AP WORLD HISTORY SUMMER HOMEWORK

Transcription

1 W elcome to the Advanced Placement World History class. This class will be the most demanding and hopefully the most interesting class you take this year. One major difference between this class and the regular World History classes is that we cover the entirety of World History not just the last 250 years. This means we have to take a much different approach. We do not have the luxury of spending time on the details of great people and events in history. Instead, we are looking at broad themes over vast time periods. We focus much more on connections and patterns, and less on individuals and individual events. Unfortunately, over the last few years I have been found myself in the position of lecturing and feeding the material to my AP classes. This is not how it s supposed to work. Schools with successful AP World classes don t spend time on lecturing the basic material. Successful AP students understand that they are to do that leg work, the studying on their own time and that our class time is better spent on discussion, test preparation and enrichment activities. With this in mind, please consider very carefully whether or not this class is for you. Many sophomores each year get themselves in over their heads and once you re in, they won t let you out. My intent is not to scare you off, but rather to make sure you understand exactly what you are getting into. This will likely be your favorite class if you are willing to do the work. There is another thing to heed many of the students who sign up for the AP classes are also involved in many other demanding courses and extracurricular activities. I will try to work around major conflicts such as Marching Band activities (like Tuesday Night Practice!), but by signing up for this class you are committing to keeping up. I am going to de-emphasize the homework assignments I have given in the past. Instead, we will be moving toward a binder system. It is easier for me and more helpful to keep an organized binder which I will check from time to time. That means at least 75% of your grade will be based on tests and essays. Be prepared. In closing this class will likely be a big step up. Many of you are used to being the kid with the A s on all the tests, but I will change that. Many of you are fond of your class ranking, but I have a tendency to rearrange that. Just remember, my goal is to get you to perform as well as you possibly can on the AP test in May. Sincerely, Mr. Grady mr.grady_whap@yahoo.com Website/blog: PS: We ll go over materials once school starts but a good place to start would be a 3-inch Heavy Duty binder and one of many commercially available AP Prep guides. I will post materials suggestions on the blog when finalized. 1

2 THEMES The WHAP curriculum is structured around five major themes. These themes will run through every unit, every region and every time period. Get to know these as you read the first five chapters of the textbook. 1. Interaction between humans and the environment Demography and disease Migration Patterns of settlement Technology 2. Development and interaction of cultures Religions Belief systems, philosophies & ideologies Science & technology The arts and architecture 3. State-building, expansion and conflict Political structures and forms of governance Empires Nations and nationalism Revolts and revolutions Regional, transregional and global structures and organizations 4. Creation, expansion and interaction of economic systems Agricultural and pastoral production Trade and commerce Labor systems Industrialization Capitalism and socialism 5. Development and transformation of social structures Gender roles and relations Family and kinship Racial and ethnic constructions Social and economic classes 2

3 There are many mnemonic devices used to remember these themes, but we will fittingly use the PIRATES mnemonic: P for Politics I for Interaction between humans and their environment R for Religion and belief systems A for Arts and intellectual movements T for Technology and invention E for Economics S for Social including family, gender, class, race, etc. GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS Another convention that the WHAP community has adopted is the use of the following World Regions. Know these. Really get to know these. Obviously major bodies of water, mountain ranges, deserts and climatic zones should be known. We will refer to these throughout the class so you may as well get started now. 3

4 PERIODIZATION The third major organizational scheme used in this course is the Periodization, or time periods that the WHAP community has agreed upon over the years. The following table Period Period Title Date Range Weight 1 Foundations Period Technological and Environmental Transformations to c. 600 B.C.E. 5% 2 Classical Period Organization and Reorganization of Human Societies c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E. 15% 3 Post-Classical Period Regional and Transregional Interactions c. 600 C.E. to c % 4 Early Modern Period Global Interactions c to c % The Long Nineteenth Century 5 Industrialization and Global Integration c to c % 6 Contemporary Period Accelerating Global Change and Realignments c to the present 20% SUMMER HOMEWORK Your job this summer is to read the first five chapters of the Stearns textbook. This will not be easy, the book is a nightmare to read. Check the website/blog for some outlines and tools that will help you with this. There are nearly 300 reading questions I want you to answer. That s not bad for the WHOLE SUMMER so stop groaning! You can go ahead answer these questions on this paper that s a lot of questions to copy. Then there are four PIRATES charts after the reading questions. Fill these out when you are reading the appropriate chapters. This is a useful template for analysis and we will be visiting it throughout the year. Following those questions, there are some VOCABULARY terms that are absolutely crucial to learn. I would STRONGLY suggest putting these on index cards (or smaller cards) so that you can continually review these terms up until the AP test in May. This will be due on the first day of school. No excuses, no late work. Get this done. It s not going to get any better once the school year starts. Pace yourself that s a skill that will get you through this class unscathed. Reading questions PIRATES charts Vocabulary 4

5 Ch 1 Reading Study Guide AP WORLD HISTORY SUMMER HOMEWORK 1. What were some of the advantages of the discovery and use of fire by early humans? 2. According to recent research, when did humans likely enter the Western Hemisphere? 3. Name three of the characteristics that differentiate humans from all other species. (Timeline Pg. 10) 4. When did humanlike species originate in Eastern Africa? 5. When did human species spread across the Eastern Hemisphere and develop fire use? 6. When did farming develop? Where? 7. What innovations took place in the Middle East between BCE? 8. When was the rise of Sumer Egypt Harappan Shang? 9. What was human life and technology like during the Paleolithic Age? 10. What proto-human species developed during the Paleolithic Age? 11. Who are the Homo sapiens sapiens? 12. How did early humans deal with their fear of death? 13. According to Stearns, what was Paleolithic Man s greatest achievement? 14. What was the Mesolithic Age? 15. What new technologies and developments came about during the Mesolithic Age? 16. Describe the population growth (use numbers please) due to the advent & acceptance of agriculture. 17. In what ways is the Neolithic revolution truly revolutionary? 18. How did the use of metals impact human existence? 19. Describe the process of slash and burn agriculture. 20. Why did the first civilizations worthy of the name develop near rivers? (We will discuss this at length in class) 21. Briefly describe the settlement of Catal Huyuk. (We will discuss this at length in class) 5

6 22. What is civilization? (We will discuss this at length in class) 23. How did cuneiform and other forms of writing impact human existence? 24. Why did people living in civilizations look down upon so-called barbarians? 25. In what ways are these nomadic and barbarian cultures more civilized than civilizations? 26. What are the noteworthy achievements of civilizations that we moderns take for granted? 27. Where did the first civilization develop? 28. What was the 1 st form of writing and who developed it? (Study map 1.3, map 1.4, and map 1.52 Pg.19-21) 29. What were the massive religious structures called? 30. How did Sumerian religious view influence later religious beliefs and philosophies? 31. Briefly describe how were Sumerian city-states organized? 32. Who conquered the Sumerians? 33. Describe the power wielded by the Pharaohs? 34. What was the purpose of the pyramids? 35. Where was the kingdom of Kush located? 36. Why do we know so little about the Indus River Civilization? 37. Along what river did civilization first develop in East Asia? (Read Document: Aryan Poetry in Praise of a War Horse. Pg.23) 38. In what ways does this document convey the Aryans' delight in warfare? 39. What does the document tell us about the Aryans' attitude toward the herd animals? 40. How does the document convey the Aryan's ideal of manliness, heroism, and loyalty? 41. Briefly describe the Shang civilization as nomads? 42. What kind of social structure did the Shang civilization have? 6

7 43. What was Chinese writing like? AP WORLD HISTORY SUMMER HOMEWORK (Read Thinking Historically: The Idea of Civilization in World Historical Perspective. Pg ) 44. Pick a society and determine criteria for the society to be considered civilized. 45. Did your criteria reflect your own society's norms or more universal criteria? 46. What contributions did the Phoenicians make to civilization? 47. What contribution did the Lydians make to civilization? 48. What contributions did the Jews/Hebrews make to civilization? 49. Why were the Mesopotamian civilizations more focused on conquest, trade and expansion? 50. Why did Egypt remain more insular? Ch 2 Reading Study Guide 51. Why were the Qin-Han governmental systems so successful for so long? Pg How were Shi Huangdi s uniform law and taxation systems beneficial to the stability of China? 53. How did Han rulers further enhance the power of the imperial government? 54. How did the bureaucracy further stabilize the imperial government? (Read Visualizing the Past: Capital Designs and Patterns of Political Power. Pg. 47) 55. Using the picture which social groups were the most powerful politically in each society? 56. Which society had the strictest political government. 57. Why do you think the Han government chose to actively promote Confucian philosophy? Pg In what two industries was the imperial government directly involved? 59. How did the government use the annual physical labor required of meal peasants? 60. Briefly describe the major ideas of Confucian thought. 61. What were the Analects? 62. Briefly describe the ideas of Legalism. 7

8 (Read Document: Teachings of the Rival Chinese Schools. Pg. 50) AP WORLD HISTORY SUMMER HOMEWORK 63. Describe the difference between the Confucian passages and the Daoist passages. 64. Briefly describe the ideas of Daoism. 65. Why could Daoism (and later Buddhism) and Confucianism co-exist? 66. What were The 5 Five Classics? 67. Describe Classical Chinese art. (Read Thinking Historically: Women in Patriarchal Societies. Pg ) 68. Why were upper-class women often considered more inferior to men than lower-class women? 69. What was the focus of science and scientific research in China? 70. Briefly describe the Chinese social class structure. 71. Why were merchants considered less respectable than peasants and bureaucrats? 72. What improvements to agriculture developed under the Han? 73. Even though Classical China was agrarian, what other industries developed in this era? 74. How did the Chinese view their kingdom in comparison with the rest of the world? 75. What important new religion came to China from India beginning during the Han decline? 76. What was the function of and activity along the Silk Road? Pg What is the Classical Period time span in World History? Pg Name the three major Classical Civilizations. 79. What was the nature of interactions of the Classical Civilization s with the rest of humanity? 80. What specific product found its way around the Classical World? (Timeline Pg ) 81. When was the initial Zhou Kingdom? 6. When was the rise of Greek City-States? 82. When did Zoroastrian Religion develop in Iran? 8. When did the Buddha live? 8

9 83. When was Shi Huangdi proclaimed first emperor of China? 84. When was the last Han Emperor deposed? 11. What were the years of the Gupta Empire? 85. What new technology allowed for large-scale military conquests during the Classical Era? 86. What innovations did Classical Civilizations NOT have to re-invent? 87. Which of the Classical Civilizations had the largest commercial reach? 88. Which civilization valued the elderly for wisdom and life experience? 89. Which civilization sometimes took a more harsh view of the elderly? 90. What was the political situation in Confucius time? Pg What came to be the THREE leading philosophical systems in China? 92. What other societies have felt the influence of Confucius teaching over the centuries? 93. Who founded the first REAL centralized empire in China? What did he call his dynasty? 94. Briefly describe the dynastic cycle. 95. List the THREE dynasties associated with Classical China? 96. How did feudalism function under the Zhao? 97. What is the Middle Kingdom? 98. Briefly describe Shi Huangdi s rise to power and his style of rule. 99. What were some of the innovations and improvements experienced in China under Shi Huangdi? 100. What dynasty rose up after the death of Shi Huangdi? 101. Who was the most famous ruler under this new dynasty? 102. For what accomplishments is his reign remembered? 103. What events led to the fall of this final Classical Chinese dynasty? Pg.45 9

10 Ch 3 Reading Study Guide 104. What empire culminated India s classic age? 105. What were the years of the Vedic Age? 106. What event coincided with the Vedic Age? 107. When were the Vedas composed? 108. What were the years of the Epic Age? 109. What were the years of the life of the Buddha? 110. What were the Years of the Mauryan Empire? (Chandragupta Maurya-end of Ashoka s reign) 111. What were the years of the Gupta Empire? 112. How did the Aryan invasions set the stage for new forms of Indian civilization? 113. What was India s first empire? 114. How did India differ from China in its development of civilization? 115. How did geography impact the development of Indian civilization? 116. What famous Mediterranean conqueror invaded (but could not hold) India? 117. What mountain range separates India from East Asia? 118. Describe the impact and importance of the monsoon season How did Aryan beliefs evolve into current religious beliefs in India? Pg What is Sanskrit? 121. What were the Vedas? Why are they important? 122. Name the three most important Epic works What were the roots of India s caste system (varnas)? 124. What were the five Aryan social class and what group did each one represent? 125. What were the Jati? Pg

11 126. Describe the political climate of India s regional state period When did Alexander the Great invade? Name the small border kingdom he established Who was Chandragupta Maurya? 129. What were the major accomplishments of the Maurya Dynasty? 130. What were the major accomplishments of Ashoka? 131. Why did he convert to Buddhism? What was the outcome? 132. Who were the Kushans? What did they do? Pg How were the Gupta rulers different than the Mauryan rulers? 134. How did the Maurya dynasty and the Guptas try to deal with regionalism? 135. How were politics in India viewed differently than politics in China, Greece and Rome? 136. What were some of the general rules of India s caste system and how did these change over time? 137. What were some of the positive effects of the caste system? Pg How did Hinduism serve as a cultural unifying force in Classical Indian society (and beyond)? 139. How is Hinduism different from all other world religions? 140. Why, according to the authors, has Hinduism been so successful over time? (Read Document: A Guardian's Farewell Speech to Young Women About to be Married. Pg.69) 141. What does this document tell you about gender relationships and marriage in classical India? 142. What is Brahma? Who are Vishnu and Shiva? 143. Describe the goal of reincarnation (in the Hindu belief system). Pg Describe the ethical concept of dharma. How is it different from Christianity or Islam? 145. How did Buddhism grow out of Hinduism? 146. In what ways was this new belief system different? 147. How was Buddhism spread? 11

12 148. Why did Hinduism remain the strongest and most popular religion in India? 149. What are some of the famous literary works of Classical India? Pg Name 3 or 4 advances in astronomy, science, medicine & mathematics that you find interesting How did the caste system affect daily life in Classical India? 152. Describe the status of women in Classical India and how they were to treat their husband. Pg Briefly describe the economic activities of merchants in this time period. Pg Briefly describe some of the impacts of India on the wider world. (Read Thinking Historically: Inequality as the Social Norm Pg. 74) 155. What arguments did thinkers of classical age Greece, China, and India use to justify differences in social status and material wealth? 156. Briefly describe a few key differences between Classical India and China. (Read Visualizing the Past: "The Pattern of Trade in the Ancient Eurasian World. Pg 76) 157. Which civilizations or areas in the global trading network were the main centers for the production of pottery and cloth? Map What centers supplied raw materials such as forest products and food? Map Besides trade goods, what other things might be transmitted through the trading networks? Ch 4 Reading Study Guide 160. What is the significance of the Marathon in Greek history? Pg Why did Xerxes invade Greece? Why did he fail? 162. Why did Greeks call Non-Greeks Barbarians? 163. Why is Greco-Roman history considered OUR background/history in the US & Europe? Pg.81 (Timeline Pg. 82) 164. When, roughly, was the Kingdom of Mycenae and the legendary Trojan War? 165. When was the rise of Greek City-States? 12

13 166. When were the Iliad & Odyssey compiled? AP WORLD HISTORY SUMMER HOMEWORK 167. What was Athens at its height? 168. When were the Peloponnesian Wars? 169. When was Alexander the Great s empire? 170. The resulting Hellenistic Era? 171. When was the greatest extent of Roman Imperial territory? 172. When did the Roman Empire BEGIN to decline? 173. When did the Empire END? 174. What were the TWO centers of Mediterranean Civilization? 175. What was the extent and impact of the early classical Persian Empire? 176. Where and how did Greek civilization get its start? What epic literature is identified with this culture? 177. What was the basic unit of Greek civilization? 178. In what sporting contest did the Greek communities participate? What may be symbolic of this? 179. In what important military endeavor did the major Greek powers cooperate? 180. Describe the rule of Pericles in Athens How did Athens and Sparta come to rival each other in the Peloponnesian Wars? 182. What was the next major Greek-influenced power to rise after the exhausting Peloponnesian Wars? 183. Describe the conquests of Alexander the Great (begun by his father Phillip II) How did the conquests of Alexander lead to the Hellenistic period? What was the impact of this period? 185. How did the Roman Republic gain influence over the Western Mediterranean? 186. Which two famous Roman relatives laid the foundation for the Roman Empire? Pg Describe the extent of the landmass controlled by the Romans When did the Roman Empire begin its long, slow decline? Why? 13

14 189. Which two later Roman emperors tried to slow this decline? To what new religion did the latter turn? Pg What is politics? 191. Describe the good life for a Greek and, indeed, a Roman aristocrat. Why did they feel this way? 192. Why was monarchy not preferred in Greece and Rome? 193. Describe democracy and direct democracy. Pg. 88 (Read Thinking Historically: The Classical Mediterranean in Comparative Perspective. Pg Why did the classical civilizations seem to need radical social inequalities? 195. What was the relationship between wealth and social position in each classical civilization? 196. India used religion to compensate for social inequalities, what did China and the Mediterranean cultures use? 197. What was Pericles attitude toward rule and government? What were the drawbacks of this condition? 198. What is aristocracy? How does it operate? 199. How did the Roman Republic attempt to combine democracy and aristocracy? Pg What were the similarities/differences between Roman political theory (per Cicero) & Confucianism? 201. How did the Roman Imperial military apparatus influence policy? 202. Why was Roman law & citizenship vital to the maintenance and success of the empire? 203. What kinds of public works did the Romans build in their capital and throughout their empire? 204. What was the purpose of (Pre-Christian) Roman Civic Religion? 205. When did Christianity begin to be important in Mediterranean Civilization? 206. Briefly describe the early Greco-Roman religion Why did this lead to an interest in the so-called Mystery Religions? 208. Describe the Stoic philosophy Why did Socrates get in trouble with the Athenian government? 210. What were the three perfect forms discussed by Plato? 14

15 211. What were some of Mediterranean Civilization s contributions in math and science? 212. In what ways was Roman genius more practical than Greek. What did they build? 213. Describe the contribution of Sophocles. Pg What impact did the Iliad and Odyssey have on Mediterranean Civilization? 215. Briefly describe Greco-Roman art Briefly describe Classical Architecture What did the Romans add to architecture? 218. Why does Stearns DARE to imply that Republican Rome was not and important cultural center? (Read Visualizing the Past: Political Rituals in Persia. Pg.95) 219. What kind of rituals does the scene suggest in the and why would Greeks object to the behavior? 220. Describe the plight of the farmer in Greco-Roman Civilization Why did large landowners switch production to olive trees and grapes? 222. What kinds of products did the Mediterranean civilizations PURCHASE from Silk Road merchants? 223. What kinds of products did the Mediterranean civilizations SELL to Silk Road merchants? 224. How did this lead to an unfavorable trade gap? 225. Describe the importance of slavery in Greco-Roman Civilization Why was the military much more important in Rome than in India or even China? 227. Why did Greco-Roman Civilization fall behind in technological advancement? (Read Document: Rome and a Values Crisis. Pg.97) 228. What kind of Greek learning is Cicero arguing against? 229. What were the rights of women like in early Roman law and how did they evolve? Pg What was family life like in the Greco-Roman world? 231. Why is the heritage of Greco-Roman Civilization more complex than that of China or India? 15

16 232. What was the contribution of Herodotus? AP WORLD HISTORY SUMMER HOMEWORK 233. What connections to the wider world did Greek, then later, Roman Civilizations enjoy? 234. What is the second complexity that involves Persia as a important civilization in its own right? Pg. 99 Ch 5 Reading Study Guide 235. What body of water was vital to trade during the Classical Era? Why? 236. What striking similarities are found between Buddhism and Christianity? 237. How long did the Guptas (India) last after the Fall of Rome? What was their economic orientation? 238. What three big issues does Stearns identify as central to the fall of the Classical Civilizations? 239. Why were the activities of integration & expansion vital for all three of the Classical Civilizations? Timeline P When did the Han Dynasty begin to decline? 9. When did Rome begin to decline? 241. When did the Huns invade India? 11. When did Rome officially Fall? 242. Identify each seminal thinker found in the major classical civilizations ( BCE). China: India: Mediterranean: 243. How did China attempt to integrate their territories and societies? 244. How did India attempt to integrate their territories and societies? 245. How did Greece/Rome attempt to integrate their territories and societies? (Particularly Roman Empire) 246. Briefly describe the rise of the Kingdom of Kush and its successors. (Read Thinking Historically: Nomads & Cross-Civilization Contacts and Exchanges Pg ) 247. What other groups played roles as intermediaries between civilizations in early global history? 248. What features of the nomads' culture and society rendered them ideal agents for cultural diffusion? 249. Briefly describe the rise of early civilization in Japan Describe the advance of early civilizations in the Western Hemisphere. 16

17 251. What earlier Eastern Hemisphere civilizations can we compare the Western Hemisphere cultures? 252. What was Island migration of agricultural peoples to territories in the Pacific like? Pg Who were the Yellow Turbans and what was the outcome of their political program? 254. Why did China simply have a revival of civilization under the Sui/Tang Dynasties unlike the case of Rome? 255. Who were the Rajput? 256. Why Hinduism progress at this time in India? 257. Why did the caste system remain important in India after the Classical Era? Pg What are some of the indicators that Rome was in serious decline? 259. How has the fall (and non-recovery) of Roman civilization affected the Western tradition? 260. What happened among Rome s elites to further or accelerate the collapse? 261. How did late Roman local government arrangement foreshadow Medieval European manorialism? 262. Why did Emperor Diocletian persecute the Christians in the Roman Empire? 263. Why did Emperor Constantine support and later convert to Christianity? 264. Why did many Roman peasants actually welcome the Barbarian Germanic invaders as liberators? 265. Why was the fall of the Roman Empire and Roman civilization a much more serious affair than similar declines in India or China? 266. Describe the achievements and civilization in the surviving Byzantine Empire What was the situation in the Middle East/Old Persian Empire after Rome fell? 268. What was the situation in the North Africa after Rome fell? 269. What was the situation in the Western Europe after Rome fell? 270. Why did Christianity and Buddhism experience such rapid growth and popularity as the Classical World civilizations collapsed? 271. How did Buddhism change and evolve to attract more followers? 17

18 272. (Read Document: The Popularization of Buddhism. Pg. 119) 273. Why did Buddhism spread widely in China by the 6th century? 274. How do these documents suggest some of the troubles China faced after the collapse of the Han dynasty? 275. What is Mahayana Buddhism? Where did Buddhism find the most converts? 276. How did Christianity change and evolve to attract more followers? What was the role of the Pope in Western European Christianity? 278. How did Christianity adapt to polytheistic values among its new members? 279. What is the definition of a World Religion? 280. What did Benedict of Nursia do to help spread Christianity? (Read Visualizing the Past: Religious Geography. Pg 123) 281. Where are the greatest concentrations of the four major religions today? 282. How were major world religions spread? 18

19 HAN CHINA P Political, Military, Bureaucratic, Legal I I Interaction between Humans and Environment R Religion, Belief Systems A Arts and Intellectual T Technology and Invention E Economics, Financial, Resources S Social, Gender, Family, Class, Race 19

20 MAURYAN/GUPTA INDIA P Political, Military, Bureaucratic, Legal I I Interaction between Humans and Environment R Religion, Belief Systems A Arts and Intellectual T Technology and Invention E Economics, Financial, Resources S Social, Gender, Family, Class, Race 20

21 CLASSICAL GREECE (Athens/Sparta) P Political, Military, Bureaucratic, Legal I I Interaction between Humans and Environment R Religion, Belief Systems A Arts and Intellectual T Technology and Invention E Economics, Financial, Resources S Social, Gender, Family, Class, Race 21

22 REPUBLICAN and IMPERIAL ROME P Political, Military, Bureaucratic, Legal I I Interaction between Humans and Environment R Religion, Belief Systems A Arts and Intellectual T Technology and Invention E Economics, Financial, Resources S Social, Gender, Family, Class, Race 22

23 CLASSICAL PERIOD VOCABULARY CHAPTER FIVE CHAPTER FOUR CHAPTER THREE CHAPTER TWO CHAPTER ONE hunting and gathering civilization Paleolithic Neolithic Age nomads savages culture Homo sapiens Neanderthals Natufian complex agrarian revolution matrilocal matrilineal pastoralism Catal Huyuk Neolithic Revolution Jericho Bronze Age domestication social differentiation slash and burn agriculture Babylonians ideographs Hammurabi Harappa Shang dynasty Indo-Europeans Mesopotamia Qin Confucius Laozi Zhou Shi Huangdi Great Wall Han mean people Daoism Silk Road dynasty Analects Five Classics Legalism Era of Warring States mandarins patriarchalism untouchables Mauryas Kautilya Ramayana Kushanas Himalayas Athashastra Tamil vedas gurus reincarnation varnas dharmas nirvana jati Upanishads Guptas Indra mandala Sanskrit brahma Kamasutra Skanda Gupta yoga karma Buddha Mahabharata stupas Ashoka Chandragupta Maurya Alexander the Great Alexandria Cyrus the Great Galen Hannibal Hellenistic Age Ionian, Doric, Corinthian King Xerxes Peloponnesian Wars Sappho Sophocles mystery religions direct democracy Philip II of Macedon Cicero Roman republic Iliad and Odyssey Euclid Augustus Caesar Plato city-state Themistocles Aristotle Vergil Punic Wars Pythagoras aristocracy Zoroastrianism Constantine Carthage Persian wars Ptolemy polis Julius Caesar Battle of Marathon Battle of Thermopylae Augustus Herodotus Twelve Tables tyranny Olympic games Socrates Pericles Diocletian Kush Devi Mahayana Axum Islam Jesus Ethiopia Allah Paul Shintoism Diocletian Benedict Olmec Germanic tribes world religions Maya Huns Sahara Inca Byzantium animism Polynesian Justinian Yellow Turbans Sassanid Sui Augustine Tang Coptic Rajput Bodhisattva 23