Scientific Positioning of the Institute

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2 THE INTERNATIONAL RIVER AND HERITAGE INSTITUTE PROJECT LE PROJET «INSTITUT INTERNATIONAL FLEUVE ET PATRIMOINE» Scientific Positioning of the Institute Positionnement scientifique de l Institut Vincent PERTHUISOT, chef de projet Mars 2004 Mission Val de Loire 81 rue Colbert, BP 4332, Tours Cedex 1, FRANCE Tel : Fax : Mail : perthuisot@mission-valdeloire.fr

3 Introduction Scientific Positioning of the Institute The Loire Valley has been included on the UNESCO world heritage list on account of both its dynamic and untamed natural landscape formed by the ever-changing embanked river bed, and also its cultural landscape built up over the centuries by human settlements on the embankment-protected alluvial plain and hillsides. The Loire, including the regions it flows through and the natural and human environments which have developed in it, constitutes one of the major fields of research of the universities situated in the Loire valley. The Mission Val de Loire, created in 2002 by the Centre and Pays de la Loire administrative regions with the support of the World Heritage Centre (UNESCO), introduced the idea for an Institute which would draw on these regional training and research opportunities. By mobilising universities, schools and research centres in the Loire valley, the Institute s role is to develop an internationally-recognized scientific organization working on the interaction between the river and heritage. Its aim is not to operate on its own, but to call on the expertise of each of its partners for projects and actions which it has either identified itself or for which other agencies have requested its assistance. A scientific committee has been set up to define the Institute s field of competence. It has selected four principle topics in the domain of river-related heritage: o Knowledge o Preservation o Restoration o Development and management Within the context of these four topics, the Institute will require a very wide range of skills which will be provided by its partners. It will have links with scientists, researchers and technicians, as well as with ethnologists and project designers likely to propose tourism or heritage development plans for specific sites. To be effective at an international level, the Institute must not restrict its abilities and actions to the regional boundaries of the Loire Valley, but be able to transpose them to river systems as a whole, whatever the climate and the cultural, social or economic context. The Loire Valley is not therefore an end in itself, but will form the base on which the Institute will build its legitimacy. The following text has been produced from elements contained in the report written by the scientific committee made up of representatives from the higher education and research establishments of the Loire Valley.

4 I Knowledge of natural habitats and cultural landscapes The scientific subject covered includes natural habitats, seen from a physical and biological perspective, and landscape in both the objective and cultural sense of the term. The ultimate aims are: 1) to use a multidisciplinary approach to broaden and combine knowledge of habitats and landscapes, interlinking different branches of knowledge wherever possible; 2) to capitalize knowledge and apply it functionally with a sustainable development objective. The Loire Valley, with its wealth and variety of habitats and landscapes, lends itself particularly well to this type of procedure. This valley can provide a model for understanding other river valleys, while at the same time benefiting from what the other major rivers of the world have to offer. 1. Drainage basin, river and catchment To explain the natural landscape of the bed it is essential to understand the physical functioning of the river. For example, the hydrology, the frequency and intensity of high and low waters caused by precipitation and the catchment structure, the geology, particularly with regard to the type of sediments, the relief of the land and thus the slope, all contribute to the river s constantly changing shape and the diversification of its geomorphology and physical habitats following each structuring hydrological event. These basic elements help explain the functioning of rivers in general, whether they be in Europe or other continents.

5 The stream flow pattern, which is the result of variations in rate and speed of flow and load, constantly changes the shape of the islets and banks of the river, redistributing a mosaic of habitats, primarily physical, in the main river channel during low water periods, the secondary channels and the ox-bow lakes which make up the drainage basin. This also includes wetlands, interface zones subject to fluctuations in water level. Knowledge of the geological nature of the underlying soil is also important for the following reasons: 1) it largely determines the physical landscape: plateaux, cliffs, hillsides, terraces and plains are created by patterns of erosion, providing a variety of morphological bases for land occupation and human activities; 2) it influences the flow pattern of the river due to alluvial sheets or deep water tables which cause the dissolution of certain rock formations, creating a network of cavities which can destabilize the river bed or its embankments; 3) the catchment area develops from these morphological and hydrological features (this area, often characterized by specific human activities and biotopes, is generally considered the most relevant for study); 4) it provides the materials used for the built environment and mineral resources; 5) through erosion of the morphological supports, it creates frequently reworked or stabilized alluvial deposits which contain the vestiges of anthropogenic systems. A number of natural or man-made phenomena, such as the extraction of granular material, global warming which can lead to vegetation growth on hillsides and significantly reduce erosion, dams acting as silt traps, navigation works concentrating water in a single channel, all contribute to a reduction of sediment transport and to cutting the river bed. Consequently, side streams become cut off from the main river for long periods, thereby preventing the reproduction of a large number of living species. Agricultural, domestic and industrial pollutants affect the water quality as well as the organisation of living communities. Many of these pollutants, associated with prolonged periods of low water, cause the growth of vegetation in the low-water channel, with a significant impact on the course of the river and the landscape in times of high water. 2. Wildlife communities and biodiversity The distribution and diversity of living species in the drainage basin are affected by these river dynamics, as well as by the physico-chemical composition of the water. The distribution of 1,450 native plant species in the Loire valley, comprising herbaceous and woody species ranging from aquatic communities to woodland species which thrive in the alluvial plain, thus depends on simple physical parameters such as the nature of the surface substrate, the risk of flooding and distance from an active channel. The distribution of some 3,000 animal species (including 2,500 species of invertebrates) in the Loire drainage basin also depends on simple physical parameters: rate of flow, type of substrate, physico-chemical characteristics of the

6 water. Heritage, rare or threatened species, species communities or habitats at regional, national, European or international level are recognized as requiring protection. Invasive animal and plant species modify or bring about the rapid evolution of native species and tend to render obsolete the habitats defined in the 1992 European Directive. This observation raises the question about the relevance of the notion of natural heritage as it is currently understood. 3. Organisation of human occupation and activities in time and space The river corridor: a space coveted by man Throughout history, human activity has been concentrated along river valleys. The organisation of these river corridor activities is dependent on rules linked both to the natural limitations of the area and to social and community controls which have developed over the centuries since prehistoric times. Through observation and knowledge of how previous societies occupied the space, we can understand their social and spatial rules and practices, as well as how they have influenced land occupation today. The accumulation and interweaving of history and space are particularly visible in river corridors, areas which have always been coveted by human societies. Urban spaces and regional dynamics Even within urban areas, people concentrate along the river corridor. For much of the 20 th century, town planning turned its back on the river, but organising urban spaces around the river is now more widespread. The issues which are currently being studied concern: a) how the distribution of people and activities are restricted by the river; b) how the river axis and its evolution (shifts, migrations) influence urban organisation; c) how these phenomena can be charted and anticipated; d) if and how an urban space can be designed in relation to the river; e) in what ways the river gives or denies the existence of the town; f) what are the uses and representations of the river in urban and other areas. The pattern of occupation of space within river corridors is linked to economic activities created by the river. The way human settlements and establishments are organised is based on social and economic practices. However, these evolve over time, constantly changing social organisation and customs. In this way, when the Loire was used for navigation, towns and villages were built along the river in a linear fashion and with a particular style of house; when it was used as a major road and rail route, human settlement was separated from the main bed, while the development of holiday homes and tourism has reversed that trend. Landscape and society Like most major world rivers, human society has influenced the Loire and its valleys in the following ways: o building embankments for flood protection o creating fields and meadows on the rich soil of the alluvial plain

7 o assisting and developing commercial navigation, and also passenger and tourist transport o power production, from water mills and hydroelectric dams to nuclear power stations o management of natural resources such as granular material or fish (gravel pits and traditional fishing systems form part of the landscape). Each of these customs, uses and systems which have been carried out over the centuries has contributed to shaping the present-day landscape. Paradoxically, practices, uses and systems can become heritage objects, while the landscape itself can be the heritage subject. Nature in both its wild or managed state, a microclimate and specific environment which allows hillsides to be planted with vineyards, the building of prestigious houses, particularly chateaux with a view both of and from the river, parks and gardens, towns and villages seen or imagined from the river, all these features contribute to this concept of the river corridor as a coveted space. Risks and human occupation The river dynamics, characterized periodically or permanently by slow or sudden phenomena such as erosion, silting or flooding, may present disadvantages or risks for people or their environment. The more the river corridor is settled by humans, the more this inconvenience is felt. If settlement is essential, then people protect their livelihood and goods from the whims of the river. In the towns, the height of the embankments is in proportion to the number of inhabitants and the quality of housing; outside the towns, this protection from the river is also often required, but people are also prepared to live with the river, as its floods constitute a source of wealth (what would happen to the land in the delta of the Nile without the nourishing floods of the river?). Studying how societies adapt to risks provides evidence of the mechanisms in play and how these apply to different situations. 4. Methods and tools used To obtain more than just a simple description of habitats, but rather a dynamic vision of how they evolve, particularly within the context of sustainable development, relevant measurement instruments, appropriate representation systems and convincing modelling tools are required. With such tools, several compatible paths can be envisaged: o Analysing the relevance of current indicators, or finding new indicators, requiring methods used by all the disciplines concerned. o Evaluation using recognized indicators, for example to assess a reference state and then the rate of change of the river and human systems, whose relationship can clearly be seen in the cultural landscape. o Representation of static and dynamic data concerning the natural and human environments, using spatial mapping tools and methods (cartography, GIS) based on surveys and measurements made on site or at a distance. o Modelling the various elements of the system to achieve greater readability and optimise the tools and instruments of sustainable heritage management.

8 II HERITAGE CONSERVATION, PRESERVATION AND RESTORATION As a navigable river, the Loire brought sailors, nobles, farmers and town-dwellers into contact. It facilitated the transport of consumable goods, building material, and the spread of skills and knowledge. Stones, slate and tufastone provided durable building materials. The mild climate allowed the development of pleasant landscapes, dominated by vineyards and gardens. It is this harmonious blending of river, varied landscape, elegant houses and intense cultural life that gives the sense of beauty and created the idea of a gentle way of life which is so dear to the heart of residents and visitors to the Loire Valley. Elsewhere, different elements combine to give particular heritage characteristics to other river areas. In each case, it is these specific heritage elements which must be conserved. But what exactly is conservation? 1. The issues of heritage conservation Conservation does not mean stopping progress. If such had been the case, there would be no cultural landscape in the Loire Valley. On the contrary, this landscape is the result of contributions by successive Renaissance periods: Carolingian, 15 th Century French, 16 th Century Italian, 18 th and 19 th Century Revolutionary. Even material objects which could be saved from the whims of time cannot all be kept for ever by individuals, and even less by local authorities. Moreover, it is an illusion to think that everything can be kept in its original state: vegetation grows or turns into scrub, buildings decay, rivers cut into the landscape, silt up and form sand banks, aquatic communities change. Even the best-protected works, paintings or books, deteriorate. So, what should be conserved and why? At least two criteria can be used. The first concerns the specificity of the heritage object in relation to world heritage. For example, the cultural landscape of the Loire Valley is unique. Another justifiable criterion is regional, whereby regional heritage elements help fulfil a natural need to know one s individual or collective origin and experience a feeling of regional pride and solidarity with others living in the same region, while still being able to share this regional power with people from outside. Moreover, local authorities should not see heritage as a retreat to the past, but as the basis for socio-economic development. If

9 the notion of conservation is associated with creating means of livelihood and work, then no further justification is necessary. How should heritage be conserved? There are two aspects which should be considered: first, avoiding, or at least delaying, deterioration (preventative action), and secondly repairing or rebuilding what has been damaged or destroyed (restorative action). Conservation is therefore both preserving and restoring. Preservation helps avoid, or at least delay the need for restoration, and even if the latter becomes necessary, it will ensure the durability of the restoration. It is essential to have administrative and technical staff trained in heritage conservation to guide political decisions. 2. The different aspects of heritage The scientific committee considers that the typology defining heritage corresponds to the scientific approaches applied: each type of heritage corresponds to a specific scientific domain and means of intervention and thus constitutes a scientific approach. Cultural heritage: monuments, architectural and built sites Material heritage includes buildings (castles, houses) or dwellings dug out of the rock, archaeological elements and artistic works (including tools, costumes, photographs, archives, etc.). For buildings, the main cause of concern is the deterioration and protection of the building materials (type, source, use). For example, stone (tufastone, slate) can deteriorate as a result of weathering. Another example is wood, used for constructing bridges and certain buildings (wooden-piles), toll dykes, mills and fisheries, various types of boat and the heritage of water transport as a whole. Here, the main problem, with particular relevance to the river, is to conserve water-logged timber. Ethnological heritage Unlike material heritage, ethnological heritage refers to skills, usages, historical events, memories of places, in short everything which cannot be seen but which gives life to heritage, everything which is intangible but at the same time indispensable for understanding and developing the river heritage. Certain aspects are of particular interest in the Loire Valley and are currently receiving attention: o Musical heritage, and the issues raised by works which are specific to the region, musical trends in the Loire Valley, instruments and their repertoire, songs of the Loire sailors, folk dances, etc. o Literary heritage associated with the Loire, bringing together the writers Ronsard and Rabelais from Touraine, the poet Du Bellay from Anjou (cf conference on the French language in 2002) and the Rochefort School, and also dialectal poetry and oral and story-telling traditions. o Craft heritage, traditional crafts, specific traditions related to different craftsmen and skills transfer. o Heritage in terms of the local memory of fishing, salt, floods, beliefs, pilgrimages, legends, traditional wakes, etc.

10 o Food and wine o Heritage in terms of rediscovered Loire navigation practices. Natural and environmental heritage Still within the case of the Loire river corridor (although this can also apply to other rivers), two very different areas can be identified when considering natural heritage: 1) When agricultural activities and commercial navigation were abandoned, the embanked river-bed, strongly influenced by human actions up to the end of the 19 th century, returned largely to a natural state, even in urbanized areas. This revealed a mosaic of wildlife habits within a dominant alluvial forest, at the mercy of hydrological events over which man has little control. In these areas are to be found wildlife habitats as well as heritage species which must be preserved, whether they are land or aquatic species, sessile or migratory. This restored stretch of the Loire river, unlike many other European rivers, harbours a remarkable biodiversity, and its landscape is constantly reshaped by the river dynamics. 2) The second area is the river corridor outside the embanked bed of the Loire: the alluvial plain, valley slopes and tributary valleys, both rural and urbanised. These constitute the coveted space, where the cultural landscape is most apparent. Here the natural heritage is only one part of the landscape which has been influenced for centuries by the interaction of human usages and beliefs. These two areas should probably be treated differently in terms of preservation and restoration. Finally, natural heritage does not only involve living matter; it also includes mineral resources such as rocks, sediment and water, which also constitute a heritage and whose physical and chemical aspects must be preserved or restored. 3. Conservation, preservation and restoration of built and ethnological heritage The preservation of a heritage object involves first identifying the factors which could cause it to deteriorate or disappear. To do so, scientific studies dealing with knowledge of habitats are essential and help political authorities or regional planners in making crucial decisions. In certain cases, preservation can consist in making a material copy or image of the heritage object. Restoration consists in rehabilitating objects which have lost a significant part of their physical or artistic identity. The techniques used are generally substantial and sophisticated. Where an object has suffered from age (deterioration of a painting, stonework, forest or garden), restoration will involve not only technical but also historical knowledge. If a building s deterioration puts it at risk, specialist architects and technicians must be involved. All types of heritage, built, archaeological, artistic, intangible or natural, require a large range of legal, financial, land tenure and scientific tools for their preservation and restoration. There are three major stages in the procedure:

11 i) Census and inventory A census of what exists needs to be carried out, together with an inventory of practices, usages and resource people, as well as possible local non-profit-making organisations which play a vital role in developing crafts, poetry, literature, the arts, music etc. It is also necessary to identify what is lacking and important characteristics which are not found elsewhere, and it is particularly important to investigate the most vulnerable and threatened activities and areas (what are the endangered activities and practices which should be treated as a priority?). Methods of identifying, census-taking and classifying this intangible heritage need to be looked at further; studies, courses, surveys, tutored projects, documentaries and collection of information are frequently used today. Similarly, the means, particularly educational, of handing down, promoting and communication for this heritage (literary excursions, exhibitions, musical itineraries, educational outings, etc.). University, school and laboratory partners must pool their ideas with local partners (museums and organisations involved with intangible heritage, eco-museums, etc.) who hold or are the custodians of memory in the area. ii) Diagnosis Diagnostic methods help identify what is required to achieve the desired objectives with regard to a heritage object (stop further deterioration, rehabilitate, etc.), and to evaluate the costs. They are a decision-making tool in a project. It is not therefore a question of evaluating just the heritage objects themselves and the interventions required, but also the risks and the actors involved in the intervention process, as well as the likely impacts. iii) Intervention This stage involves restoration and protection techniques. Preservation and restoration require a wide range of technical knowledge and skills acquired in specialized research laboratories. Moreover, analytical methods only available to highly skilled laboratories are also needed. For these reasons, universities and research laboratories are essential players in the conservation field. Local schools with training programmes for craftsmen and restorers are an additional asset. The study of how materials alter (e.g. stone) must include prospecting deposits of restoration or replacement material. Such studies are currently being carried out for tufastone. Many museums and research centres in the Loire Valley use conservation techniques for artistic and archaeological works (e.g. for the history of texts or archaeomaterials). 4. Conservation, preservation and restoration of natural river habitats The various protection measures (in Europe: natural reserves, protected biotope zones, Natura 2000 areas, etc.) concern above all the river bed and surrounding areas, but protection and restoration measures and heritage management measures at the regional level must also take sustainable development into account. Thus, water quality affected by human activities within the catchment as a

12 whole should be monitored in order to optimise ecological functioning and riverrelated biodiversity. i) Aims and means of human intervention There are a large number of terms used to describe human intervention on river systems to repair damage often caused by the misuse of nature and its resources. To define these actions, certain concepts currently grouped under the general heading of restoration ecology or ecological engineering should be used. Indeed, rehabilitation of natural habitats and the river system requires the application of engineering sciences to ecology during intervention on natural and modified environments which still have a good level of resilience, while respecting the functioning of the ecosystem. Such intervention is based on a concept of deterioration which helps define the ideal or theoretical objective to be achieved in terms of rehabilitation/restoration. Preservation or protection consists of using conservation measures and appropriate management to protect sensitive environments from deterioration. Protection involves systems of identification (what is to be protected?) and of fixing boundaries (zoning areas), and determines the measures to be applied to ensure the protection missions agreed by society are fulfilled. These measures are graded: for example, sanctuarisation in the central zones of National Parks in France attempts to ensure total protection, while a measure of restricted activities in peripheral zones and throughout all the Regional Natural Parks aims to direct economic development in line with planned charters or programmes. Management consists of adapting uses to the resources (heritage management of a nature reserve, water-resource management, river navigation management). For many years, heritage management practices have included restoration and rehabilitation. The existence of nature reserves, the purchase or creation of management contracts carried out by conservation bodies has allowed natural environments to be preserved. ii) Protection and habitat management tools Habitat and species diversity must be preserved, as well as the integrity of ecological entities, ensuring that their organisation and structure do not deteriorate (the food chain, geochemical cycles, etc.), that the functional spatial system and corridors are conserved in order to limit the barrier effects of stretches inhospitable for wildlife, and that the natural system of quantitative and qualitative control of the water resource is conserved. Various measures can be implemented to ensure the preservation of habitats and species, as well as that of the integrity of the ecological systems of the drainage basin: a) Legal measures (to create a reserve, biotope by-law) by the State, applying only to relatively limited areas compared to the size of the zones concerned. These measures should contain a management programme. b) Site acquisition and management, particularly by natural and site heritage

13 conservation bodies, with regional or departmental funds, assisted by the European Union. In the specific case of the upstream, non-embanked reaches of the Loire where the river flows freely, the best way to preserve the wetlands and secondary channels is by purchasing these areas; this will allow the river to flow freely and re-shape the area, controlled only by heritage management. With very few exceptions, the main role of these first two tools, applied in limited areas, is to serve as an example or to raise awareness of the heritage. c) Preservation by means of a contract between an owner and the competent institutions, which could again be conservation boards. iii) Habitat restoration tools Natural disturbances causing continuous rejuvenation of ecosystems or restoration allow a wide range of habitats to be conserved at different stages. Opening up the habitats in this case is maintained via different heritage methods: introducing hardy breeds of horse and cattle, developing pastoral activities, assisting cultural activities, etc.). The restoration of secondary channels or riverbanks, not with a view to redevelopment of the river system but aimed at encouraging biodiversity and optimising the functioning of the river system, serves the same purpose. In matters of protection, management or restoration, it is important to: a) analyse the conditions for setting up these legal tools which reflect the state of the power relationship at a given time. For example, the procedure linked to establishing Natural Parks has not been and is not experienced similarly in heavily populated areas (some members of the local population see it as a dispossession) and areas which are, or are seen as being, sparsely populated. Conversely, some measures are taken under pressure by influential groups who manage to impose their views. It is thus important to consider how to optimise negotiation, communication and information procedures. b) study these protection tools, the conditions under which they are implemented, the possibilities of transferring them to similar spaces located in different geographical and socio-cultural contexts (e.g. exporting or adapting the British National Trust or French Natural Regional Parks), or again to study the possibility of adapting tools designed for areas without rivers to river valleys (e.g. adapting the Coastal Conservation body system to the banks of major rivers, etc.) c) evaluate their effectiveness and identify their impact on the object to be protected, in order to improve these tools and limit their perverse effects (for example, protection measures such as a ban on hunting certain species can modify inter-species competition and lead to the undesirable proliferation of other species). 5. Conservation of the cultural landscapes of the river corridor Preservation of the natural heritage within cultural landscapes is another matter. Here it is above all a question of preserving the relationship between different uses, often agricultural (vineyards, forests, meadows), so as to allow free expression to a

14 landscape which is vulnerable at both material and intangible levels, and whose living heritage component is frequently essential, as shown by landscape ecology data. Within cultural landscapes, living species or rare habitats can of course exist and benefit from the same protection tools as in the former case, but in general the impact of past and present uses are more important. The Loire Valley has been listed as a World Heritage site because of the importance of its cultural landscape. This raises the questions of whether it is possible to claim that this landscape can be optimised, and whether its preservation (status quo?) depends on the interactive and fragile balance between the actions of current players and uses which have been shaped by all the practices and behaviours of the past. The economic development of these areas is desirable, but if it is not to disturb the cultural landscape, its possible consequences must be considered with extreme care and vigilance by the people whose job it is to integrate the new into the heritage with the ultimate goal of enhancing and enriching the cultural landscape. The design of these methods and tools relating to rivers and their valley remains to be finalized. Justification for the International River and Heritage Institute, borne by UNESCO and players in the Loire Valley, is based on these fundamental questions and the answers that must be found to them.

15 III ECONOMIC, TOURIST, CULTURAL MANAGEMENT AND ENHANCEMENT The Institute s positioning at the point where heritage and rivers meet raises the question of its links with development as a whole. 1. Process and dynamics Major rivers, taken as a whole and not just in the strict sense of water-courses, have been developed economically in many different ways through the ages: o Their use as a support for means of transport required the construction of specific structures, generated ship-building and many associated activities. o In addition, transport led to cultural exchanges between distant regions, and allowed people and ideas, as well as goods, to circulate. Distinct societies and specific forms of human organisation evolved as a result. o The abundance of water also led to many types of enterprise. The landscape, economic wealth and trade encouraged different types of settlement, from towns to noble and royal palaces. o Finally, imagination and its various forms of representation (literary, artistic, architectural, etc.) are also associated with river corridors. Historical records of these different forms of enterprise, handed down over the years and recognized as heritage items, constitute possible levers for economic and social development for present and future players in these areas. From this point of view, tourism constitutes a way of attributing new value to these legacies from the past which have fallen into disuse. This appropriation by tourism takes many forms. For example, commercial navigation has declined and is restricted to certain waterways and canals; in those places where it has disappeared, it has left important testimonies (ports, boats, warehouses, various tools, memory, etc.) which have today been taken up by tourism. At the same time, non-heritage forms of leisure navigation have developed. This taking over of an obsolete form of navigation by tourism demonstrates the classic processes of invention and subversion. Throughout the world, tourists perpetuate the use of means of transport which are no longer part

16 of the dominant economy, from walking to the traditional Loire sailing boats and barges. This appropriation by tourism generates wealth which can help society afford the cost of heritage rehabilitation. However, controlling these procedures and their economic, social and environmental effects is not straightforward. Tourism is in itself neither an agent of mass destruction nor a miracle recipe guaranteeing problem-free development. Implementing sustainable development relies on the interaction of numerous players (permanent residents, the State, tour operators providing easy access to tourist areas, etc.). 2. Reconciling the different uses of the river In most situations, tourism is not the only form of economic development. Commercial navigation is still active along many waterways, both in industrialised countries where navigability allows competition with other forms of transport, and in developing or under-industrialized countries where waterways are still the only means of transport or the most efficient means of transport particularly for bulky goods. A variety of economic activities still exist. The possibilities provided for cooling mean that most nuclear power stations are sited on major rivers; transport of bulky goods has led to the development of industrial processing plants, reproducing inland the situations found in major sea-port systems (steel-works on the Ruhr). Similarly, there are other active uses, such as storage, or the leisure activities of permanent residents (walking, fishing, etc.). The relationships between human society and major rivers are many and varied, and no single form can claim not to transform the environment, as all action, including that of conservation, influences the landscape and area by the development trends it imposes and the choices it makes. 3. Players, tools and strategies There are therefore many players and tools involved in this development, overlapping in time and space. Knowledge, and hence control of the existing systems is the subject of the Institute s last area of expertise. Policy design for heritage enhancement mobilises project management knowledge and skill. Evaluating the effects of these policies constitutes another essential part of improving the control and implementation of these economic, tourist or cultural developments of heritage. Moreover, across the world, the state of the great rivers and their regions can be seen to vary widely. The Institute therefore needs to make available knowledge of strategies for developing the economy, tourism and culture of these heritage sites, in order to help the players in those regions master the management and intervention tools available. The ultimate aim is thus to understand the processes and dynamics of development methods, and to analyse the players, instruments and strategies, in order to provide effective and transmissible knowledge.

17 4. Methods and tools To provide a basis for the Institute s domain of expertise, two approaches could be considered: 1) A retrospective approach, based on analysis and assessment of the procedures and strategies implemented by the players in the two sectors of direct economic development and patrimonialisation. This type of approach requires the methodologies used by social sciences, i.e. surveys by means of interviews and questionnaires, discourse analysis and observation. Case studies can also be used for in-depth investigation of the socio-political conditions of this type of development procedure. 2) A predictive approach, based on two ideas. The first concerns project design and management methods, based on studies in management sciences, public policy analysis and evaluation, development sciences etc. The second concerns instrument and system design for actions as well as controlling uses and development methods for river-related heritage, based on research in economic, legal and political sciences.

18 Conclusion It must be emphasized that the role of the Institute is not to act alone, but rather to mobilize the expertise of each of its partners within the context of its various missions: education and training, action and/or assistance for action, promoting research and development, capitalisation and dissemination of knowledge. With its broad-based approach and contacts at both international and local levels, the Institute provides development and enhancement opportunities for all its partners, as well as mobilizing new resources for use by project holders within the context of the World Heritage Centre s preservation and enhancement policy. The goal of analysing the scientific context was to identify areas of possible expertise and intervention by the International River and Heritage Institute in each of its priority missions. o Training: areas in which the Institute will be able to contribute to training include the functioning, conservation and development of drainage basin systems and related heritage features, heritage development, and managing tourist, cultural and economic development. In line with these missions, it will develop engineering services and technical assistance to help mobilise the initial and further training resources of the Institute s partner universities who will run these training courses. o Research and expertise: the Institute will contribute to the development and expertise of each of its partner universities and research centres in relation to joint projects concerning each of the three types of heritage identified. o Project management: one of the most innovative missions of this Institute will be to manage projects on behalf of countries or sites which request expert advice or assistance via the World Heritage Centre. o Capitalisation of knowledge: the Institute, together with existing federative organisations within its partner universities, could constitute a centre for capitalising on knowledge in the specific domain of the Loire Valley.

19 Members of the Scientific Committee Mr Patrick Barbier, professor at UCO, Angers Mr Jean Pierre Berton, professor at Tours University, director of Imacof Mr Jean Duchesne, professor at INH, Angers Mr Jean Marie Fotsing, professor at Orléans University Mr Patrick Gillet, vice rector of the Université Catholique de l Ouest Ms Corinne Larrue, professor at Tours University Mr Jean Pierre Leprêtre, research director at BRGM, Orléans Mr Loïc Ménanteau, CNRS, Nantes Mr Gérard Moguedet, professor at Angers University Mr Alain Plançon, professor at Orléans University Mr Philippe Violier, professor, Vice-President of Angers University

20 Contents INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HABITATS, CULTURAL LANDSCAPES AND THE RIVER 1. Drainage basin, river and catchment 2. Wildlife communities and biodiversity 3. Organisation of human occupation and activities in time and space The river corridor: a space coveted by man Urban spaces and regional dynamics Landscape and society Risks and human occupation 4. Methods and tools CHAPTER II HERITAGE CONSERVATION, PRESERVATION AND RESTORATION 1. The issues of heritage conservation 2. The various aspects of heritage Monuments, architecture, built sites Ethnology Natural and environmental 3. Conservation, preservation, restoration of built and ethnological heritage 4. Conservation, preservation, restoration of natural river habitats Aims and means of human intervention Protection and management tools Restoration tools 5. Conservation of cultural landscapes in the river corridor CHAPTER III ECONOMIC, TOURIST AND CULTURAL MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT 1. Procedures and dynamics 2. Reconciliation of the different uses of the river 3. Players, instruments and strategies 4. Methods and tools Conclusion Members of the scientific committee

21 Mission Val de Loire 81 rue Colbert, BP 4332, Tours Cedex 1, FRANCE Tel : Fax : Mail : perthuisot@mission-valdeloire.fr