Chapter 2 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes;
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1 Chapter 2 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes; Conformational and Geometric Isomerism Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
2 Hydrocarbons The main components of petroleum and natural gas. Hydrocarbons: compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen Three main classes Saturated (alkanes & cycloalkanes) Unsaturated (alkenes & alkynes) Aromatic (benzene) Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
3 2.1 The Structure of Alkanes Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
4 Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
5 Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
6 Table 2.1 Names and formulas of the first ten unbranched alkanes Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
7 The number of structural isomers possible for a given molecular formula increases rapidly with the number of carbons Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
8 Constitutional isomers have different physical properties (melting point, boiling point, densities etc.) Constitutional isomers have the same molecular formula but different connectivity of atoms Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
9 notes Alkanes fit the general formula C H n 2n+ n+2 A cycloalkane has two fewer hydrogens than the corresponding alkane. Thus, the general formula for a cycloalkane is C n H 2n. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
10 notes Normal alkanes (or n-alkanes) Unbranched Homologous series: compounds differ by a regular unit of structure and share similar properties Methylene group: -CH 2 - Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
11 Example Which of the following are alkanes? 1. C 7 H C 7 H C 8 H C 27 H 56 Answer: The formulas in parts 2 and 4 fit the general formula C n H 2n+2 and are alkanes. 3 has two fewer hydrogens than called for by the alkane formula and must be either an alkene or a cycloalkane. 1 is an impossible molecular formula; it has too many hydrogens for the number of carbons. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
12 2.2 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds Before the end of the 19th century compounds were named using nonsystematic nomenclature These common or trivial names were often based on the source of the compound or a physical property The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) started devising a systematic approach to nomenclature in 1892 The fundamental principle in devising the system was that each different compound should have a unique unambiguous name The basis for all IUPAC nomenclature is the set of rules used for naming alkanes Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
13 IUPAC Substitutive Nomenclature An IUPAC name may have up to 4 features: locants, prefixes, parent compound and suffixes Numbering generally starts from the end of the chain which is closest to the group named in the suffix Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
14 2.3 IUPAC Rules for Naming Alkanes Locate the longest continuous chain of carbons; this is the parent chain and determines the parent name. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
15 Number the longest chain beginning with the end of the chain nearer the substituent Designate the location of the substituent When two or more substituents are present, give each substituent a number corresponding to its location on the longest chain Substituents are listed alphabetically Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
16 Nomenclature of Unbranched Alkyl groups The unbranched alkyl groups are obtained by removing one hydrogen from the alkane and named by replacing the -ane of the corresponding alkane with -yl Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
17 When two or more substituents are identical, use the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra- etc. Commas are used to separate numbers from each other The prefixes are used in alphabetical prioritization When two chains of equal length compete to be parent, choose the chain with the greatest number of substituents Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
18 When branching first occurs at an equal distance from either end of the parent chain, choose the name that gives the lower number at the first point of difference Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
19 Nomenclature of Branched Alkyl Chains Two alkyl groups can be derived from propane (i-pr-) Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
20 Four groups can be derived from the butane isomers Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
21 The neopentyl group is a common branched alkyl group Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
22 Nomenclature of Alkyl Halides In IUPAC nomenclature halides are named as substituents on the parent chain Halo and alkyl substituents are considered to be of equal ranking In common nomenclature the simple haloalkanes are named as alkyl halides Common nomenclature of simple alkyl halides is accepted by IUPAC and still used Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
23 F- Cl- Br- I- Flouro- Chloro- Bromo- Iodo- Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
24 Examples Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
25 Examples Correct Answer The correct IUPAC name for the following molecule is: CH 3 CH 3 CH 2 CHCHCH 2 CHCH 3 CH 3 CH 2 CH 3 a. 6-ethyl-3,4-dimethylheptane b. 2-ethyl-4,5-dimethylheptane c. 3,4,6-trimethyloctane d. 3,5,6-trimethyloctane e. none of these Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
26 Example The structural formula for 2,2,3-trimethylhexane is a. b. c. (CH 3 ) 2 CCH 2 CH 3 *d. CH 3 e. (CH 3 ) 3 CCHCH 3 CH 3 Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
27 Example What is a correct name for the following compound? A)3-Isobutyl-2-methylheptane B)3-sec-Butyl-2-methyloctane C)5-Isobutyl-6-methylheptane D)2-Ethyl-3-isopropyloctane E)4-Isopropyl-3-methylnonane Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
28 Example 12.What is the common name for this compound? A)Isobutyl bromide B)tert-Butyl bromide C)Butyl bromide D)sec-Butyl bromide E)Bromo-sec-butane Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
29 example The correct IUPAC name for is A)2-Bromo-4-chloro-4-isopropylpentane B)4-Bromo-2-chloro-2-isopropylpentane C)5-Bromo-3-chloro-2,3-dimethylhexane D)2-Bromo-4-chloro-4,5-dimethylhexane E)2-(2-Bromopropyl)-2-chloro-3-methylbutane Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
30 2.6 Sources of Alkanes Petroleum and natural gas are the two most important natural sources of alkanes Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
31 2.7 Physical Properties of Alkanes Nonbonding Intermolecular Forces Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
32 Alkanes are nonpolar and insoluble in water. Alkanes are nearly purely covalent. Protecting wax coatings on leaves and fruits. Cabbage & broccoli: n-c 29 H 60 Tobacco leaves: n-c 31 H 64 Similar hydrocarbons are found in beeswax Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
33 Figure 2.2 Hydrogen bonding Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
34 Physical Properties Alkanes (nonpolar) have lower boiling points for a given molecular weight than most other organic compouns. van der Waals attractions. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
35 Figure 2.3 Boiling points of normal alkanes Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
36 Figure Dimethylpropane and pentane Experience more van der Waals attractions Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
37 Coformations of Alkanes Sigma Bonds & Bond Rotation Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
38 Ethane has relatively free rotation around the carbon-carbon bond The staggered conformation has C-H bonds on adjacent carbons as far apart from each other as possible The drawing to the right is called a Newman projection Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
39 The eclipsed conformation has all C-H bonds on adjacent carbons directly on top of each other Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
40 Figure 2.5 Two of the possible conformations of ethane: staggered and eclipsed Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
41 animations Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
42 butane Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
43 Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
44 Cycloalkane Nomenclature Conformation Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
45 Nomenclature of Cycloalkanes The prefix cyclo- is added to the name of the alkane with the same number of carbons When one substituent is present it is assumed to be at position one and is not numbered When two alkyl substituents are present the one with alphabetical priority is given position 1 Numbering continues to give the other substituent the lowest number Hydroxyl has higher priority than alkyl and is given position 1 If a long chain is attached to a ring with fewer carbons, the cycloalkane is considered the substituent Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
46 Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
47 examples What is a correct name for the following molecule? Cl.. Cl. 1,1-dichlorocyclopropane. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
48 What is the correct name for the following cycloalkane?. Br CH 2 CH 3 H H 1-bromo-3-ethylcyclohexane. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
49 The Origin of Ring Strain in Cyclopropane and Cyclobutane Angle Strain and Tortional Strain Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
50 Angle strain is caused by bond angles different from 109.5o Tortional strain is caused by eclipsing C-H bonds on adjacent carbons Cyclopropane has both high angle and tortional strain Cyclobutane has considerable angle strain It bends to relieve some tortional strain Cyclopentane has little angle strain in the planar form but bends to relieve some tortional strain Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
51 Conformations of Cyclohexane The chair conformation has no ring strain All bond angles are o and all C-H bonds are perfectly staggered Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
52 Figure 2.6 The chair conformation of cyclohexane Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
53 animation Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
54 Substituted Cyclohexanes: Axial and Equatorial Hydrogen Atoms Axial hydrogens are perpendicular to the average plane of the ring Equatorial hydrogens lie around the perimeter of the ring The C-C bonds and equatorial C-H bonds are all drawn in sets of parallel lines The axial hydrogens are drawn straight up and down Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
55 Methyl cyclohexane is more stable with the methyl equatorial An axial methyl has an unfavorable 1,3-diaxial interaction with axial C-H bonds 2 carbons away A 1,3-diaxial interaction is the equivalent of 2 gauche butane interactions Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
56 The boat conformation is less stable because of flagpole interactions and tortional strain along the bottom of the boat The twist conformation is intermediate in stability between the boat and the chair conformation Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
57 Cis-Trans Isomerism in Cycloalkanes Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
58 Disubstitued Cycloalkanes Can exist as pairs of cis-trans stereoisomers Cis: groups on same side of ring Trans: groups on opposite side of ring Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
59 Trans-1,4-dimethylcylohexane prefers a trans-diequatorial conformation Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
60 Cis-1,4-dimethylcyclohexane exists in an axialequatorial conformation A very large tert-butyl group is required to be in the more stable equatorial position Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
61 Consider this chair conformation. CH 3 H 3 C H When the ring flips, a. the bromine becomes axial and the methyls become equatorial. b. all three substituents become equatorial. c. the bromine becomes equatorial and the methyls become axial. d. the ring opens up. e. one methyl becomes axial, one becomes equatorial, and the bromine becomes equatorial. H Br. H Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
62 examples Trans-1-bromo-3-methylcyclobutane is represented by which structure below? a. Br Br Br b. *c. CH 3 H 3 C H 3 C d. CH 3 e. Br Br H 3 C Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
63 The correct IUPAC name for. CH 3 CH3 H 3 C H 1,3,3-trimethylcyclobutane.. cis-1,3,3-trimethylcyclobutane. trans-1,3,3-trimethylcyclobutane. 1,1,3-trimethylcyclobutane. 1,1,3-trimethylcyclobutane. 2,2,4-trimethylcyclobutane. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
64 trans-1,2-dibromocyclohexane is represented by structure(s): Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
65 2.11 Summary of Isomerism Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
66 Figure 2.7 The relationships of the various types of isomers Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
67 Examples The molecules shown are: F F H H Not Isomers Different compounds Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
68 The compounds represented by the structures CH 3 CH 3 H H and H H3 C 3 CH 3 are a. structural isomers. b. identical. c. cis-trans isomers. d. conformers. e. constitutional isomers. H Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
69 2.12 Reactions of Alkanes 2.12.a Oxidation & Combustion; Alkanes as Fuels Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
70 Inertness of Alkanes Alkanes All bonds are single, covalent, and nonpolar. Do not react with most common acids, bases, or oxidizing and reducing agents. Can be used as solvents. Do react with oxygen and halogens. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
71 Alkanes are fuels; Alkanes burn in air if ignited. Complete combustion gives carbon dioxide and water; less complete combustion gives carbon monoxide or other less oxidized forms of carbon. Alkanes react with halogens (chlorine or bromine) in a reaction initiated by heat or light. One or more hydrogens can be replaced by halogens. This substitution reaction occurs by a free-radical chain mechanism. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
72 Oxidation & Combustion Combustion of hydrocarbons is an oxidation reaction in which C-H bonds are replaced with C-O bonds. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
73 General Reaction 3n + 1 spark C nh 2n ( ) O2 nco2 + ( n + 1) H 2O 2 The reaction is exothermic: the basis for the use of alkanes for heat and for power. Once initiated by spark or flame, the reaction proceeds spontaneously and exothermally. Alkanes burned to CO 2 and H 2 O with excess O 2. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
74 Insufficient O 2 Partial oxidation may occur For incomplete combustion of methane: CO, C, CH 2 O might be formed Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
75 2.12.b Halogenation of Alkanes Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
76 The Reactions of Alkanes with Halogens Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens such as fluorine, bromine and chlorine in the presence of heat or light Multiple Substitution Reactions versus Selectivity Radical halogenation can yield a mixture of halogenated compounds because all hydrogen atoms in an alkane are capable of substitution In the reaction above all degrees of methane halogenation will be seen Monosubstitution can be achieved by using a large excess of the alkane A large excess of methane will lead to predominantly monohalogenated product and excess unreacted methane Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
77 Chlorination of higher alkanes leads to mixtures of monochlorinated product (and more substituted products) Chlorine is relatively unselective and does not greatly distinguish between type of hydrogen Molecular symmetry is important in determining the number of possible substitution products Bromine is less reactive but more selective than chlorine. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
78 EXAMPLES H Br + Br 2 light + HBr With Unsubstituted cycloalkanes, where all H s are equivalent, a single pure organic product can be obtained. Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
79 How many monobromo products can be obtained from the bromination of cyclopentane? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 5 How many isomeric dichloro products can be obtained from the chlorination of cyclopropane? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 5 Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
80 2.13 The Free-Radical Chain Mechanism of Halogenation Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
81 Chlorination of Methane: Mechanism of Reaction The reaction mechanism has three distinct aspects: Chain initiation, chain propagation and chain termination Chain initiation Chlorine radicals form when the reaction is subjected to heat or light Chlorine radicals are used in the chain propagation steps below Chain propagation A chlorine radical reacts with a molecule of methane to generate a methyl radical A methyl radical reacts with a molecule of chlorine to yield chloromethane and regenerate chlorine radical A chlorine radical reacts with another methane molecule, continuing the chain reaction A single chlorine radical can lead to thousands of chain propagation cycles Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
82 The entire mechanism is shown below Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
83 Chain reaction: a stepwise mechanism in which each step generates the reactive intermediate that causes the next cycle of the reaction to occur Chain termination Occasionally the reactive radical intermediates are quenched by reaction pathways that do not generate new radicals The reaction of chlorine with methane requires constant irradiation to replace radicals quenched in chain-terminating steps Feb, 2008 Dr. Abdullah I. Saleh/
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