As more people lead healthier lifestyles and medical discoveries help to stave off the aging process, the boundaries of middle age are being pushed

Transcription

1 As more people lead healthier lifestyles and medical discoveries help to stave off the aging process, the boundaries of middle age are being pushed upward. Middle age is starting later and lasting longer. Middle adulthood is the developmental period that begins at about age 40 and extends to about 60. Middle age is full of changes, twists and turns, as people move in and out of states of success and failure.

2 Physical Changes Noticeable Visible Changes Usually the first outwardly visible signs of aging are apparent by the 40s or 50s. The skin begins to wrinkle and sag due to loss of fat and collagen in underlying tissue. Small, localized areas of pigmentation in the skin produce aging spots. Hair becomes thinner and grayer. Fingernails and toenails develop ridges and become thicker and more brittle. Height and Weight Individuals now lose height and many gain weight. Adults lose about one-half inch of height per decade beginning in their 40s. Body fat accounts for about 10% of body weight in adolescence, but it makes up about 20% or more in middle age. Being overweight is a critical health problem in middle adulthood. For individuals who are 30% or more overweight, the probability of dying in middle adulthood increases by about 40%. Strength, Joints, and Bones Muscle strength decreases noticeably by the mid 40s, particularly in the back and legs. The cushions for the movement of bones (such as tendons and ligaments) become less efficient in the middle adult years. After the late 30s there is progressive bone loss. Women experience about twice the rate of bone loss as men. By the end of midlife, bones break more easily and heal

3 more slowly. Vision The ability of the eyes to focus and maintain an image on the retina experiences its sharpest decline between 40 and 59 years of age. In particular, middle-aged individuals begin to have difficulty viewing close objects, causing many to wear bifocal glasses. The eye s blood supply also diminishes during the 50s or 60s. There is also evidence that the retina becomes less sensitive to low levels of illumination. Hearing Hearing may start to decline by age 40. Sensitivity to high pitches declines first, while the ability to distinguish low-pitched sounds doesn t seem to decline much in middle adulthood. Men usually lose their sensitivity to highpitched sounds sooner than women do. Cardiovascular System The heart of a 20-year-old pumps 40 liters of blood per minute, while the heart of a 40-year-old pumps only 23 liters of blood per minute under comparable conditions. Coronary arteries narrow. Cholesterol level increases with age, and begins to accumulate on the artery walls by age 60. Artery walls thicken, blood pressure increases, and chance of stroke or heart attack increases. Sleep The total number of hours slept usually remains the same as in early adulthood. Beginning in the 40s, however, wakeful periods are more frequent and there is less of the deepest type of sleep. The amount of time spent lying awake in bed at night increases in middle age. This produces the feeling of being less rested in the morning. Health and Disease The frequency of accidents now declines and people are less susceptible to colds and allergies. Chronic disorders increase in middle adulthood. Chronic disorders are characterized by a slow onset and long duration. The most common chronic disorders vary for women and men. Men have a higher incidence of fatal chronic conditions, while women have a higher incidence of nonfatal ones. Culture, Personality, Relationships, and Health Culture and Cardiovascular Disease Culture plays a particularly important role in cardiovascular disease. As ethnic groups migrate, the health practices dictated by their cultures change while

4 their genetic predispositions to certain disorders remains constant. Type A/Type B Behavioral Patterns Type A - a cluster of characteristics excessive competitiveness, hard drivenness, impatience, and hostility thought to be related to the incidence of heart disease. Type B - reflected in individuals who are relaxed and easy going. Early research showed a profound link between type A behavior and coronary disease, which is now thought of as not quite as strong. Hostility is the characteristic most consistently associated with coronary problems. Hardiness Hardiness is a personality style characterized by a sense of commitment, control, and a perception of problems as challenges. Studies have shown individuals with a hardy personality are less likely to succumb to illness when exposed to stressful situations. Levels of illness dropped most dramatically when hardiness was combined with exercise and social support in the face of stress. Health and Social Relationships Researchers have revealed links between health in middle age and earlier pathways of relationships. In one longitudinal study, individuals who were on a positive relationship pathway from childhood to middle age had significantly fewer biological problems than those on a negative relationship pathway. Another study showed adults who experienced more warmth and closeness with their parents during childhood had fewer diagnosed diseases. Health in middle age is also related to the current quality of social relationships. Mortality Rates Infectious disease was the main cause of death until the middle of the 20th century. Chronic diseases are now the main cause of death for individuals in middle adulthood. Heart disease is the leading cause of death. Cancer and cerebrovascular disease are second and third respectively. Men experience higher mortality rates than women for all of the leading causes of death. Sexuality Menopause The time in middle age, usually late 40s or early 50s, when a woman s menstrual periods cease. There is a dramatic decline in the production of

5 estrogen by the ovaries. This decline produces some uncomfortable symptoms such as hot flashes, nausea, fatigue, and rapid heartbeat. Some menopausal women report depression and irritability. Cross-cultural variations in menopause have been found, but question still exist as to why. Hormone Replacement Therapy There are two main types of hormone replacement theory: estrogen alone (ERT), and estrogen combined with a progestin (HRT). Currently, estrogen alone is not recommended for women who still have a uterus due to the increased risk for endometrial cancer. Positive outcome of HRT is bone loss prevention. HRT has also been tentatively linked to a protective effect for cardiovascular disease. One of the potential risks of HRT is breast cancer. Hormonal Changes in Middle-Aged Men Men experience hormonal changes in their 50s and 60s, but nothing like the dramatic drop in estrogen that women experience. Testosterone production begins to decline about 1% a year during middle adulthood, and sperm count shows a slow decline, but men do not lose their fertility in middle age. Due to the drop in testosterone levels, men s sexual drive often lessens, and their erections are less full, less frequent, and require more stimulation to achieve them. Sexual Attitudes and Behavior The ability of men and women to function sexually shows little biological decline in middle adulthood. Sexual activity does usually occur on a less frequent basis than in early adulthood. The decline may actually be due to career interests, family matters, energy level, and routine. A spouse or live-in partner determines the dramatic difference in frequency of sexual activity, particularly for women.

6 Intelligence Fluid intelligence - one s ability to reason abstractly, begins to decline in middle adulthood. Crystallized intelligence - an individual s accumulated information and verbal skills, continues to increase in middle adulthood. This data was collected from a cross-sectional study, meaning cohort effects could be at work. The Seattle Longitudinal Study is conducting an extensive study of intellectual abilities in adulthood. K. Warner Schaie is investigating the individual change and stability in intelligence across the life span. The main mental abilities tested are: vocabulary inductive reasoning ability verbal memory spatial orientation number ability perceptual speed The highest level of functioning for four of the six intellectual abilities has been found to occur in the middle adulthood years.

7 Information Processing Speed of Information Processing As Schaie found in his Seattle Longitudinal study, perceptual speed begins to decline in early adulthood and continues to decline in middle adulthood. A common way to assess speed of information processing is through a reactiontime task in which individuals simply push a button at the appearance of a light. Middle-aged adults are slower to push the button than young adults are. The decline is not dramatic, and it is stronger for women than for men. Memory In Schaie s study, verbal memory peaked in the 50s. In other studies, verbal memory has shown a decline, particularly when assessed cross-sectionally. Memory decline is more likely to occur when individuals don t use effective memory strategies, such as organization and imagery. Using such strategies, memory in middle adulthood may actually improve. Expertise Expertise involves having an extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain. Developing expertise is usually the result of many years of experience, learning, and effort. Because it takes so long to obtain, expertise often shows up more in middle adulthood than in early adulthood. Strategies of the Experts Experts are more likely to rely on their accumulated experience to solve problems. Experts often automatically process information and analyze it more efficiently when solving a problem than a novice does. Experts have better strategies and short-cuts to solving problems in their domain than novices do. Experts are more creative and flexible in solving problems in their domain than novices are. Practical Problem Solving Nancy Denney observed problem solving abilities in adults as they dealt with such circumstances as a bank error, and an irresponsible landlord. She found that the ability to solve such practical problems increased through the 40s and 50s as individuals accumulated practical experience.

8 Job Satisfaction Work satisfaction increases steadily throughout the work life, from age 20 to 60. This is true for both college-educated and non-college-educated adults. This is also true for both women and men. There is a greater commitment to and involvement in our work as we get older. Researchers have found the greatest physical and psychological well-being characterizes people who are doing as much paid work as they would like. Career Challenges and Changes Globalization has replaced the traditional white male work force with employees of different ethnic and national backgrounds. The proliferation of computer technology compels middle-aged adults to become increasingly computer literate to maintain their work competence. Many companies are offering incentives to get middle-aged employees to retire early. Some individuals decide that they don t want to do the same work they ve been doing, forever. Leisure Leisure refers to the pleasant times after work when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their own choosing hobbies, sports, reading. Some developmentalists believe that middle age is a time of questioning how time should be spent and of reassessing priorities. For many, middle adulthood is the first time in their lives when they have the opportunity to diversify their interests.

9 Religion and Adult Lives In the recent McArthur Study of Midlife Development, more than 70% of the individuals said they are religious and consider spirituality a major part of their lives. About one-half said they attend religious services less than once a month or never. Females have consistently shown a stronger interest in religion than males have. Although many Americans show a strong interest in religion and believe in God, they also show a declining faith in mainstream religious institutions. Religion and Health Several studies have documented that religious commitment had a protective influence on blood pressure rates. A number of studies have confirmed a positive association of religious participation and longevity. Possible reasons for these connections: lifestyle issues social networks coping with stress Coping Recently researchers have found that some styles of religious coping are associated with high levels of personal initiative and competence. Religious

10 cognitions can play an important role in maintaining hope and stimulating motivation toward recovery. Religion also can forestall the development of anxiety and depression disorders by promoting social interaction. Houses of worship are a readily available, acceptable, and inexpensive source of support. Happiness A number of researchers have found that religiously active individuals report greater happiness than do those who are religiously inactive. Other research suggests that happy people do tend to have a meaningful religious faith. We don t know, however, whether faith enhances happiness or whether happiness induces faith. Meaning in Life Victor Frankl s book Man s Search for Meaning emphasized each person s uniqueness and the finiteness of life. Frankl said that the three most distinct human qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility. He proposed that people need to ask themselves such questions as why they exist, what they want from life, and the meaning of their life. Many individuals in middle age begin to ask these questions.

11 Adult Stage Theories Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson believes generativity encompasses adults desire to leave a legacy to the next generation. Through generativity, adults achieve a kind of immortality by leaving their legacy. Stagnation or self-absorption develops when individuals sense that they have done nothing for the next generation. Through generativity, adults promote and guide those who follow by parenting, teaching, leading, doing things to benefit the community. Generativity can exist in many arenas including biological, parental, work, and cultural. Generativity and Identity. One study showed that middle-aged adults especially were concerned about generativity and guiding younger adults. Another showed that having a positive identity was linked with generativity in middle age. A modification of Erikson s theory proposed that his three adult stages intimacy, generativity, and integrity are best viewed as developmental phases within identity. Thus identity remains the central core of the self s development across all of the adult years. Season s of a Man s Life Daniel Levinson extensively interviewed 40 middle-aged men and compiled information from the biographies of famous men. His major interest and

12 focus centered around midlife change, however, he described a number of stages and transitions in the life span. Levinson emphasizes that development tasks must be mastered at each of these stages. Although his original data included no females, Levinson claimed his theory also held for women. Levinson s Stages of Change The 20s are a novice phase of adult development. Around age 28 to 33 the man goes through a transition in which he must determine his goals. During the 30s he usually focuses on family and career development. In the later years of this period, he enters a phase of Becoming One s Own Man (BOOM). By age 40 he has reached a stable location in his career and must look forward to middle adulthood. Ages encompass the change to middle adulthood. The Four Major Conflicts Levinson claimed that middle adulthood is the time for men to come to grips with four conflicts that have existed since adolescence: Being young versus being old Being destructive versus being constructive Being masculine versus being feminine Being attached to others versus being separated from them How Pervasive Are Midlife Crises? Levinson views midlife as a crisis a time when the adult is suspended between the past and the future, trying to cope with this gap that threatens life s continuity. A recent study has indicated that the idea of midlife crises have been exaggerated. Many studies have shown that middle-aged adults have a greater sense of control in their work, greater sense of environmental mastery, more autonomy, more power, and greater financial security. Individual Variations The stage theories focus on the universals of adult personality development and do not address individual variations. An extensive study of 500 men at midlife showed that a tremendous amount of individual variation characterized the men. George Vaillant s Grant Study also yielded findings that showed variations in individual functioning.

13 Life-Events Approach The contemporary life-events approach emphasizes that how life events influence the individual s development depends not only on the life event, but also on mediating factors, the life-stage context, and the sociohistorical context. Drawbacks of the approach include its overemphasis on change and its failure to recognize that the primary sources of stress may not be major life events but rather our daily experiences. Historical Contexts Some believe that changing historical times and different social expectations influence how different cohorts move through the life span. Our values, attitudes, expectations, and behaviors are influenced by the period in which we live. Trying to tease out universal truths and patterns about adult development from one cohort to another is complicated. Neugarten believes that the social environment of a particular age group can alter its social clock. The Social Clock. The timetable according to which individuals are expected to accomplish life s tasks marrying, having children, establishing themselves in a career. Social clocks provide guides for our lives. Individuals whose lives are not synchronized with these social clocks find life to be more stressful than those who are on schedule. There is much less agreement today on the right age or sequence for the occurrence of major life events. Gender Contexts As the roles of women have become more complex and varied, defining a normative sequence of development for them has become difficult, if not impossible. Basic changes in social attitudes regarding labor force participation, families, and gender roles have begun to broaden the opportunities available for women in middle adulthood. Midlife is a diversified, heterogeneous period for women, just as it is for men. Cultural Contexts In many cultures, particularly nonindustrialized cultures, the concept of middle age is not very clear, or in some cases is absent. Nonindustrialized cultures tend to describe individuals as young or old, but not middle-aged. Movement from one status to the next in these cultures is due primarily to life events, not age. Middle age tends to be more advantageous to women in many nonindustrialized societies.

14 Love and Marriage at Midlife Affectionate Love (Affectionate or companionate love increases during middle adulthood.) Security, loyalty, and mutual emotional interest become more important as relationships mature. A relationship is believed to mature when partners: share knowledge with one another. assume responsibility for each other s satisfaction. share private information that governs their relationship. Marriage and Divorce For married individuals in midlife, most voiced considerable satisfaction with being married. A recent large scale study found that 72% of married midlife individuals reported that their marriage was either excellent or very good. Getting married in midlife lowered men s anxiety, depression, and feelings of vulnerability. Women who married in midlife felt more positive emotions than they had previously. Couples who divorce in midlife tend to be cool, distant, and have suppressed emotions. Consequences of Divorce in Midlife Many individuals perceive divorce in midlife as failing in the best years of their lives. Men who divorced in their 40s became more depressed and had lower

15 achievement goals. Women who divorced in middle age showed a surge in positive emotions. The perils of divorce in midlife may be fewer and less intense than for younger individuals. They have more resources and can simplify their lives. The Empty Nest and Its Refilling Characterized by a decrease in marital satisfaction due to the children s departure which leaves parents with an empty feeling. Parents who live vicariously through their children are more likely to experience the empty nest syndrome. Most parents do not experience less marital satisfaction, in fact for many it increases after their children have left home. Coming Home More adult children are returning to live at home after an unsuccessful career or divorce. One study showed that 42% of middle-aged parents had serious conflicts with their resident adult children. One of the most common complaints voiced by both parents and adult children is a loss of privacy. When adult children return home to live, a disequilibrium in family life is created, requiring considerable adaptation on both parties parts. Parenting Conceptions Middle-aged parents felt as their children became adults they gained a new sense of appreciation for their commitment and influence as parents. Many parents of adult children regret not having had more involvement and better relationships with their children. Research findings suggest that during middle adulthood we restructure our perceptions of our own parents, viewing them more as unique individuals. Siblings and Friends The majority of sibling relationships in adulthood have been found to be close. Siblings who are close to each other in adulthood tended to be that way as children. It is rare for sibling closeness to develop for the first time in adulthood. Friendships continue to be as important in midlife as they were in early adulthood.

16 Intergenerational Relationships For the most part, family members maintain considerable contact across generations. A consistent finding is that parents and their young adult children differ in the way they describe their relationship. Gender differences exist, as mothers and daughters tend to have closer relationships. Middleaged adults are often described as the sandwich generation, caught between aging parents and their young adult children.