Chapter Nine Sex Discrimination

Transcription

1 Chapter Nine Sex Discrimination What is Gender? o Gender: the meaning a society attaches to being male or female o Sex: the biological distinction between females and males The Problem in Sociological Perspective o Women as a minority group o Sex is a major force in shaping a persons life o Women and prejudice and discrimination o Gender and the distribution of power The Scope of the Problem o Gender stratification social and work roles tend to be stratified by gender in societies around the world Gender associated with type of work determines its prestige o Gender Stratification and Patriarchy Gender is an important dimension of social inequality Gender stratification frequently takes the form of patriarchy (social patterns by which males dominate females) o Patriarchy is widely evident in the U.S. and around the world Sociologists see patriarchy - and the entire range of gender - as the creation of society itself o Gender stereotypes rigidly divide humanity by constructing femininity and masculinity in opposing terms. Critics conclude that gender stereotypes overlook the fact that people are much more complex than stereotypes allow for o Sexism is global The Problem of Sexism Sexism is the assertion that one sex is innately superior or inferior to the other Sexism supports patriarchy by claiming that men are better than women and therefore should dominate them. o Helen Hacker (1951) and four areas of discrimination Economic Education Political Social

2 Women: A Majority-Minority o Numerically, women are a slight majority of the U.S. population o Women meet the test of being both a physically distinctive and disadvantaged category Women have less income, wealth, and power than men o Minority Women Minority women are doubly disadvantaged They earn less than white women Minority women earn less than minority men In 2000, African American women earned 64 percent as much as white men and Hispanic women earned 51 percent as much

3 Looking at the Problem Theoretically o Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic meaning of sex in society Gender and the symbolic expression of our sex in society How we are socialized into our gender roles Sex is a master trait in shaping our identity and how we relate to others in society Gender and stereotypes Stereotypes become self-fulfilling prophecies Symbolic-Interaction Analysis: Gender in Everyday Life The symbolic-interaction paradigm provides a micro-level analysis of gender at work in the everyday lives of individual people Gender directly affects personal behavior, the use of space, and the language we use Critics point out that symbolic-interaction overlooks the fact that gender is a basic part of social organization o Functionalism Marvin Harris - male dominance is based on two principles Social - the necessity to survive warfare Biological differences in physical strength in males and females Second theory is based on human reproduction Women give birth and nurture the young o Division of labor based on gender Women nurtures Men providers and protectors o The pattern of the division of labor eventually led to male dominance Structural-functional analysis: Gender and Complimentarity Functionalists contend that differences between men and women help build families and integrate society as a whole The structural-functional analysis of gender was quite influential twenty-five years ago but is far less today Critics contend that: o Functionalism ignores how men and women can and do relate to one another in a variety of ways that do not fit any norm o Functionalism fails to take into account the personal strains and social conflicts produced by rigid gender patterns

4 o Conflict Theory Gender and the distribution of power Power leads to privilege Gender inequality is a function of power Conflict leads to change in the distribution of power between the sexes The women s movement and gender Social-Conflict Analysis: Gender and Inequality Friedrich Engels expanded Marx s theory to include gender, arguing that the same process that allows a ruling class to dominate a worker places men in a dominant position over women Patriarchy is a system by which wealthy men transmit their wealth to their sons. The double problem of capitalism lies in exploiting men in the factories and exploiting women in the home Critics of this perspective point out that conflict theorists minimize the extent to which women and men live together cooperatively and in many cases quite happily. o Feminism Feminism: the study of gender with the goal of changing society to make women and men equal involves both theory and action Feminist Foundations There is no one version of feminism but almost all feminists agree on: o The importance of gender; o The importance of change; o The importance of personal choice; o The need to eliminate patriarchy; o The need to eliminate violence; and o The importance of sexual autonomy Types of Feminism Types of feminists: o Liberal feminists - want women and men to be treated as individuals but want change to occur within existing social institutions o Socialist feminists -claim that a Marxist-style class revolution is needed to secure equality for all people o Radical feminists -argue that patriarchy is built into the concept of gender itself and nothing short of erasing gender will bring about equality

5 Research Findings o The Question of Natural Differences Between the Sexes Is gender a function of nature ( biology ) Is gender a function of nurture ( environment ) o What is the relationship between biology, environment and gender development? o Four approaches in the study of the nature nurture question First approach involves studying a behavioral trait in children Math spatial ability Verbal ability Aggression Second approach are cross cultural studies Compare the roles of men and women in different cultures Look for similarities and differences Third approach study animal behavior Separate biology from social development Studies with rhesus monkeys Other animal studies Fourth study the Vietnam study The 1985 study of Vietnam veterans Testosterone levels of vets and behavior o Conclusion in the nature nurture debate Biology predisposes differences in behavior but culture overrides those differences

6 Discrimination in Everyday Life o Attitudinal expressions of sexism Sexism as expressed in everyday language Conversational patterns between men and women reflect power o Gender and the Family The importance of gender to family life begins with the fact that most expectant parents prefer a son to a daughter. The influence continues in the childhood socialization process. After reaching adulthood, gender makes marriage two distinctive relationships Jesse Bernard s his marriage and her marriage o Discrimination in Education Gender and Education Even before starting school, children are exposed to gender bias in children s books. By 2000, 57.3% of college students were women o Social pressures still steer women toward majors in English, dance, drama, or gender issues o Men still are directed toward physics, economics, math, computer science, and engineering Research indicates that the social aspects of campus life discourages the career aspirations of many women Despite the passage of Title IX in 1972, equality in athletic programs is more the exception than the rule In the nineteenth and early twentieth century women encountered many barriers to an education Sexual discrimination in sports in school Title IX Interaction patterns between teachers and students are often based on gender Teachers pay less attention to girls than boys Teachers interact patterns with students are often based on cultural gender prescriptions and proscriptions Tracking and gender and occupational placement Higher education as a male dominated culture

7 o The Mass Media Gender and the Mass Media By 2000, there were more than 200 million televisions in the United States o TV directs its advertising toward women but ignores them in TV programming o While gender biases in advertising is more subtle than in programming, it s still very much in evidence o The media as a shaper of gender role expectations Sexism and television program o Children s programs and gender stereotypes o Adult television and gender stereotypes Music and gender stereotypes o Relationships o Women as sex objects o Male dominance Video games and gender stereotypes Sexism and children s books that won the Caldecott Award Advertising and gender stereotypes o The World of Politics Women are under represented in political roles Function of socialization Function of lack of representation in business and legal profession the training ground for political careers May find a political career interferes with family roles Gender and Politics Women have played only a marginal role in this nation s political history Thousands of women now serve at the local levels as mayors and council members In 2001, 59 of 435 members of the House of Representatives and 13 of 100 Senators were women

8 o Gender and Religion Religion has traditionally been patriarchal In recent decades, more liberal denominations have moved toward greater gender equality This liberal trend includes revising prayers, hymnals, and even the Bible to reduce sexist language, as well as ordaining both men and women as priests Orthodox Judaism, Islam, and Roman Catholicism have retained traditional male leadership o The World of Work By 2000, 60 percent of the adult labor force that worked full-time were women This increase has been due in part to a reduction in the time spent doing housework and the drop in average number of children born compared to a century ago o Even though more women work for pay, their range of jobs is still limited Gender discrimination was outlawed by the Federal Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 but even today, it continues to be an issue Inequality between men and women is reflected in differences in income and in responsibility for housework, as well as in patterns of violence and even reproductive issues Gender income inequality is the result of men holding different kinds of jobs, family life, and gender discrimination Increase in labor force participation on part of women over the last century Gender gap in wages in that women earn 78% of what men earn Occupational differences Sex typing of jobs and the value associated with work Career (fast) track v. the mommy track Daddy track Why is the Work Force Segregated? Dual labor market theory Symbolic interaction theory and the devaluation of women s work in society

9 o Sexual Harassment Traditional view it is a personal mater of sexual attraction The structural view built into the social structure of gender, power and work Sexual harassment as a function of power and patriarchy Sexual harassment as a function of power Sexual Harassment: comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome Sexual harassment that is blatant and direct is a violation of civil rights Other forms involve more subtle behavior They are still wrong if they create a hostile environment o Violence against Women Rape and sexism Homicide and sexism Family violence and gender inequality Perhaps the most serious problem linked to patriarchy is men s physical violence against women o Assault, rape, and murder are common Why is violence a gender issue? o Physical aggressiveness is a key element of the cultural definition of masculinity. Gender violence is not so much sexual as expressions of power When it comes to serious violence, the most dangerous setting for women is the home o Sexuality, Beauty and Reproduction o Men define women in sexual terms to gain power over them o Social norms encourage females to wear attractive clothes and to be attentive to men o Women s reproduction has been regulated o regulation of birth control o restricted access to abortion clinic

10 o Social Policy o An Area of Irreconcilable Ideologies Policy implications of radical feminism Equal aggressiveness Identical socialization Equal treatment Equal duties at home Equal occupational roles o Policy implications of traditional conservatives Parents and full responsibility for childcare Encourage traditional roles Husbands provide for primary support Protect women from certain types of work Tax breaks for full-time homemakers o The Battle Lines ERA movement its passage by congress in 1972 Equal rights under the law Congressional enforcement of equality laws The amendment takes effect two years after the date of ratification Failed to pass and the struggle continues o Ideology and Social Policy Ideology impedes the enactment of effective social policy The Future of The Problem Struggles over Stereotypes Employment and power Family and social roles Politics and Gender: Constructing Problems and Defining Solutions o Conservatives focus on the value of families While most conservatives are willing to support women in the workplace and even in positions of national leadership, most also support policies to strengthen families o Liberals contend that patriarchy is alive and well in the U.S. and is a serious social problem Liberals seek government support for the kinds of families that exist today. They support affirmative action and comparable worth policies o Radicals argue that, at a minimum, basic change must come to the economic and political system Some radical feminists promote the elimination of gender itself