Ethical Issues in the Conduct of Psychological Research

Transcription

1 Ethical Issues in the Conduct of Psychological Research Ten Points of the Nuremberg Code (1947) 1. The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential. This means that the person involved should have legal capacity to give consent; should be so situated as to be able to exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, overreaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion; and should have sufficient knowledge and comprehension of the elements of the subject matter involved as to enable him to make an understanding and enlightened decision. This latter element requires that before the acceptance of an affirmative decision by the experimental subject there should be known to him the nature, duration, and purpose of the experiment; the method and means by which it is to be conducted; all inconveniences and hazards reasonably to be expected; method and means by which it is to be conducted; all inconveniences and hazards reasonably to be expected; and the effects upon his heath or person which may possibly come from his participation in the experiment. The duty and responsibility for ascertaining the quality of the consent rests upon each individual who initiates, directs, or engages in the experiment. It is a personal duty and responsibility which may not be delegated to another with impunity. Nuremberg Code Continued The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by other methods or means of study, and not by random and unnecessary in nature. 3. The experiment should be designed and based on the results of animal experimentation and a knowledge of the natural history of the disease or other problem under study that the anticipated results will justify the performance of the experiment. 4. The experiment should be so conducted as to avoid all unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury. 5. No experiment should be so conducted where there is a priori reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur, except, perhaps, in those experiments where the experimental physicians also serve as subjects. 1

2 Nuremberg Code Continued The degree of risk is to be taken should never exceed that determined by the humanitarian importance of the problem to be solved by the experiment. 7. Proper preparation should be made and adequate facilities provided to protect the experimental subject against even remote possibilities of injury, disability, or death. 8. The experiment should be conducted only by scientifically qualified persons. The highest degree of skill and care should be required through all stages of the experiment of those who conduct or engage in the experiment. 9. During the course of the experiment the human subject should be at liberty to bring the experiment to an end if he has reached the physical or mental state where continuation of the experiment seems to him to be impossible. 10. During the course of the experiment the scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment at any stage, if he has probable cause to believe, in the exercise of the good faith, superior skill, and careful judgment required of him that a continuation of the experiment is likely to result in injury, disability, or death to the experimental subject. Watson-1920-Baby Albert 1. Can we condition fear of an animal, e.g., a white rat, by visually presenting it and simultaneously striking a steel bar? 2. If such a conditioned emotional response can be established, will there be a transfer to other animals or other objects? 3. What is the effect of time upon such conditioned emotional responses? 4. If after a reasonable period such emotional responses have not died out, what laboratory methods can be devised for their removal Watson 1920-Baby Albert 2

3 Fear of Loud Noises Baby Albert Watson s Notes: Introducing the Rat Little Albert-11 months-10 days Rat presented suddenly without sound. There was steady fixation but no tendency at first to reach for it. The rat was then placed nearer, whereupon tentative reaching movements began with the right hand. When the rat nosed the infant's left hand, the hand was immediately withdrawn. He started to reach for the head of the animal with the forefinger of the left hand, but withdrew it suddenly before contact. It is thus seen that the two joint stimulations given the previous week were not without effect. In the remainder of the tests the blocks were given frequent. Joint stimulation with rat and sound. Started, then fell over immediately to right side No crying. Joint stimulation. Fell to right side and rested upon hands, with head turned away from rat. No crying. Joint stimulation. Same reaction. Rat suddenly presented alone. Puckered face, whimpered and withdrew body sharply to the left. Joint stimulation. Fell over immediately to right side and began to whimper. Joint stimulation. Started violently and cried, but did not fall over. 3

4 Watson s Notes: Introducing the Rat Rat alone. The instant the rat was shown the baby began to cry. Almost instantly he turned sharply to the left, fell over on left side, raised himself on all fours and began to crawl away so rapidly that he was caught with difficulty before reaching the edge of the table. This was as convincing a case of a completely conditioned fear response as could have been theoretically pictured. In all - seven joint stimulations were given to bring about the complete reaction. Generalized Fear Learner s Schedule of Protests 120: ugh! Hey, this really hurts. 150: ugh!!! Experimenter! That s all. Get me out of here. I told you I had heart trouble. My heart s starting to bother me now. Get me out of here, please. My heart s starting to bother me. I refuse to go on. Let me out. 195: similar to : (agonized scream) Let me out of here (x6) 300: (agonized scream) I absolutely refuse to answer any more. Get me out of here. You can t hold me here 330: (intense and prolonged agonized scream) Let me out of here (x2). My heart s bothering me. (hysterically) Let me out of here (x2). You have no right to hold me here. Let me out! (x6). After 330: silence, refuses to answer word-pair questions 4

5 Experimenter s Schedule of Prods Prod 1: Please continue or Please go on Prod 2: The experiment requires that you continue Prod 3: It is absolutely essential that you continue Prod 4: You have no other choice, you must go on Milgram 65% of all of the "teachers" punished the "learners" to the maximum 450 volts. No subject stopped before reaching 300 volts! I observed a mature and initially poised businessman enter the laboratory smiling. Within 20 minutes he was reduced to a twitching, stuttering wreck, who was rapidly approaching nervous collapse. He constantly pulled his ear lobe, and twisted his hands. At one point he pushed his fist into his forehead and muttered Oh God, lets stop it, And yet he continued to respond to every word of the experimenter, and obeyed to the end. Milgram -Ethics 83.7% I am glad/very glad to have been in the experiment 15.1% I am neither sorry nor glad to have been in the experiment 01.3% I am sorry/very sorry to have been in the experiment. Milgram maintained that this was not a study designed to create stress. The obvious tension that many experienced was initially unexpected. Milgram had believed that many of the subjects would disobey the experimenter at 150 volts (when the victim protested). When it became apparent to Milgram and his colleagues that there were high levels of stress experienced by some of the subjects during the experiment, he investigated for any potential harm. Milgram states "As the experiment progressed there was no indication of injurious effects in the subjects; and as the subjects themselves strongly endorsed the experiment, the judgment I made was to continue the experiment. [2,p.140] 5

6 Summary of APA Ethical Guidelines Concerning Human Subjects 1. No Harm Is it worth it? The risk/benefit ratio Risk: physical injury, social injury, or emotional stress Minimal risk: harm or discomfort not greater than what is experienced in daily lives. 2. Maintaining Confidentiality Anonymity Use of codes; elimination of identifying information 3. Planning Research 4. Responsibility Summary of APA Ethical Guidelines Concerning Human Subjects 5 Compliance with Law and Standards 6. Informed Consent to Research Information Understanding Voluntary Participation Minors and special population 7. Offering Inducements for Research Participants 8. Deception in Research 1. Passive (omission) 2. Active (commission) 9 Minimizing Invasiveness 10. Providing Participants with Information Components of Informed Consent Forms Overview Description of Procedures Risks and Inconvenience Presentation of the goals of the study, why this is conducted, who is responsible for the study and its execution. Clarification of the experimental conditions, assessment procedures, requirements of the participation. Statement of any physical and psychological risks and an estimate of their likelihood. Inconveniences and demands to be placed on the participants (e.g., how many sessions, requests to do anything, contact at home 6

7 Components of Informed Consent Forms-B Benefits Costs and Economic Considerations Confidentiality A statement of what the participants can reasonably hope to gain from participation, including psychological, physical, and monetary benefits. Charges to the participants (e.g., in treatment) and payment (e.g., for participation or completing various forms). Assurances that the information is confidential and will only be seen by people who need to do so for the purposes of the research (e.g., scoring and data analyses), procedures to assure confidentiality (e.g., removal of names from forms, storage of data). Also, caveats are included here if it is possible that sensitive information (e.g., psychiatric information, criminal activity) can be subpoenaed). Informed Consent Forms-C Alternative Treatments Voluntary Participation Rights as participants contact Signature Lines In an intervention study, alternatives available to the client before or during participation are outlined. A statement that the participant is willing to participate and can say no now or later without penalty of any kind. A statement that the participant is encouraged to ask questions at any time and can contact one or more individuals (listed by name and phone number) who are available for such contacts. A place for the participant as well as the experimenter to sign. Kazdin, A.E.,(1998). Research Design in Clinical Psychology. Allyn & Bacon Responsibilities of Scientists Carry out research in competent manner; Report results accurately; Manage research resources honestly; Fairly acknowledge, in scientific communications, the individuals who have contributed their ideas or their time and effort; Consider the consequences to society of any research endeavor; Speak out publicly on societal concerns related to a scientist s knowledge and expertise (Shaughessy & al, 2003, p.45) 7

8 Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Subjects APA Ethical Principles for the Care and Use of Animals in Research a. Psychologists who conduct research treat them humanely. b. Psychologists acquire, care for, use, and dispose of all animals in compliance with current federal, state, and local laws and regulations, and with professional standards c. Psychologists trained in research methods and experienced in the care of laboratory animals closely supervise all procedures involving animals and are responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health and humane treatment d. Psychologists ensure that all individuals using animals under their supervision have received explicit instruction in experimental methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species being used, to the extent appropriate for their role. e. Responsibilities and activities of individuals assisting in a research project are consistent with their respective competencies. APA Ethical Principles for the Care and Use of Animals in Research-B f. Psychologists make reasonable efforts to minimize discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects. g. A procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress, or privation is used only when an alternative procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value. h. Surgical procedures are performed under appropriate anesthesia; techniques to avoid infection and minimize pain are followed during and after surgery. i. When it is appropriate that the animal s life be terminated, it is done rapidly, with an effort to minimize pain, and in accordance with accepted procedures. 8