A study of dissonance in people who recently wrote a review of Apple on Trustpilot.com

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1 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 Cognitive dissonance and its influence on online reviewers A study of dissonance in people who recently wrote a review of Apple on Trustpilot.com Bachelor s Thesis Author: Steffan Kyhe Student ID: Field: Persuasion Supervisor: Line Schmeltz Total number of characters: Aarhus University Business and Social Sciences May 2015 Page 1 af 79

2 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 Table&of&Contents&& ABSTRACT!...!3 1 INTRODUCTION!...!4 1.1 INTRODUCTION PROBLEM STATEMENT: METHODOLOGY!...! SCIENTIFIC APPROACH DATA COLLECTION DELIMITATIONS METHOD COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY:!...! FESTINGER S: A THEORY OF COGNITIVE DISSONANCE FOUR IMPORTANT PARADIGMS OF DISSONANCE RESEARCH REVISIONS OF THE ORIGINAL THEORY EVALUATION OF THE CURRENT STATUS OF THE THEORY THE POSITION TAKEN IN THIS PAPER ANALYSIS!...! HOW APPLE TRIES TO COUNTER COGNITIVE DISSONANCE REVIEWS...17 The Benchmark for Retail!...!24 Ipod review!...!26 Apple is environmentally friendly!...!27 Great company!!...!28 Too expensive and narrow world.!...!29 Perfect!...!30 CONCLUSION:!...!32 BIBLIOGRAPHY:!...!34 APPENDIX 1!...!37 APPENDIX 2!...!57 APPENDIX 3!...!76 Cant live without my Iphone!...!76 Good products, in my opinion overpriced!...!78 Page 2 af 79

3 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 Abstract Cognitive dissonance theory (CDT) is a hallmark achievement in social psychology. The original version of the theory, developed by Festinger (1957), states that if a person holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, he or she will experience dissonance, and will try to reduce it. This notion has led to significant research in social psychology, and has produced an incredible amount of data. Despite the age of CDT, it is still widely used to explain a far-reaching variety of social behaviour in academia and business alike. Marketers frequently use the theory to explain consumer behaviour, and how they can hold seemingly contradictory views. However, very little academic research has been done to trace and explain how specific psychological inconsistencies manifest themselves in consumers post-purchase. Therefore, it is the aim of this paper to bridge this gap in knowledge by studying the ways in which reviewers of Apple experience CD, and whether or not information from Apple.com can counter those psychological inconsistencies post-decision. Drawing on multiple aspects of dissonance theory, arguments presented by Apple and qualitative data from Trustpilot.com, the paper provides a thorough examination of signs of CD in reviewers, and offers a negative result in terms of how the reviews reflect Apple s attempts to counter dissonance. Besides the negative result, this study confirms several of the predictions made by CDT. Most noticeably, the study shows that individuals who exhibit high magnitudes of dissonance have a greater propensity to behave in ways that reduce inconsistencies in their mind. But ultimately, more research is required in order to fully evaluate the success of Apple s attempts to counter dissonance in reviewers. Keywords: Cognitive dissonance, dissonance, psychological inconsistency, consonant cognitions, dissonant cognitions, reduction strategies, reflect, counter Page 3 af 79

4 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May Introduction 1.1 Introduction Cognitive dissonance (CD) is the state of having psychologically inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes. The original theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger 1957) states that if a person holds two cognitions that are inconsistent with each other, he or she will experience dissonance, and will try to reduce it. More precisely, the occurrence of a negative cognitive inconsistency of ample magnitude will evoke an aversive motivational state, i.e. dissonance, which drives cognitive work aimed at reducing the cognitive inconsistency (Dillard and Pfau 2002: 100). Cognition can be defined as the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. And dissonance is the lack of agreement or harmony between such cognitions. If you apply this theory in a marketing context, consumers will often have doubts about their recent acquisition, and those doubts are relative in terms of their magnitude. For instance, spending $20,000 on a car produces more doubts than ordering takeaway. Consequently, in business, CD is often referred to as buyer s remorse, or simply as a post-decision phenomenon. Because of that, marketers will often try to alleviate feelings of cognitive dissonance in their customers, since that would lead to a more satisfied customer base. Which in turn will strengthen the odds of repurchase and brand loyalty. CD can be used as an effective marketing strategy. If marketers are able to anticipate specific feelings of remorse, then they can try to counter them. By moulding their communication to decrease dissonance in receivers, they can actively reassure consumers about their decision, which diminishes feelings of regret. This is necessary in order to gain loyalty from consumers, so they will choose to purchase from the same company again. Alternatively, marketers might want to arouse dissonance in a certain target audience in order to change their opinion about a competing product. An example of reassuring consumers post-decision comes from the automobile industry. Here, consumers often receive s, pamphlets or books with information such as: did you know that your car could do this and 5-star crash rating. This works because, as explained by cognitive dissonance theory, people will always try to reduce cognitive inconsistencies of ample magnitude, and for most people, the expenditure for a car will produce such an effect. It is, however, important to note that price is but one factor - identity and the self-image often play a bigger role in the creation of dissonance (Aronson 1992: 305). Marketers have, for example, recognised such an Page 4 af 79

5 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 identity struggle between users of Apple products and their competitors for years now (Gass and Seiter 2014: 63) Consumers often hold contradictory views when it comes to Apple. The inconsistencies range from the ability to claim moral high ground while Chinese workers are assembling their products in appalling conditions to the polarisation of alternatives 1 post-purchase. That is both interesting from a scholarly and a business perspective. Especially since resent research shows that a change of opinion that was brought about by CD can have long-term effects (Sénémeaud and Somat 2009). Still, relatively little academic research has been done to trace and explain how specific psychological inconsistencies manifest themselves in consumers post-purchase. Because of that, this paper seeks to contribute to the field by studying the ways in which online reviewers of Apple experience CD, and whether or not information from Apple.com influences the sentiments expressed in those reviews. If one can trace specific sentiments from Apple.com in reviewers who experience CD, that would be very interesting. So, to investigate whether that is the case, it will first have to be established which reviews exhibit traits common to CD, and in what ways. After that, the semantic units from those reviews can be compared with similar units from Apple.com in order to see if there is a connection between the two. If positive statements from the website are traceable in the reviews, it would indicate that Apple is able to reduce post-decision dissonance. And that would be valuable and useful information for further research and marketers alike. With that in mind, the overall aim of this thesis will be to solve the problem statement below. 1.2 Problem statement: How does Apple.com try to counter cognitive dissonance, and how is that reflected in user reviews?" 1Peopletendtopolarisetheattractivenessofotheroptionsoncetheyhavemadeadecision.Somethingmight havebeenaclosecall,butoncethedecisionismade,peopletendtodenigratethealternativeandvaluetheir ownchoiceevenmore.thistendencyisknowntohappenbecauseofselfjconsistency(aronson1999). Page 5 af 79

6 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May Methodology 2.1. Scientific approach This thesis is grounded in a pragmatic approach to research and methodology. In Thomas Kuhn s landmark book, The Structure of Scientific Revolution (Kuhn 1962, 1996), he made this approach possible by advocating paradigms as a way to encapsulate researchers beliefs about their efforts to create knowledge. Here, the guiding paradigm is pragmatism as a research method. According to Morgan (2007: 48), pragmatism creates a basis for supporting work that combines qualitative and quantitative methods, and at the same time redirects our attention towards methodological rather than metaphysical concerns. Further, Tashakkori and Teddlie (2010) stipulate that a pragmatic approach evaluates theories in terms of the success of their practical application. So, by applying this mode of thought, one posits that not only are the most useful results and clearest understanding achieved when the problem drives the choice of methodology, but also that one recognises that good and valid results can be achieved with many different approaches. This approach made the most sense because the guiding theory of the paper, cognitive dissonance theory, has its roots in social psychology, which deals with the factors that lead humans to behave in a given way, and studies the conditions under which certain behaviours, actions and feelings occur. Therefore, pragmatism is a great approach for this paper because it provides a platform that allows for such complexities, and supports both qualitative and quantitative work Data collection In order to collect the data, and test the theory of cognitive dissonance on consumers who recently wrote a review of Apple on trustpilot.com, a non-probability sampling strategy was used. While some researchers might view non-probability as inferior to probability, it was chosen for this paper because of its strong theoretical and practical qualities. That aspect is important, since the procedure used to analyse the qualitative data will focus one the complexities of the samples being studied. Sampling size and selection process: Samples of 68 user reviews from March 31, 2014 through to March 29, 2015 were chosen for this paper (Appendix 1). Because of the low number of reviews relative to the overall number of Page 6 af 79

7 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 transactions by Apple on a yearly basis, this timeframe was chosen to accommodate for that fact, and to make sure that the reviews were comparable with fairly recent information from Apple.com Delimitations The sample contains a total of 68 Internet users from all over the world, who made a review on Trustpilot.com. Out of the 68 reviews, only 15 fulfilled the requirements for this paper, and out those, the 12 most interesting reviews in terms of CD were chosen for the analysis. The remaining 4 were briefly compared with information from Apple.com in Appendix 3. The reviews had to be relevant for dissonance research, and this particular study, in order to be chosen. For that to be the case, they had to exhibit the following traits: The reviews must be written in English The reviews have to display an attempt at dissonance reduction, which is evident in terms of attitude, belief, value, or behaviour maintenance or change 2.3. Method The theoretical starting point for the analysis is positioned within the research methodology of content analysis. Specifically, the analysis will feature an interpretative approach in order to uncover the essence of each review. This approach will provide a means for discovering the practical understandings of the expressed meanings and actions. It is, however, important to keep in mind that data from Trustpilot.com is uncontrolled, and that one runs the risk of reading too much into these user reviews. Because of that factor, it is imperative for the analysis to be critical, so that it may serve as a stepping-stone for more research on this topic. The following process will be used to answer the question of how Apple.com tries to counter cognitive dissonance, and how that is reflected in user reviews. To establish the extent to which the selected samples show signs of cognitive dissonance, I will analyse each sample by means of the four paradigms of dissonance research and the four techniques of dissonance reduction, since this will work as a tool to identify behaviour that corresponds with CD. This will then be followed by a comparison of specific parts of the reviews and similar semantic units from Apple.com. If the reviewers reuse the arguments from the website, and are positive about their decision despite their Page 7 af 79

8 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 feelings of dissonance, then Apple may have successfully countered cognitive dissonance in those cases. 3 Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The following chapter will first feature a brief explanation of the history of cognitive dissonance theory (CDT). Then offer an explanation of the original theory of cognitive dissonance, the four major paradigms used in dissonance research, and the most important revisions of the theory. After that, the status of the theory will be evaluated. And finally, the position taken in this paper will be put forth. Leon Festinger s theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger 1957) has produced a huge amount of research leading to a better understanding of human social behaviour. The theory has even been called: the most important single development in social psychology to date (Jones 1976: p. x.). And it does not take much to see why. The research has been diverse and abundant, ranging from maze running in rats (Lawrence and Festinger 1962) to the development of values in children (Aronson and Carlsmith 1963); from the hunger of college sophomores (Brehm and Cohen 1962) to the proselytizing behaviour of religious zealots (Festinger et al. 1956), (Aronson 1969). However, by the mid-1970s research in social psychology shifted its focus to purely cognitive approaches, which meant that interest for CDT faded (Aronson 1992: 303). Recently, researchers seem to have revitalised the concept of CDT, and new research is starting to emerge because of it. But because contemporary work is scarce, and not as wide-ranging and extensive as the old studies, the latter is still very relevant. So, after more than 50 years after the theory s formation, research and development of the theory of cognitive dissonance continues to improve our understanding of social behaviour Festinger s: A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance The core of the theory is quite simple: when an individual holds two cognitions, i.e. ideas, beliefs, or opinions, that are psychologically inconsistent, he or she will experience dissonance. Further, Page 8 af 79

9 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 according to Festinger (1957: 13), such a person will attempt to reduce dissonance in much the same way that one would attempt to reduce hunger, thirst, or any negative drive because it feels uncomfortable. Aronson (1969: 2) explains it in the following way: two cognitions are dissonant if, considering these two cognitions alone, the opposite of one follows from the other. This means that X and Y are dissonant if X implies C, just as X and Y are consonant, i.e. in agreement with each other, if X implies Y. Therefore, any cognition, in this example X, may be consonant with some cognitions, and dissonant with others. To further illustrate this point, it is important to remember that our minds are packed with cognitions - some have zero connection to each other, and some are connected. Out of the connected cognitions, some will be consonant, i.e. reinforce each other, and some will be dissonant, i.e. in conflict with each other. But since the occurrence of consonance is pleasing, and the occurrence of dissonance is displeasing, individuals will often try to reduce the latter. And because people want to remain psychologically consistent, dissonance reduction will aim to alter the cognition least resistant to change (Dillard and Pfau 2002: 100). To accomplish that, people will, according to the original theory (Festinger 1957), use one or several of these dissonance reduction techniques: 1. Subtracting dissonant cognitions 2. Adding consonant cognitions 3. Decreasing the importance of dissonant cognitions 4. Increasing the importance of consonant cognitions Figure 1. When people use the first technique illustrated in Figure 1, they ignore, supress, or forget the discrepancy. If people use the second technique, they will exaggerate, increase, or add new ideas, opinions and behaviours that support their belief. In terms of the third technique, people will trivialize the issue, thus decreasing its value in their mind. This often happens in connection with the fourth technique because by increasing the importance of agreeable beliefs, the discomfort of the dissonant cognitions will be decreased and concealed. But the way in which people use these techniques are always different because every situation is different, and people experience dissonance on many levels. In other words, dissonance occurs on a spectrum otherwise known as the magnitude of dissonance. Page 9 af 79

10 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 The magnitude of dissonance depends on the number of dissonant cognitions and the psychological importance of the cognitions. Dissonance increases as the quantity and importance of dissonant cognitions relative to consonant cognitions increase (Dillard and Pfau 2002: 100). This means that the extent to which an individual will experience dissonance fluctuates from person to person, and consequently, the motivational drive to reduce dissonance varies accordingly Four important paradigms of dissonance research The following research paradigms have been used widely in the study of CD. Since all four paradigms have contributed to a better understanding of the phenomenon, the following review seeks to highlight their significance in the field. It is important to note that even though these paradigms investigate different aspects of dissonance theory, they are not mutually exclusive, and can be used interchangeably in the investigation of dissonant behaviour. It is also important to point out that the free choice paradigm is the most prolific because it was developed and used to test the original theory, which explains its connection to the dissonance reduction techniques (Festinger 1957). - Free Choice Paradigm - Belief Disconfirmation Paradigm - Induced Compliance Paradigm - Hypocrisy Paradigm Free Choice Paradigm In the free choice paradigm (Brehm 1956), one assumes that once a decision is made, dissonance may be formed. According to Dillard and Pfau (2002: 100), after a person makes a decision, each of the negative aspects of the chosen alternative and the positive aspects of the rejected alternative is dissonant with the decision. This means that decisions have the ability to create psychological tensions in our minds. But as Cooper (2007) demonstrates, dissonance might only occur if the negative outcome of the free choice was foreseeable when the person made the decision. Otherwise, the person may not feel responsible, and thus, experience little psychological inconsistency. Page 10 af 79

11 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 Further, as suggested by the magnitude of dissonance, important or difficult decisions create more dissonance than easy decisions because people experience a greater proportion of dissonant cognitions after a difficult decision. So, if a decision is easy or unforeseeable, individuals might not experience dissonance. And if the decision is difficult and predictable, individuals may experience a great deal of dissonance, which may trigger a need to reduce this negative feeling. To reduce post-decision dissonance, people will have to subtract negative aspects of the chosen alternative or positive aspects of the rejected alternative, or by adding positive aspects to the chosen alternative or negative aspects to the rejected alternative (Dillard and Pfau 2002: 100). This serves the purpose of making the chosen alternative seem more desirable, and make the rejected alternative seem less desirable. And studies by Harmon-Jones (2002) even suggest that because of selective exposure 2, individuals will often elevate the desirability of a chosen alternative without justification. Belief Disconfirmation Paradigm In the belief disconfirmation paradigm (Festinger et al. 1956), it is assumed that dissonance will arise when people encounter information that is inconsistent with their existing beliefs. If their existing beliefs are too resistant to change, the dissonance may lead to the following: Misperception or misinterpretation of the information Rejection or refutation of the information Support seeking from those who agree with their current beliefs Attempt to persuade others to accept their current beliefs These effects all relate to selective exposure/ confirmation bias. When individuals engage in selective exposure, they seek to ignore or distort information that conflicts with their beliefs in order to rationalise their position, and thus be able to hold on to those beliefs. 2 Selective exposure has also been known as congeniality bias or confirmation bias because people tend to prefer information that supports their worldview. Page 11 af 79

12 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 Induced Compliance Paradigm According to the induced compliance paradigm (Festinger and Carlsmith 1959), dissonance is aroused when a person does or says something that is contrary to a prior belief or attitude (Dillard and Pfau 2002: 101). Because of a previously held position, it follows that one would not hold an opposing view. But incentives such as bribes, rewards, or threats of punishment provide cognitions that are consonant with such behaviour. When someone is forced to do something, little dissonance is produced because they had no choice. And when promises of rewards are present, people might change their position with or without feelings of dissonance depending on their moral compass. This inclination is a reflection of the magnitude of dissonance because it shows that feelings of inconsistency are highly subjective. Hypocrisy Paradigm In the hypocrisy paradigm (Aronson et al. 1991), in order to test the theory of cognitive dissonance, people are prompted to make a public attitudinally consistent statement, only to be reminded of times when they did not act in accord with their statement. Research done by Aronson et al. (1994), shows that people will try to reduce this kind of dissonance by acting more in accord with their proattitudinal statement, or by changing their past or recent attitude, depending on which cognition is least resistant to change. So, experiments in the hypocrisy paradigm reinforce the notion of the original theory - that dissonance reduction will be aimed at altering the least resistant cognition Revisions of the original theory Leon Festinger s A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger 1957) felt too vague for other dissonance theorists. According to Aronson (1992: 305), situations arose where it was not clear what dissonance theory would predict, or indeed whether or not dissonance theory even made a prediction. At the same time, Festinger s suggestion that cognitive inconsistency was fundamentally aversive was considered an unsatisfactory explanation. This, consequently, inspired theorists to Page 12 af 79

13 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 increase the predictive capabilities of the theory, and to come up with different motivations that underlie the persuasive effects observed in situations where people experience dissonance. Self-Consistency Aronson s self-consistency theory (1968) proposes that dissonance theory makes its strongest and most precise predictions when the self-concept of an individual is involved. Self-consistency is, technically, not even a revision, but merely an extension to the original theory because it is very similar to the original. The extension is the following, Aronson (1992: 305): dissonance is greatest and clearest when it involves not just any two cognitions but, rather, a cognition about the self and a piece of our behaviour that violates that self-concept. The reason why it is considered a revision is because Aronson took his extension a step further when he proposed that a violation of the selfconcept was necessary to produce dissonance (Aronson 1968, 1969, 1992). He suggested that cognitive dissonance dealt with the self-concept and cognitions about some behaviour, and if dissonance were to exist, it was because the individual s behaviour was inconsistent with his selfconcept (Aronson 1968: 23). Self-Affirmation The self-affirmation theory (Steele 1988) proposes that the effects observed in dissonance situations are not the result of cognitive inconsistency, or self-inconsistency. The revision suggests that a motive for self-consistency was absent from dissonance processes (Steel et al. 1993: 894). To clarify, self-affirmation considers situations that create dissonance to exert their effect because individuals feel that their integrity is being threatened. So, in comparison with the self-consistency revision, the self-affirmation revision posits that the motivating force is not inconsistency but instead the need for self-integrity. Page 13 af 79

14 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 Aversive Consequences Cooper and Fazio (1984) suggested that cognitive inconsistency was not necessary or sufficient for dissonance to occur. They argued that for dissonance to happen, individuals have to engage in behaviour that has the perceived potential to cause an irrevocable unwanted consequence. In other words, Cooper and Fazio proposed that people have to feel personally responsible for producing an anticipatable aversive consequence, which then results in the creation of dissonance. To validate this notion, Cooper and Worchel (1970) replicated the experiment conducted by Festinger and Carlsmith (1959). They showed that the participants in the Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) experiment changed their attitudes because they felt personally responsible for producing aversive consequences, and not because of cognitive inconsistency. Several other studies have produced similar results, i.e., that people did not change their attitude when they believe that their own counter attitudinal statements do not persuade others (Aronson et al. 1969), (Cooper and Goethals 1972), (Collins et al. 1972). But, as Harmon-Jones et al. (1996) showed in their study, aversive consequences are not necessary to create cognitive dissonance Evaluation of the current status of the theory Dissonance research strongly supports the original notion of the theory that cognitive inconsistency motivates aversive behaviour. The revisions coincide with the original theory in that they posit that situations that create inconsistency evoke negative feelings, and that this motivates cognitive and behavioural adjustments. However, they differ in their clarifications as to why such situations give rise to negative feelings and why this causes people to adjust their beliefs and behaviour. According to Dillard and Pfau (2002: 106), the original theory and the revisions all view negative feelings as the proximal motivation for cognitive and behavioural change, but they propose different distal motivations that underlie the creation of a negative feeling. That is to say, they claim alternative motivations to be responsible for the persuasive effect shown in dissonance research. But while the revisions have produced important data and tools to identify specific behaviour, much of the research in the field still supports the original theory in terms of the processes by which the cognitive and behavioural changes occur (Beauvois and Joule 1996), (Brehm et al. 1995), (Harmon- Jones et al. 1996). Contemporary studies have yet to provide data that is as extensive as the older Page 14 af 79

15 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 studies did because research in social psychology shifted its focus over 30 years ago (Aronson 1992: ). So, even though the studies are old, they are still highly relevant, and continue to influence academia and business alike The position taken in this paper This paper will primarily rely on the original theory and the self-consistency revision. Since all of the presented dissonance research suggests that the motivational factors underlying cognitive dissonance are highly contingent on a wide array of factors, it is impossible to take a position on something that is this multifaceted. However, when the scope of inquiry is limited to a situation where individuals express their feelings about a company, and what they expect from them, as it is the case in this paper, the original theory and the self-consistency revision provide the best and most precise tools for the job. Because, as Aronson (1968: 23) suggests, when a firm expectancy is involved as one of the cognitions, CDT makes its most precise predictions. And that aspect is important here, since this is a situation where people are trying to cope with their self-concept and cognitions that relate to their beliefs, ideas or behaviour. So, in this context, it seems important to focus on the aspects of CDT that provide the clearest picture of individuals who experience dissonance. But since dissonance research continues to struggle with the motivations that underlie the effects shown in dissonance research, all aspects of the theory will be drawn upon if need be. 4 Analysis The following chapter will first present a rundown of Apple s arguments, and then give a critical analysis of 12 user reviews. In reverse chronological order, each review will be analysed one at a time, from most recent to least recent submission. Indications of cognitive dissonance will be illustrated and discussed. Then, by comparing semantic units from Apple.com that are similar to those in the reviews, it will be evaluated whether or not the arguments presented by Apple are reflected in the reviews. Page 15 af 79

16 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May How Apple tries to counter cognitive dissonance To counter dissonance, Apple has to anticipate what their users might have doubts about. That may seem like a very difficult task, but CDT suggests that people who experience dissonance actively try to reduce it on their own. To accomplish that, they will often add consonant cognitions, and increase the importance of those cognitions. So, if Apple is able to provide plenty of information that supports their users current beliefs, they can use that information to reduce their feelings of dissonance. To illustrate what such information can look like, the examples below show a variety of arguments from Apple.com that might help to counter cognitive dissonance in reviewers (Appendix 2): Stunning Retina display. Millions of pixels ahead of its time A notebook so thin, so light, and so powerful The elements of beautiful design There s innovation in every nanometer Amazing hardware. Built to perform Environmental responsibility. We believe true innovation must consider everything Touch ID. Security. Right at your fingertip Buy online. Pick up at any Apple Store Layers of innovation New high-performance technologies. Together they make quick work of everything Thin. Light. Powerful. And ready for anything Designing a larger iphone without making it feel bigger was no small task. It required challenging the idea of big Seamless design In creating the iphone 6, we scrutinized every element and material. That s how we arrived at a smooth, continuous form The camera that change photos now does the same for video Hugely powerful. Enormously efficient iphone at its largest. And thinnest iphone isn t simply bigger it s better in every way Page 16 af 79

17 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 These are all positive sentiments about Apple products, and they can support and maintain their users current beliefs. Reviewers can use these arguments to add consonant cognitions to their current beliefs, and to increase the importance of these cognitions. This will reduce dissonance, and may simultaneously decrease the importance of cognitions that are dissonant with their current beliefs. So, if a reviewer uses the same arguments as Apple, or expresses a similar opinion, that would indicate that the review reflects Apple s attempts to counter CD. And that is what the following analysis will look for and evaluate Reviews Review 1 I have recently purchased a brand new iphone6 Plus and wanted to share its advantages & disadvantages with you. I would like to start off by saying that it has a very big display (5.5 Inches), improved battery life performance, outstanding camera quality, solid structure (material wise) and it provides excellent call quality. On the other hand, it s quite big (when compared with previous models), almost impossible to operate single-handedly, If adding a case (cover) to it, it becomes way-too-big, takes very long to charge, and the operating system is too lethargic". However, since I am an apple enthusiast, I would recommend you get one too. (Appendix 1) In this first user review, the reviewer tries very hard to rationalise her decision. To convince herself, and others, that she made the right decision, she makes use of the second and fourth reduction strategy illustrated in figure 1. The consonant cognitions that help to reduce her dissonance are: improved battery life performance, outstanding camera quality, solid structure (material wise), it provides excellent call quality and I am an apple enthusiast. Curiously enough, from a Page 17 af 79

18 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 dissonance reduction perspective, her third paragraph lists five negative aspects of her chosen alternative. But despite its curiousness in the realm of dissonance reduction, it merely laments the fact that she experiences cognitive dissonance because it shows, as the free choice paradigm predicts, that the negative aspects of the chosen alternative is dissonant with her decision. However, since she does not subtract dissonant cognitions, or decrease the importance of those, adding consonant cognitions does very little to reduce her dissonance. Because the second strategy failed to reduce her doubts, she increases the importance of consonant cognitions. The statement that I am an apple enthusiast seems to be the most important consonant cognition for her, which suggests that she polarises the alternatives, and simply views her chosen alternative as more desirable. If we look closely at the way she rationalises her position, the reasons why she has to view the chosen alternative as more desirable become apparent. She states a negative aspect quite similar to two of the dissonant cognitions in the third paragraph, i.e. the size, which would suggest that this aspect produces a greater proportion of dissonant cognitions. This leads her to actively engage in dissonance reduction, but as she is unable to subtract the negative aspects of her decision, her doubts remain. Therefore, in order to reduce her feelings of inconsistency, she has to view the chosen alternative as more desirable, and deem all rejected alternatives as less desirable by saying: since I am an Apple enthusiast, I would recommend you get one too. This tendency is often observed in the belief disconfirmation paradigm. If dissonance is not reduced and the current belief is not changed to accommodate for that, the dissonance can lead to, as is the case here, support seeking from those who agree with her belief, and an attempt to persuade others to accept that belief. Based on the above analysis, the review experiences high levels of dissonance. The amount of dissonance is high because of the great number of dissonant cognitions, and the psychological importance of those inconsistencies. Apple Review 1. Power Efficient. Better performance and 1. Improved battery performance battery life 2. The camera that changed photos 2. Outstanding camera quality Page 18 af 79

19 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May Designing a larger iphone without making it 3. It s quite big (when compared with previous feel bigger was no small task. So while its display is larger, iphone 6 feels just right models) almost impossible to operate singlehandedly Excellent call quality. Figure 2. (Based on Appendices 1 & 2) Based on figure 2, the arguments used by Apple seem to be partially reflected in the review. The first and second comparisons are quite similar in terms of their sentiments, despite their rhetorical differences. But their opinions clearly differ in the third comparison. The reviewer might have read Apple s argument before her purchase, and her review is a reflection of the fact that she disagrees, which would explain her post-decision dissonance. In the fourth and final comparison, Apple.com has no comparable sentiment. So, the reviewer reuses Apple s arguments in comparison 1 and 2, but not in the third comparison. It terms of the third comparison, Apple might even be responsible for creating dissonance in the first place. But since the review ends with a statement in favour of the product and the brand, it would seem that Apple s arguments have countered her post-decision dissonance. Review 2 if you are contemplating buying a mac book pro or any of the apple products due to the high prices DONT you get what you pay for. I just forked out a grand for a brand new mac book pro with retina display and it is the best money i have ever spent, the quality is undeniable. Also id strongly advised against getting the air just because its cheaper buying paying that little bit more for a pro is so worth it! cant comment on customer service because i didnt need any, website is beautiful and easy navigate parallel to their products and delivery is snappy. (Appendix 1) In this review, the individual engages directly in dissonance reduction, and exhibits clear signs of cognitive dissonance. In line with the free choice paradigm, the negative aspects of the chosen alternative are dissonant with the decision. In this case, the negative aspects relate to the price and the rejected alternative: the air, i.e. the lighter, less powerful, and cheaper MacBook Air. To reduce his post-decision dissonance, he makes use of the second, third and fourth technique illustrated in figure 1. In terms of the second technique, he adds these consonant cognitions: DONT you get what you pay for, it is the best money i have ever spent, the quality is Page 19 af 79

20 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 undeniable and paying that little bit more for a pro is so worth it. He uses the consonant cognitions to decrease the importance of the negative aspects, i.e. the prize and the rejected alternative. This increases the importance of consonant cognitions, which validates his choice, and ultimately reduces dissonance. Further, the reviewer polarises the rejected alternative by advising against it, which deems the chosen alternative more desirable and the rejected alternative less desirable. So, by decreasing the importance of the dissonant cognitions, he reduces his dissonance. However, the emergence of his aversive motivational state is difficult to pinpoint in this case. The behaviour of the reviewer only fits with one aspect of the belief disconfirmation paradigm, his attempt to persuade others to accept the merits of his chosen alternative, and that seems inadequate. For dissonance to emerge in this paradigm, something has to indicate that he was exposed to information inconsistent with his beliefs. Dissonance may have arisen because of the psychological importance of the cognition. If we assume that his decision was difficult, and that he invested a great deal of effort, time and money in said decision, then that could explain the emergence of his aversive motivational state. Steele & Liu s self-affirmation theory (1983) suggests that this happens because of self-integrity, and if people are given an opportunity to affirm their self-integrity, in this case by means of an online user review, it can reduce the need for attitude change. This seems like an important aspect when the cognition is very resistant to change. But according to Aronson s self-consistency theory (1968), dissonance arouse because his behaviour was inconsistent with his self-concept. Self-affirmation, however, seems to explain this situation better than self-consistency. There are no signs here that inconsistency is the motivating force in producing dissonance effects, but there are indications of a need for self-integrity, which makes self-affirmation far more plausible. Based on the above assessment, the review shows high levels of dissonance. The high price, the reviewers need to affirm his self-integrity, and his attempt to persuade others implies that the cognitions are psychologically important. Thus, resulting in fairly high levels of dissonance. Apple Review DONT you get what you pay for 2. Millions of pixels ahead of its time. The pixel 2. Mac book pro with Retina display and it is density is so high, your eyes can t discern the best money i have ever spent, the quality is individual pixels. The Retina display reduces undeniable Page 20 af 79

21 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 glare while maintaining incredible color and quality Figure 3. (Based on Appendices 1 & 2) Based on the comparison of sentiments in figure 3, the review does not directly reflect information from Apple.com. But they certainly seem to convey the same main idea: that you get what you pay for. In the second comparison, Apple argues that their display is: ahead of its time, which suggests that no other display on the market is comparable with the Retina. In the review, however, it is difficult to discern whether the reviewer reflects upon certain features, all Apple products, or just the one she bought. But in the second comparison, one can reasonably assume that she talks about her chosen alternative: the mac book pro with retina display, and even here, her statement is too generic to be considered a reflection of the website. In the last sentiments, she simply makes a vague statement that the quality of the MacBook Pro with Retina display is undeniable, whereas Apple argues for a specific feature of the Retina display that it maintains colour and quality. So, there is no evidence that the review reflects information from Apple.com. But the overall opinion of Apple and their products is very positive, and thus in agreement with the Apple s arguments. Review 3 The MacBook Air is an unbelievable portable. Its thin, light and perfect for business and personal use. Ive owned one for about 5 years now, and i couldnt be more pleased (appendix 1) This reviewer exhibits a latent need to justify his purchase. It is latent because, according to the free choice paradigm, dissonance is aroused once the decision is made, and here it is 5 years too late. One might also argue that this example simply shows a satisfied customer, who wanted to express his appreciation of a product, by reviewing it 5 years after he made the purchase. And while that could be the case, it seems peculiar and unlikely. Dissonance research tells us that individuals often feel the need to reinforce and maintain their attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviour. Such a need is, according to the belief disconfirmation paradigm, often aroused when people encounter information that is inconsistent with their beliefs. In this case, experience or discrepant information might suggest to the reviewer that he could have made a better choice, and if he tries to maintain the belief that he could not, then that will create dissonance, which he needs to reduce. By adding the consonant cognitions: the MacBook Air is an unbelievable portable, it s thin, light and perfect for business and personal use, he is using the second reduction strategy illustrated in figure 1. Page 21 af 79

22 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 Further, by saying that: i couldn t be more pleased he views the chosen alternative as more desirable, which also reduces dissonance. However, this is an example where one needs to be critical and careful not to read too much into a situation. It may even be the case that this reviewer is entirely without cognitive inconsistencies. And at the same time, the review could be a falsification, which would explain its irregular nature. But that is impossible to determine. This review shows very small amounts of dissonance. If the reviewer had experienced higher levels of dissonance, it would be highly unusual to only use one reduction strategy, not mention dissonant cognitions, not argue more for your choice, and not try to denigrate rejected alternatives. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that the magnitude of dissonance is very low. Apple Review 1. Thin, light, powerful and ready for anything 1. Thin, light and perfect for business and personal use 2. Ultraportable notebook 2. Unbelievable portable Figure 4. (Based on Appendices 1 & 2) The semantic units in figure 4 are very similar. In the first comparison, the only real difference besides the word powerful is the slightly ambiguous: ready for anything compared to the more specific perfect for business and personal use. The second comparison shows just as little difference in meaning as the first one did. Ultra, as in: to an extreme degree is virtually identical with unbelievable in the sense that something is: extraordinary; so great or extreme that it is difficult to believe. So, based on these remarks, this review highly reflects the arguments set forth by Apple s website. However, it is difficult to assess the significance of this fact because of the nature of the review. Based on the comparisons, it seems that his consonant cognitions are quite similar to Apple s arguments, which could mean that it assisted in countering his dissonance. But because the reviewer talks about a product that is 5 years old, I have to consider this comparison inconclusive. Review 4 As titled, Apple is Apple. Sleek looking, easy to use phones. Love my iphone 6! Although the iphone 6 is rather big for my likings (appendix 1) Page 22 af 79

23 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 This reviewer indicates that he knew what he was buying, yet feels the need to express a negative aspect about the chosen alternative. To reduce the negative feeling, he uses the second strategy illustrated in figure 1. By adding the three consonant cognitions: Apple is Apple, sleek looking, easy to use phones and love my iphone 6! he is effectively maintaining his attitude that he loves the chosen alternative despite the dissonant cognition that he thinks the phone is too big. This suggests that he, although not overtly, also uses the third and fourth reduction strategy illustrated in figure 1, since he decreases the importance of the negative aspect by keeping his focus on the importance of the consonant cognitions. So, although the emergence this aversive motivational state is relatively benign, the belief disconfirmation paradigm explains quite well why dissonance arose here. The product did not meet the reviewer s expectations. Specifically, the size of the product did not conform to his beliefs, and that creates dissonance. This tendency is predictable because, according to Aronson s self-consistency theory (1968: 23), dissonance is more prone to occur when a firm expectancy is involved as one of the cognitions. He most likely did not expect to receive a phone that is: rather big for my likings. So, in agreement with self-consistency theory and the belief disconfirmation paradigm, dissonance arose because he was exposed to information inconsistent with one of his beliefs, and that evoked an aversive motivational state. This review displays a fairly low amount of dissonance. The review only shows a single dissonant cognition, and it does not seem psychologically important to the individual. As a result, there is no reason to assume that he experiences high levels of psychological inconsistency. Apple Review 1. Smooth, continuous form 1. Sleek looking 2. Easy to navigate 2. Easy to use phones 3. Designing a larger iphone without making it 3. Rather big for my likings feel bigger was no small task. So while its display is larger, iphone 6 feels just right Page 23 af 79

24 SteffanKyhe Bachelor sthesis 5May2015 Figure 5. (Based on Appendices 1 & 2) According to figure 5, Apple s arguments seem to be reproduced in the review, up until a disagreement occurs. In the first comparison from figure 5, sleek looking is synonymous with an object having a streamlined shape or design, or as Apple puts it: smooth, continuous form. And in the second comparison, they both express the same sentiment, i.e. Apple s phones are easy to use. Although, Apple s argument is more specific, and the review more ambiguous, they indicate the same meaning. However, their opinions collide in the third comparison. Apple tries to convey the message that their larger iphone does not feel too big, and the reviewer expresses that, for him, it does in fact feel too big. Because of that, one might argue that Apple s argumentation is what caused his feelings of dissonance, since he seems to emulate the opinions expressed on Apple.com. So, the semantic units from the website appear to reflect the review. And despite the negative aspect of his choice, he views the product as more desirable than the rejected alternatives: Love my iphone 6!. This suggests that the cognitive work aimed at reducing the inconsistency has been successful, and by virtue of that, so has Apple s arguments. Review 5 The Benchmark for Retail Forget the prices, its all about the quality at Apple. (Appendix 1) This review is extremely vague, and comes of as pure conjecture, but dissonance is clearly present. While there is little to go on in this review, the individual does express a need for dissonance reduction. It manifests itself in the maintenance of his belief that products from Apple are of high quality, and that the price is irrelevant. The reviewer makes use of the second, third and fourth reduction strategy illustrated in figure 1. He adds the consonant cognitions: the Benchmark for Retail and its all about the quality, which serve the purpose of decreasing the importance of dissonant cognitions: the prices. This assists in increasing the importance of the aforementioned consonant cognitions in order to reduce dissonance even more. Furthermore, he clearly tries to argue that his chosen alternative is more desirable, but does not directly disparage rejected alternatives. It is, however, difficult to assess the underlying motivation here because the review is Page 24 af 79