This thesis is about a comparative study of Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya and three western

Transcription

1 Chapter 1 Introduction This thesis is about a comparative study of Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya and three western translation theories. The study was based primarily on the review of existing literature on Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories. This first chapter of the dissertation presents the background of the study, specifies the problem of the study, describes its significance, and presents an overview of the methodology used. The chapter concludes by providing an outline of the thesis structure. 1. Background of the study Yan Fu ( ) is one of the outstanding ideologists and translators in the history of recent China. In 1898 his translated version of Evolution and Ethics by Thomas Henry Huxley was first published in China. It was the first in its type to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to China (Shen 2000: 1). In the preface to his translation of the book he declared that there are three things hard to achieve in translation: Xin (faithfulness), Da (comprehensibility), Ya (conformability). Since Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya was introduced, it has been in a dominant position in the field of translation in China for over a century and become a focal point of many discussions (Shen 2000: 209). In the last decade or so, following the deepening of the reform and opening up of China, inter-cultural exchange is increasing steadily; as a result, translation is becoming more important in China. Translation theories as part of the translation studies have received 1

2 more attention than ever before as they are supposed to provide guidance to the practice of translation. In order to promote and advance the course of translation in China, different institutions have directly introduced or translated series of western works on translation studies in recent years. This provided Chinese scholars and translators with new perspectives on approaches to both translation studies and translation practice. Under this situation the debate on Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya was resumed. This time it is against western translation theories, such as Nida s formal and dynamic equivalence, Newmark s semantic and communicative translations and Vermeer s skopos theory. Questions raised include: Is Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya still relevant to today s translation practice? Are western translation theories better than Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya? How can translation theories be better applied to the translation practice? In order to answer these questions the study is going to examine the questions from the perspective of translation practice. In this study translation practice is restricted to document translation only, unless indicated otherwise, for translation is such a broad notion which can be understood in many different ways. For example, one may talk of translation as a process or a product, and identify such sub-types as literary translation, technical translation. In this study the document translation refers to the translation of various kinds of documents which are largely based on factual information, such as brochures and newsletters of various organizations, government policy papers and reports, legal documents, business correspondence, public notices, information sheet, operating manuals and instructions (Ko 2005: 49). Furthermore, Ko indicated that in document translation, translators are required to maintain a high level of accuracy while also 2

3 maintaining the natural flow of expression in the target language. A basic principle to be followed in document translation is that everything that carries meaning in the source language must be conveyed without significant distortion, unjustified addition or omission; at the same time the expression in the target language must be natural and idiomatic. Furthermore, other important elements such as style and register should be preserved if possible (Ko 2005: 49). 2. Thesis statement In this study I will argue that both Ya Fu s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories are all relevant to document translation and have contributed to the development of translation theories in general. They are complimenting each other rather than contradicting each other. However, no one theory can be universal as one theory often approaches translation from a particular perspective and has its own limitation. In practice, translators should distinguish individual situation and apply relevant theories properly to achieve the best possible result. 3. Rational and objectives Based on the above background information, the current study aims to examine Ya Fu s Xin Da Ya, as well as Nida s, Newmark s and Vermeer s theories from the perspective of document translation and find out each theory s strength and weakness. Moreover, this study also aims to find out if there are any similarities between Ya Fu s Xin Da Ya and 3

4 the three western translation theories, as well as how all these translation theories can be better applied to the practice of document translation. Although, there are studies which have examined Ya Fu s Xin Da Ya against some western translation theories, such as Zhong Xi Yi Xue Pi Ping (Criticism on Chinese and Western Translation Theories, Zhang 2004), Mian Xiang Er Shi Yi Shi Ji De Yi Xue Yan Jiu (Translation Studies in the 21 st Century, Zhang & Xu: 2002), Fan Yi Xin Lu(A Series of Translation Studies in China, Yang & Liu: 1994), most of them are from the perspective of translation studies, and for the sake of studying the theory only. Instead, this study will attempt to examine Ya Fu s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories in detail, and try to get a better understanding of these theories from translators point of view, therefore to help translators to better apply these theories in their practice. The reason why only Nida s, Newmark s and Vermeer s theories were chosen is that they represent different approaches towards translation. Apart from the above reason, other professional significance of the study include: firstly, Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya, as a fundamental Chinese translation theory (Chan 2004), has been in a dominant position in the translation field in China for more than a century. A comparative study of Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories would provide new perspective to evaluate it more comprehensively, therefore to apply it to the translation practice more appropriately. Secondly, translation theory is an area of concern of translation studies. Any meaningful findings from this study would contribute to the development of the discipline. Thirdly, inherited in the relationship between 4

5 translation theory and translation practice, any meaningful results from this study would have implications on translation practice, therefore would be of value to translators. 4. Overview of methodology This study will examine in detail literature both on Chinese translation theories and western translation theories. The research is to be carried out in stages. First of all, it will involve literature review about the selected translation theories, namely, Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya, Nida s formal and dynamic equivalence, Newmark s semantic and communicative translations and Vermeer s skopos theory. It will examine the primary source where a particular theory was originally introduced, to get an overview of the background information about a particular theory. This will help to understand why a particular theory was introduced, and under which situation or in what context it was introduced. In return, it will help to avoid studying a particular theory in isolation, therefore to help better understand a particular theory and its possible implications to document translation. Next, when it comes to examine the existing views about the selected translation theories, the study will also try to examine the original source if possible where a particular view about a particular theory was voiced. It will examine views both for and against a particular theory in order to present an objective picture about a particular theory and its implication to document translation. Finally, the study will compare Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya with Nida s, Newmark s and Vermeer s theories in the framework of Holmes map of translation studies, and find out how they can be integrated and better applied to the document translation. 5

6 5. Outline of the thesis structure This thesis will be arranged into five chapters. Chapter one will provide general information about the current study. This includes thesis statement, research objectives, rational for the choice of topic and research methods. In chapter two, the study will examine Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya and the existing views about it, then discuss the possible implications it might have on document translation. In chapter three, the study will examine first Nida s formal and dynamic equivalence, Newmark s semantic and communicative translations and Vermeer s skopos theory, and then existing opinions about these three theories, finally discuss the possible implications they might have on document translation respectively. In chapter four, the study will compare Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya with Nida s, Newmark s and Vermeer s theories in the framework of Holmes map of translation studies and find out if there are any similarities and differences between Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories, and how they can be integrated into the translation process and applied to the document translation through a case study. In chapter five, the final chapter, the study will summarize what have been studied in this project and draw a conclusion. 6

7 Chapter 2 Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya There are different interpretations or understanding about Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya, probably because it was written in classical Chinese when it was first introduced by Yan Fu in his preface to the translation of Tianyanlun (Evolution and Ethics) in Moreover, it was summarized in only three Chinese characters from which one can derive different meanings even within the context it was proposed. As a consequence, there are different English versions of Xin Da Ya as well. However, determining which interpretation of Xin Da Ya or which English version of Xin Da Ya is the most appropriate is not within the scope of this study. The current study is based primarily on Shen s modern Chinese version (Yan in Shen 2000: 35-37) and Hsu s English version (Yan in Chan 2004: 69-71) of Yan Fu s preface to the translation of Tianyanlun (Evolution and Ethics). In this study, Xin means faithfulness, Da means comprehensibility and Ya means conformability. This chapter will study the essence of Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya first, and then examine the existing opinions about Xin Da Ya; finally it will discuss the possible implications that Xin Da Ya might have on the document translation. 1. Essence of Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya Based on his experience on the translation of western scientific works from English to Chinese in the late nineteenth century, Yan Fu proposed Xin Da Ya in his preface to the translation of Tianyanlun (Evolution and Ethics) in Yan Fu declared that translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: Xin (faithfulness), Da 7

8 (comprehensibility) and Ya (conformability). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance (Yan in Chan 2004: 69). Since then Xin Da Ya has been advocated as the translation criteria or standard in the translation field in China. Based on Shen s modern Chinese version (Yan in Shen 2000: 35-37) and Hsu s English version (Yan in Chan 2004: 69-71) of Yan Fu s preface to Tianyanlun (Evolution and Ethics), as well as Shen s study (2000: 35-40), the essence of Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya can be summarized as follow: Translation should fulfill three requirements which are Xin (faithfulness), Da (comprehensibility), Ya (conformability). Among the three criteria Xin (faithfulness) is the most important. It means that the target text should be faithful to the source text. Da (comprehensibility) means that the target text should be coherent and can be fully understood. The purpose of being comprehensible is to achieve Xin (faithfulness) as if a translation which is not comprehensible would not be a translation at all. Ya (conformability) means that the target text should conform to the target language norms. Conforming to the target language norms is to achieve Da (comprehensibility) as well as to meet the needs of intended readers. 8

9 In order to achieve Xin (faithfulness), Da (comprehensibility), Ya (conformability), sometimes it is necessary to reorganize the order of words and sentences of the source text, the sentence structure can be adjusted as well, on the condition that the idea of the source text is not to be deviated. With regard to the translation of new terms in English, a translator can only use his/her own judgment to coin a term in Chinese according to the sense. 2. Existing opinions about Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya Xin Da Ya, as one of the Chinese translation theories (Chan 2004), has caused three rounds of discussion and debate in the field of culture and translation. The first was in 1920s and 1930s, the second round occurred in 1950s, and the third round started in 1980s and has continued to present (Shen 2000: 1). These three periods are times when translation activity is flourishing as a result of China trying to introduce and absorb foreign thoughts, culture, and technologies. Consequently, the increasing of translation activity demands for the guidance of translation theories. In his study of Xin Da Ya, Shen used quantitative method to analyze existing opinions about Xin Da Ya. He listed more than one hundred of extracts about Xin Da Ya dated from 1920s through to 1990s. Among them there are fifty eight which agree with or support Xin Da Ya, twenty seven which agree with Xin Da Ya in principle but have some conservation, only twenty four which against Xin Da Ya (Shen 2000: vii). The following 9

10 are some extracts selected from Shen s study which was published in 2000 and translated by myself. (1) Opinions which support Xin Da Ya Yan Fu s Xin is to express the meaning of the source text in a faithful translation; Da means the target text should be intelligible and comprehensible, without awkwardness and ambiguity; Ya means the target text should conform to the target language and be aesthetic; the target text not only transfers the meaning of the source text, but also convey the beauty of the source text, sometimes it can surpass the source text on the beauty of the language. However, not everyone can achieve Xin Da Ya, besides not every translation can meet these three criteria. But the minimum requirement a translation should meet is Xin (Li, cited in Shen 2000: 58). Xin Da Ya has long before become traditional Chinese translation criteria, even today we should not give it up. In a lay term, Xin is to be faithful to the content of the original text, Da requires the translation to be fluent, and Ya means the translation is to be elegant. These cover roughly three areas which are content, language and style. This orderly listed criterion of Xin Da Ya is still applicable today in analyzing a translation in general (Bian et al. cited in Shen 2000: 61). 10

11 Xin Da Ya is a standard which can be used for translation evaluation. Xin means faithful to the original text in meaning, fact, tone and style; Da means the reader of the target text can read and understand the translation correctly without too much thinking; Ya means the language used is fluent, precise, vivid and rich in vocabulary. Xin Da Ya indicates the two sides of a problem, is a unity of conflict. Xin talks about the relationship between the target text and the source text; Da Ya talk about the relationship between the target text and readers of the target text. Being responsible to the source text is consistent with being responsible to readers, the relationship between the two is not one dictates the other. We advocate that translators should try to take all these three criteria into consideration (Foreign Language Press, cited in Shen 2000: 61). The strength of Xin Da Ya is that it only provides translators a very general principle. It is not a model, but only a macro requirement for translators. This is based on the characteristics of Chinese language. With regard to translation between English and Chinese, Xin Da Ya is still considered as a good standard (Lin, cited in Shen 2000: 71). (2) Opinions which are against Xin Da Ya In the past many translators often discuss about one translation principle that is Xin Da Ya, but how to achieve these three criteria and what are the relationship between these three has never been agreed upon. I believe that Xin Da Ya as a 11

12 very abstract principle will never be able to solve the problem. If we take the problem (translation and writing which is more important) to the ideological level, that is to integrate it with politics, and translators also follow this direction in their work, then the problem of whether a translation fulfils Xin Da Ya or literal translation verse meaning based translation will be solved (Jin, cited in Shen 2000: 77) Yan Fu s proposition is incomplete and non scientific, at most it requires translators to translate the general meaning of the original work with beautiful Chinese. The fundamental mistake of Yan Fu and his followers made is not dividing the translation criteria into three, but not understanding the difference between translating and writing at all. Invariable, absolute, sacrosanct standard for measuring the accuracy of translation does not exist and is not possible. The standard for measuring the accuracy of translation depends on the purpose of translation, nature of the original text and readers of the target text. Furthermore, the purpose of translation and readers of target text, in most cases are determined by the nature of the original text (Dian, cited in Shen 2000: 87). Yan Fu s idea can be summarized as follow: Xin is the basic criterion for translation, Da is the necessary complement to Xin, through Da the value of Xin is to be realized, and Ya is a means to achieve Da. Early in 1920s and 1930s, the semantic meaning of Ya has changed and become the synonym of literary polish. From the theoretical perspective, Xin Da Ya can not coexist logically. Xin 12

13 indicates that the target text is restricted by the source text, however Da and Ya indicate that the target text do not have to be restricted by the source text. From the perspective of practice, because the meaning of Xin has been reduced, therefore, trying to achieve Da and Ya in addition to Xin inevitably result in the target text deviating from the source text to certain degree, consequently cause the target text become inaccurate. To measure the quality of literary translation there is only one standard which is Xin. Xin this word is very rich in meaning, it also includes the meaning of Da and Ya. Xin Da Ya is a theoretically confusing, practically detrimental principle, the translation field is suggested to have a serious discussion about it. (Chang, cited in Shen 2000: 89) 3. Possible implications on document translation So far in this chapter the study has studied the essence of Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya and examined existing views about it. It has been noticed that most discussions on Xin Da Ya are restricted to comments only, hardly any discussions touch upon its implications on document translation. This study will attempt to approach Xin Da Ya from translation practitioners perspective and find out its possible implications on translation practice. As stated in the first chapter, document translation refers to the translation of various kinds of documents which are largely based on factual information, such as business correspondence, legal documents, operating menu and instructions. A basic principle in document translation is that everything that carries meaning in the source language must be translated without significant distortion, unjustified addition or omission. Based on 13

14 the definition and requirement of document translation, Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya as a general translation principle can provide guidance at macro level to translation practitioners in document translation. First of all, Xin focuses on the source text and requires the target text to be faithful to the source text. This indicates that the sources text is the basis of translation and the target text is the product of translation. In document translation, translators need to bear in mind that all the factual information in the source text needs to be translated faithfully. Secondly, Da and Ya focus on the target text and readers of the target text. In document translation translators need to make sure that the target text is comprehensible and conforms to the target language norms, so the readers of the target text can fully understand the intended message, and the communicative purpose of translation can be achieved. Thirdly, the relationship between Xin Da Ya is dialectical and unified. The purpose of translation is communication, therefore Xin is fundamental as it tries to preserve what is to be communicated. In addition to Xin, Da and Ya are also essential to achieve the purpose of translation, for only the target text is comprehensible and conforms to the target language norms, the readers of the target text can fully understand it. Without any one of the three (Xin Da Ya), the communicative purpose of translation would not be fulfilled. Therefore, in document translation, translators need to pay attention to both Xin and Da Ya. In addition to Xin Da Ya, Yan Fu also mentioned some techniques either explicitly or implicitly which are helpful to translators as well. Such as, the word order and sentence 14

15 structure can be adjusted to express the original meaning, in other words, to achieve the faithfulness to the target text; choosing the appropriate form of language according to the text type and the needs of intended readers; coining a new term in the target language according to its meaning. However, there are other factors of translation not covered by Xin Da Ya, such as the author s intention, the text categories, the function of the target text and etc, this shows that Xin Da Ya has its limitation. 15

16 Chapter 3 Three Western Translation Theories In this chapter the study will examine three western translation theories, namely Nida s formal and dynamic equivalence, Newmark s semantic and communicative translations and Vermeer s skopos theory, following the layout of the previous chapter. It will study first the essence of each theory, and then examine the existing opinions about each theory, finally, discuss the implications that each theory might have on document translation. 1. Nida s principles of correspondence Based on his own practical work on the Bible translation, Eugene Nida put forward the notion of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in his book Toward a Science of Translating published in (1) Essence of Nida s principles of correspondence The essence of Nida s principles of correspondence can be summarized in his own words as following: Since no two languages are identical, either in the meanings given to corresponding symbols or in the ways in which such symbols are arranged in phrases and sentences, it stands to reason that there can be no absolute correspondence between languages. Hence there can be no fully exact 16

17 translations. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original, but there can be no identity in detail (Nida 1964: 156). Differences in translations can generally be accounted for by three basic factors in translating: (1) the nature of the message, (2) the purpose or purposes of the author and, by proxy, of the translator, and (3) the type of audience (Nida 1964: 156). However, an adequate translation should meet four basic requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, (4) producing a similar response (Nida 1964: 164). In terms of equivalence, there are two types of translation. One is formal equivalence oriented translation, and another is dynamic equivalence oriented translation (Nida 1964: 159). Between the two poles of translating (i.e. between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence) there are a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating (Nida 1964: 160). Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content. Viewed from this formal orientation, one is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language. This means, for example, that the message in the receptor culture is constantly compared with the message in the source culture to 17

18 determine standards of accuracy and correctness (Nida 1964: 159). Formal equivalence translation is basically source oriented; that is, it is designed to reveal as much as possible of the form and content of the original message (Nida 1964: 165). Dynamic equivalence is based upon the principle of equivalent effect. In such a translation one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida 1964: 159). Dynamic equivalence oriented translations focus on not so much the source message, but the receptor response (Nida 1964: 166). (2) Existing opinions about Nida s dynamic equivalence Since the introduction of the concept of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence, it has exerted great influence on both translation practice and translation studies. Some Chinese scholars, such as Jin, believe that one of Nida s major contributions is the introduction of dynamic equivalence. This concept has provided an answer to the centuries of circular debates around literal and free translation. On the one hand, literal translation stresses faithfulness, and focuses on the formal equivalence of languages while the effect on the target text receiver is neglected. On the other hand, free translation stresses the beauty of the target text and focuses on the effect that the target 18

19 text created on its receivers while the equivalence is neglected. However, dynamic equivalence focuses on the equivalent response between the source text receivers and the target text receivers, and has solved this seemingly unsolvable problem (Jin 1994: 346, translated by myself). Another Chinese scholar Zhang pointed out that there are two presumptions attached to Nida s principle of dynamic equivalence. The first condition is that the translator has purposes generally similar to, or at least compatible with, those of the original author. The second one is that the aim of the translation is to reproduce the message. Only under these two preconditions the dynamic equivalence is achievable and desirable (Zhang 2004: 74-75, translated by myself). Some western translation scholars, like Peter Newmark, also questioned the principle of equivalent effect. He believes that the equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation, because it is unlikely to be achieved in two cases: (a) if the purpose of the source text is to affect and the target text is to inform or vice verse; (b) if there is a pronounced cultural gap between the source text and the target text (Newmark 1988: 48). (3) Possible implications on document translation In examining Nida s approach to translation and reviewing the existing opinions about formal and dynamic equivalence, it has been noticed that Nida s formal equivalence 19

20 and dynamic equivalence represent two basic types of translation. Formal equivalence oriented translation focuses on the source text and its author while dynamic equivalence oriented translation focuses on the target text and its reader. Nida did not claim one is better than the other, instead he stated that between the two poles of translating (i.e. strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence) there were a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating (1964: 160). He even indicated further that some types of strictly formal equivalence oriented translations are of great value. For example, translations of foreign language texts prepared especially for linguists rarely attempt anything but close formal equivalence renderings. In such translations the wording is usually quite literal and even the segments are often numbered so that the corresponding units may be readily compared (1964: 166). Therefore, according to Nida, both formal equivalence oriented and dynamic equivalence oriented translations are valid depending on the individual situation, but in Bible translation, dynamic equivalence should be sought after. With regard to the document translation, Nida s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence can be both applied at operational level. On the one hand, the document translation requires the target text to maintain a high level of accuracy comparing with the source text, from this perspective the translation is to be source text oriented, and Nida s formal equivalence can come to play. On the other hand, the document translation requires the target text to maintain the natural flow of expression in the target language as well, from this point of view, the translation needs to be reader oriented, and Nida s dynamic equivalence can be applied. However, as the main focus of the document 20

21 translation is to convey the factual information from one language to another, and there is less cultural interference from each other, therefore, Nida s formal equivalence is probably more applicable than the dynamic equivalence to certain extent in the practice of document translation. Another possible implication that Nida s dynamic equivalence might have on document translation is that one particular source text might have different versions of target text depending upon the intended readers group, it is possible that one version for general public group, and another version for scholars in a particular field. When translators carry out translation with readers in mind, the target text would be more close to the target language and culture and can be more easily understood by the intended readers, therefore is able to fulfill the purpose of cross language and cross culture communication. However, Nida s dynamic equivalence has its own limitation as it has two presumptions attached to it. The first is that the translator has purposes generally similar to, or at least compatible with, those of the original author. The second is that the aim of the translation is to reproduce the message. As Zhang (2004: 74-75) pointed out that only under these two preconditions the dynamic equivalence is achievable and desirable. With regard to the document translation in the real world it is not always the case. For example, the translation of Hukobu (the Household Registration Booklet) from Chinese to English for proving of date of birth would have different purpose from the original Chinese document; therefore there would be no dynamic equivalence achievable. 21

22 2. Newmark s Text Categories and Translation Methods Based on his own experience on translators training, Peter Newmark proposed two translation methods for three main types of texts in his books of Approaches to Translation (1981) and A Textbook of Translation (1988). The three main types of texts are expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. The two translation methods are semantic translation and communicative translation; namely semantic translation for expressive texts, communicative translation for informative and vocative texts. (1) Essence of Newmark s semantic and communicative translations The essence of Newmark s semantic and communicative translations can be summarized as the following: Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. (1981: 22, 39, 1988: 46, 47). Only semantic and communicative translations fulfill the two main aims of translation, which are first accuracy, and second economy. In general, a semantic 22

23 translation is written at the author s linguistic level, a communicative at the readers. Semantic translation is used for expressive texts, communicative for informative and vocative texts (1988: 47). Generally, a communicative translation is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer, more direct, more conventional, conforming to particular register of language, tending to under translate, i.e., to use more generic, hold-all terms in difficult passages (1981: 39, 1988: 47). A semantic translation tends to be more complex, more awkward, more detailed, more concentrated, and pursues the thought-processes rather that the intention of the transmitter. It tends to over translate, to be more specific than the original, to include more meanings in its search for one nuance of meaning (1981: 39, 1988: 47). There is no one communicative nor one semantic method of translating a text there are in fact widely overlapping bands of methods. A translation can be more, or less, semantic more or less communicative even a particular section or sentence can be treated more communicatively or less semantically (1981: 40). In communicative translation, the translator has the right to correct or improve the original. All such corrections and improvements are usually inadmissible in semantic translation (1988: 47). 23

24 However, in communicative as in semantic translation, provided that equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best; it is the only valid method of translation (1981: 39) (2) Existing opinions about Newmark s approach Newmark s approach to translation is based on the observation of different types of texts; He classified texts into three main categories according to the main functions of language, and attempted to match two translation methods with the three types of texts. It seems to have a wider application to translation practice. However, there are some scholars who believe that Newmark s text categories and corresponding translation methods has its own shortcomings. One of the Chinese scholars Zhang believes that classifying texts into different categories is very difficult, as the relationship between different language functions is not clear cut, instead is interwoven. For example, legal statements are classified as expressive texts by Newmark. One of the main functions of legal statements is to indicate what types of behavior is intolerable and could result in punishment. From this perspective, legal statements also have a strong expressive function; however, authorities probably wish that the public could abide the law and there would be no need to use the punishment to maintain law and order. From this perspective, legal statements have a strong vocative function as well (Zhang 2004: 98). 24

25 Zhang also believes that the text category is not fixed, instead is changeable. For example, Jonathan Swift s Gulliver Travels was originally written as a serious allegorical fiction, but in the contemporary society today, whether in the United Kingdom or other countries, it has lost its allegorical function due to the change of cultural context, ordinary readers consider it as an entertaining/amusing fiction (ibid: 100). Furthermore, Zhang believes that translation method is not to be determined by the text category only. Other factors need to be considered as well, such as the types of readers and the function of the target text. If there is a big difference between the source culture and the target culture, and the readers are not highly motivated to understand the source text, then no matter how authoritative the source text is, if only semantic translation method is used, the target text is doomed to fail. Moreover, if the function of the target text differs from the source text, a flexible translation method is to be adopted. For example, the translation of a piece of news. If the target text is to be used as news, then the errors in the original text is to be corrected; but if it is to be used as studying material or legal evidence, then the meaning of the original should be preserved (ibid: ). (3) Possible implications on document translation Newmark s text categories and corresponding translation methods can provide translation practitioners with a new way in determining the translation method in their practice. However, this new approach also has its limitation, because he only proposed two 25

26 translation methods for the translation of three categories of texts, namely semantic translation for expressive texts, communicative translation for informative and vocative texts (Newmark 1988: 47). It might be helpful in translators training when there is no other information provided, and the original text is the only material that a translator have been given. Under this circumstance, a translator can only rely on the text type to decide what translation method to adopt. However, in reality there are many other factors need to be considered in determining the appropriate translation method for a particular text, such as the intention of the original writer, the purpose of the translation, and the needs of the prospective readers. With regard to document translation, the text type concerned in document translation probably fits in Newmark s category of informative texts. According to Newmark (1988: 40), the format of an informative text can be: a textbook, a technical report, a scientific paper, an article in a newspaper, minutes or agenda of a meeting. Therefore, Newmark s communicative translation method is probably more applicable to document translation than his semantic translation. However, as indicated by Newmark himself, few texts are purely expressive, informative or vocative, most include three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three (1988: 42). Therefore, a translation can be more or less semantic more or less communicative even a particular section or sentence can be treated more communicatively or less semantically (Newmark 1981: 40). In document translation translators also need to apply semantic and communicative translation flexibly as there is no absolute match between text type and translation method. 26

27 Furthermore, Newmark believes that in communicative as in semantic translation, provided that equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best; it is the only valid method of translation (1981: 39). As indicated by Newmark himself the two main aims of a translation are accuracy and economy (1988: 47). In practice, translators often try to produce maximum efficiency with minimum effort (Toury 1995 cited in Monday 2001: 45). If the literal translation can achieve the purpose of a translation and meet all the requirements of a client, then it ought to be the best translation for that particular text. Therefore, in practice translators might try first the literal translation, then the free translation as well as many other translation methods between the two poles if necessary. In addition, Newmark believes that in communicative translation if the original writing is poor, the translator has the right to improve or correct it (1981: 6, 42). However, in practice it is not likely to happen unless the client who commissioned the translation task requests the translator to do so. The reason for this is that improving or correcting the original text contradicts to the criterion of accuracy. According to the AUSIT Code of Ethics, which is widely accepted by both the interpreting and translation practitioners and the service providers in Australia, interpreters and translators shall not alter, make additions to, or omit anything from their assigned work ( retrieved 18 October, 2006). At the end of the day, in the real world the translation is to be faithful to the original is the general expectation of clients. 27

28 3. Vermeer s skopos theory The skopos theory is an approach to translation which was introduced by Hans Vermeer in the late 1970s. Translation is viewed as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose. The word skopos is used as a technical term for the aim or purpose of a translation. The aim or purpose of a translation determines the translation methods and strategies to be employed to produce a functionally adequate result - target text. (1) Essence of Vermeer s skopos theory The essence of Vermeer s skopos theory can be summarized as the following: Translation is a particular type of translational action which is based on a source text. Any action has an aim, a purpose. The word skopos is a technical term for the aim or purpose of a translation. Furthermore, an action leads to a result, translation leads to a translantum, the target text (Vermeer1989: 227). The aim of any translational action, and the mode in which it is to be realized, are negotiated with the client who commissions the action. A precise specification of aim and mode is essential for the translator to fulfill his task successfully (ibid: 227). 28

29 A commission comprises or should comprise as much detailed information as possible on: (1) the goal, i.e. a specification of the aim of the commission; (2) the conditions under which the intended goal should be attained (naturally including practical matters such as deadline and fee) (ibid: 235). The source text is a constituent of the commission. What role a source text plays in a translational action is decided by the translator based on the purpose, the skopos of the translation in a given situation (ibid: 228). The translator is the expert in translational action. He/she is responsible for the performance of the commissioned task, for the final translatum, the target text (ibid: 228). The notion of skopos can be applied in three ways, and thus have three senses. It may refer to: (a) the goal of the translation process; (b) the function of the translation result (target text); (c) the intention of the translation mode. (ibid: 230) The skopos theory merely states that the translator should be aware that some goals exist, and that any given goal is only one among many possible ones. The important point is that a given source text does not have one correct or best translation only (ibid: 234). (2) Existing opinions about Vermeer s skopos theory 29

30 With regard to the significance of the skopos theory, Vermeer himself (1989: 237) has pointed out that skopos theory has made contributions in the following area: (1) the theory makes explicit and conscious something that is too often denied; (2) the skopos, which is (or should be) defined in the commission, expands the possibilities of translation, increase the range of possible translation strategies, and releases the translator from the corset of an enforced hence often meaningless literalness; (3) it incorporates and enlarges the accountability of the translator, in that his translation must function in such a way that the given goal is attained. With regard to criticisms on the skopos theory, Vermeer himself (1989: ) and Christiane Nord (Nord 1997: ) have provided some discussions. Firstly, the critics claim that not all actions have an aim; therefore not all translations have a purpose, with reference mainly to the literary texts in general or at least some literary texts. Vermeer stated that the expression of actions having an aim is imprecise. Rather it would be more accurate to speak of an aim being attributed to an action, an author believing that he is writing to a given purpose, a reader similarly believing that an author has so written. Therefore, this criticism can be answered in terms of the definition of an action: if no aim can be attributed to an action, it can no longer be regarded as action. In terms of translation proper as one variety of translational action, the notion of skopos can in fact be applied in three ways and thus have three senses. It may refer to: (a) the goal of the translation process; (b) the function of the target text; (c) the intention 30

31 of the translation mode. If one of the three could be attributed to a given translation, then that translation could be regarded as having a purpose (Vermeer 1989: 230). Secondly, the critics claim that the skopos would restrict the translation possibilities, and thus limit the range of interpretation of target text in comparison to that of the source text. With regard to this criticism, Vermeer indicated that a given skopos may indeed rule out certain interpretations because they are not part of the translation goal; but one possible goal (skopos) would certainly be precisely to preserve the breadth of interpretation of the source text. How far such a skopos is in fact realizable is not the point here (ibid: 232). Moreover, the critics claim that the skopos theory does not respect the source text. This is probably due to Vermeer s claim to have dethroned the source text. However, dethroning simply means that the source text, or more precisely, its linguistic and stylistic features, is no longer regarded as the one and only yardstick for a translation (Nord 1997: ). Instead, the purpose of a translation is the decisive factor in translation process. (3) Possible implication on document translation The skopos theory stresses that every translation has an aim or a purpose which is assigned by the translation commission. The aim or purpose of a translation determines the translation methods or strategies to be employed to produce a functionally adequate translation target text. This approach is significant to translation practitioners at macro decision making level. First of all, the skopos can help translators to determine the 31

32 translation methods and strategies for a given translation task, i.e. whether the source text is to be translated, paraphrased or even completed re-edited. For example, the translation of a Chinese marriage certificate into English for immigration purpose in Australia. The widely accepted translation is extract translation. Obviously as indicated by the word extract, this type of translation does not translate every word in the original document. Instead, it only translates the main information required by the immigration authority, namely the personal details of the two parties, the date and place of the marriage, the issuing authority and issuing date. The remaining information on the original document can be left out without affecting the fulfillment of the purpose. This type of translation is still faithful to the original document in a sense that the selected information has been translated faithfully. There are other Chinese documents that are translated in this way as well in Australia, such as birth certificate, driver s license, immunization record and injection authorization sheet. Secondly, the skopos theory makes it clear that for a given source text it could have more than one best possible translation depending on the aim of the translation. This is demonstrated by Vermeer s own example (1989: 237). The translation of a will with some ambiguity for a lawsuit and the translation of the same will in the context of a novel. Under the first situation, the skopos would be to translate the document faithfully, so that the judge would understand the ambiguity. As a result, the translator might provide a note or comment to explain the possible interpretations with regard to the ambiguity. However, when the same will happens as a minor incident in a novel, the translator would not wish to interrupt the flow of the narrative with an explanatory comment, but 32

33 rather try to find a target language solution with a similar kind of effect, because the skopos in the second context is differ from that of the first. Furthermore, the skopos theory provides a new concept about the status of the source text and assigns translators more responsibility in the production of the target text. According to the skopos theory, the source text is only a constituent of the translation commission, and the translator is the expert in translational action. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translational action; the decisive factor is the purpose, the skopos of a translation in a given situation. Therefore, the status of a source text is not static, it is a relative concept. It will change when the skopos of the translation is changed. Although, the skopos theory is very useful at micro level in the translation process, as Vermeer himself indicated that the skopos theory could expend the possibilities of translation, increase the range of possible translation strategies, and release translators from the corset of enforced and often meaningless literalness. However, it does not touch the aspect of the actual procedures at operational level. That has been entirely left to the translator as an expert to decide how to translate a given text. In this respect, it might be considered as a shortcoming of the skopos theory. 33

34 Chapter 4 An Integrated Approach - a Case Study In so far the study has examined Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories, namely Nida principle of equivalence, Newmark s semantic and communicative translations and Vermeer s skopos theory, as well as possible implications they might have on document translation. In this chapter the study will compare the three western translation theories with Yan Fu s Xin Da Ya in the frame work of Holmes map of translation studies and find out if there are any similarities and differences between them. Furthermore, the study will make use of a case study the translation of a driver license from Chinese into English to see how each theory can be applied at different stages of the translation process. 1. Comparison of Xin Da Ya and the three western translation theories The mapping of the field of translation studies is an on going activity. James Holmes is credited with the first attempt to chart the territory of translation studies as a distinct discipline in his paper The Name and Nature of Translation Studies (1972: ). According to Holmes, translation studies can be divided into two areas which are pure translation studies and applied translation studies. Translation theory is one of the two branches within the area of pure translation studies. It is interested in using the results of descriptive translation studies, in combination with the information available from related fields and disciplines, to evolve principles, theories, and models which will serve to explain and predict what translating and translations are and will be (Holmes 1972: 34