.8% of its GDP on higher education : Government expenditure increases. In 2000 Hungary spends approx. 1.7% of its GDP on higher education : There is again a decrease in government expenditure. In 2006 Hungary spends about 0.9% of its GDP on higher education.

23 3.4 The Financing of Higher Education The current situation: Government expenditure on higher education remains below 1% of the GDP. Hungary: 0.8% USA: 2.8% OECD average: 1.5% (Education at Glance 2013) The annual expenditure per student by educational institutions for all services in the sector of higher education: Hungary: USD 8745 USA: USD OECD average: USD (Education at Glance 2013)

24 3.4 The Financing of Higher Education There are different ways in which participants of the higher education system are supported: (i) Per capita funding is available to universities. (ii) Scholarships are provided for better performing students. (iii) Financial aid is available for students for accommodation and textbooks. (iv) Student loans are also available as of (v) Additional financial support is provided for both students and instructors in various research projects.

25 3.4 The Financing of Higher Education Some recent tendencies impacting the financing of higher education: The number of students participating in higher education showed a significant increase between 1990 and In 1990 there were ca students in higher education, whereas in 2005 this number rose to over OECD data show that the average earnings of a person with higher education in Hungary is 1.84 times higher than the earnings of a secondary education graduate (Mateju et al. 2007).

26 3.4 The Financing of Higher Education It is now a crucial goal to ensure that Hungary s budget deficit remains below the European Union s threshhold, i.e. 3% of the GDP. This in turn has ramifications for the financing of various sectors including education. NB: Hungary was under an Excessive Deficit Procedure (EDP) between 2004 and Now that the deficit is expected to remain below the reference value of 3% of the GDP, the European Commission has recommended that the Council abrogate the EDP. Private funding in certain fields increases in higher education.

27 3.4 The Financing of Higher Education Some consequences of these tendencies: Students from low socio-economic backgrounds can now experience an educational disadvantage, especially in fields like economics and law, where the number of students who have to pay for their education is especially high. A growing number of students are now in debt after graduation. The fact that more students pay for their education in some way also has a positive impact on the quality of education in that students (and parents) can now have expectations regarding various aspects of the learning experience. Education is now looked at as a service provided by the teacher for the student, who is the customer.

28 3.5 Qualification, Promotion, and 1. A Brief Historical Background Research Goals 2. Qualification and Promotion in Socialist Hungary ( ) 3. Research in Socialist Hungary 4. New Challenges after the Collapse of the Soviet Union 5. Qualification and Promotion in Democratic Hungary (1989 present) (i) (ii) A Quick Outline of the New System Challenges Posed by the Restructuring of the System (iii) Short-Term and Long-Term Solutions 6. The Current Situation

29 3.5 Qualification, Promotion, and Research Goals: Some Background : Higher education and research activities undergo a substantial reform in line with the Soviet model. Higher education and research activities become independent of each other and they are both closely monitored by the Hungarian Socialist Workers Party. The Hungarian Academy of Sciences loses its political independence and turns into a body that is the sole provider of scientific titles.

30 3.5 Qualification, Promotion, and Research Goals: Some Background 1989: Hungary becomes a democratic country after 40 years of socialist rule. 1993: The First Higher Education Act establishes the Hungarian Accreditation Committee. This committee is responsible for "facilitating the control, assurance and evaluation of the scientific quality of education, scientific research and artistic activity at higher education institutions" (HAC). PhD programs representing a variety of fields are introduced at a number of universities.

31 3.5 Qualification and Promotion in Socialist Hungary The Qualification System is a three-tier system with the following components: University Doctorate Candidate of Science Doctor of Science This system is in effect in some Eastern Bloc countries including Hungary and former Czechoslovakia before the collapse of the Soviet Union.

32 3.5 Qualification and Promotion in University Doctorate Socialist Hungary Foreign language competence and the ability to conduct independent research must be demonstrated. Original research must be conducted and published in the form of a dissertation. The evaluation of dissertations is administered by universities. Obtaining this title is required so that university instructors can advance to higher positions in the academic hierarchy.

33 3.5 Qualification and Promotion in Candidate of Science Socialist Hungary One must be recognized by their peers at the national level. A dissertation must be submitted to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The research results must be defended in front of a scientific committee. Successful completion of the defense allows one to become a Docent, which corresponds to Associate Professorship in the United States. This title is necessary for a variety of teaching and research activities. For example, supervising and lecturing obligations can only be assigned to Docents.

34 3.5 Qualification and Promotion in Doctor of Science Socialist Hungary One must be recognized by their peers at the national and international level. A dissertation must be submitted to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The research results must be defended in front of a scientific committee. This title allows its holder to become a Full Professor, to establish PhD programs, and to have access to research funding.

35 3.5 Research in Socialist Hungary Higher education and research activities are heavily centralized. Curriculum guidelines, research goals, and requirements for filling teaching positions are defined and closely monitored by the Hungarian Socialist Workers Party. The accredition of various educational programs is under the auspices of the Socialist Party. This characterizes the education system of many Eastern Bloc countries at the time (Mateju et al. 2007).

36 3.5 Research in Socialist Hungary The world of researchers is organized by a very strict hierarchy created by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.There is no independent body to offer scientific advice/supervision on various research/teaching activities and accreditation processes. What matters is not the quality of your research but your position in the hierarchy (Polónyi 2008).

37 3.5 Research in Socialist Hungary Basic research is carried out in the research institutes of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The Academy is now responsible for raising new generations of scholars supporting the Party. There is hardly any collaboration between the Academy and the industry. Research is conducted in ivory towers (Polónyi 2008). Universities do not participate in research projects; they are deprived of research funding (Mateju et al. 2007).

38 3.5 New Challenges after the Collapse of the Soviet Union In 1989 Hungary begins its transformation from an authoritarian political system to a democratic political system and from a command-type socialist economy to a western market-driven economy. Hungarians have to introduce significant changes in all areas including education and research in a very short period of time. Integration into European society is now a primary objective. It is clear that it is in our best interest to join the European Union as soon as possible.

39 3.5 Qualification and Promotion in Democratic Hungary The Qualification System is a three-tier system again. With the introduction of the PhD title, however, Hungarian scholars become more competitive internationally. Doctory of Philosophy (PhD) Habilitation Doctor of Science

40 3.5 Qualification and Promotion in Democratic Hungary Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) One must complete a PhD program of three years. This involves course work, conference presentations, the publication of conference and journal articles, and various organizational obligations. A dissertation must be submitted to the doctoral school administering one s PhD program. The dissertation must be defended in front of a scientific committee including internal and external members. This title is now highly recommended for promotion to the position Adjunktus, which corresponds to Assistant Professorship in the United States.

41 3.5 Qualification and Promotion in Habilitation Democratic Hungary The candidate must have an extensive list of publications including monographs and journal articles. Two public presentations must be given: (1) a scientific talk in English and (2) a Hungarian lecture targeting university students. Successful completion of the habilitation procedure serves as evidence for the fact that the candidate has the ability to conduct quality research over an extended period of time, on the one hand, and to transmit knowledge to students, on the other. In some higher education institutions this qualification is required for the position Docent.

42 3.5 Qualification and Promotion in Democratic Hungary Challenges Posed by the Restructuring of the System: The higher education system can no longer recognize the qualification University Doctorate. It is no longer possible to receive a scientific degree without completing a PhD program. This is a significant problem for those conducting research close to retirement.

43 3.5 Qualification and Promotion in Short-term solutions: Democratic Hungary Some former titles are renamed in accordance with the new system,which is more compatible with the higher education system of western countries. For example, some university doctorates are accepted as PhDs. Those who have received the title Candidate of Science can apply for PhDs, which they are automatically granted.

44 3.5 Qualification and Promotion in Long-term solutions: Democratic Hungary The accreditation of PhD programs began in 1993 with the passing of the First Higher Education Act. In the 1990s numerous university instructors participated in short-term or long-term study-abroad programs funded by foundations like Tempus Public Foundation and Soros Foundation so that they could receive graduate-level education and learn about education and research programs in foreign countries.

45 3.5 New Challenges in Research The Hungarian Academy of Sciences is still too powerful in its capacity to maintain the hierarchical organization of the world of science. Researchers are evaluated by their position in the scientific hierarchy dictated by the Academy and not by the quality of their research. It is mainly Docents and Full Professors who can apply for research grants. In 2005 the number of patents per 1 million people was 3.6 The EU average was 32.4 and the OECD average was 43.9 (Polónyi 2008).

46 3.5 New Challenges in the Promotion System Due to the austerity measures of recent years, promotions have been stalled at a number of universities and salaries remain (well) below international levels. (See the data provided by the Labor Union of University Employees.) Professor Docent (Associate Professor) Adjunktus (Assistant Professor) Tanársegéd (Junior Lecturer) Net Monthly Income (with two children) USD 1368 USD 984 USD 729 USD 600 This has the ramifications that university instructors are forced to have multiple jobs, which in turn has a negative impact on the quality of research and teaching activites. This situation also leads to teacher attrition.

47 3.5 New Challenges in the Promotion System University instructors have numerous administrative obligations, e.g. the coordination of various educational programs, conferences, workshops, and summer schools. This negatively affects instructors chances to fulfil promotion requirements. The principle"publish or perish", which characterizes many higher education systems in the world, is a key component in the fact that quantity supercedes quality when it comes to publications. For example, in geography in order to receive the title Doctor of Science, one needs to fulfil 11 criteria including the publication of 60 articles and two books. In terms of quality, all that needs to be accomplished is two impact factors and four articles indexed by Scopus/Web of Science.

48 4. Conclusions Higher education in Hungary has undergone a significant amount of change over the last 25 years. This is mainly due to the political change of 1989, our EU accession and the global financial crisis of Some of the most important achievements of the past few years are the introducion of the Bologna System, the restructuring of the financing of higher education and that of the qualification system. These reforms have had a number of positive consequences and they have also provided numerous challenges, which need to be addressed in the future.

49 Thank you for your attention.

50 References Hanley, Eric and Matthew McKeever. (1997). The Persistance of Educational Inequalities in State-Socialist Hungary: Trajectory- Maintenance versus Counterselection. Sociology of Education, 70, Mateju, Petr, Blanka Rehakova, Natalie Simonova. (2007). Structural Growth of Inequality in Access to Higher Education in the Czech Republic. In Y. Shavit, G. Menahem, R. Arum, and A. Gamoran (eds.), Stratification in Higher Education: A Comparative Study. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Polónyi, István. (2008). Oktatás, Oktatáspolitika, Oktatásgazdaság. [Education: The Politics and Economics of Education]. Budapest: Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó.