SOCCER FANS MOTIVATION AS A PREDICTOR OF PARTICIPATION IN SOCCER-RELATED ACTIVITIES: AN EMPIRICAL EXAMINATION IN ISRAEL

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1 SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2005, 33(5), Society for Personality Research (Inc.) SOCCER FANS MOTIVATION AS A PREDICTOR OF PARTICIPATION IN SOCCER-RELATED ACTIVITIES: AN EMPIRICAL EXAMINATION IN ISRAEL AARON COHEN AND ANAT AVRAHAMI University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel This study tested the applicability of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) developed by Wann (1995) in the Israeli soccer setting. The study examined whether the scale can be applied to soccer specifically, not just to sport in general. It also tested the predictive validity of the SFMS by developing a scale of participation in soccer activities and examined several hypotheses regarding its relationship to the SFMS. The sample consisted of 327 high school students in the north of Israel (an 86% response rate). The findings showed that the SFMS predicted a significant amount of variance of participation in soccer activities. Results of regression analyses showed that eustress (positive stress), self-esteem, group, and aesthetic motivations were strongly related to active participation in soccer activities. Entertainment, self-esteem, and economic motivations were strongly related to passive participation in soccer activities. The findings are discussed in terms of their conceptual and practical contributions. Sport has become a major attraction within the leisure and tourism industries. Hence, studies of the motivation behind participation in sport and leisure activities are of increasing interest to both sport professionals and members of the tourist and leisure industries who are interested in sport and leisure planning and marketing development (Recours, Souville, & Griffet, 2004). Social science research on sport distinguishes three dimensions of sport involvement: the behavioral dimension, the cognitive dimension, and the tendency dimension (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1973). Each of these dimensions can include more than one type of involvement. For example, the behavioral involvement in sport can take two forms: 1) direct participation in sport activity, and 2) participation as a spectator or a fan by reading about sport and watching games on television or at the stadium. Earlier studies have shown that there are economic, social, and Aaron Cohen and Anat Avrahami, Department of Political Science, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel. Appreciation is due to anonymous reviewers. Please address correspondence and reprint requests to: Aaron Cohen, Department of Political Science, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel. Phone: (9724) ; Fax: (9724) ; <ACOHEN@POLI.HAIFA.AC.IL> 419

2 420 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS psychological predispositions to these types of leisure time activities (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1976). This study focused on participation through the spectator s role. Watching sport represents a predominant form of leisure behavior in today s society. A large number of people attend sporting events and think of themselves as sport fans (James & Ridinger, 2002). Ascertaining the factors that motivate individuals to watch sport is a theoretical and practical challenge for sport researchers and practitioners (Armstrong, 2002). Many studies have dealt with the sport spectator phenomenon and with behavior of fans and spectators. Some studies have focused on the outcomes of spectatorship, examining the socialization processes and motivation patterns that lie behind this form of leisure behavior (Gaskell & Pearton, 1979; Zillman, Bryant, & Sapolsky, 1979). Other studies have focused on the factors related to the sources and stability of spectators identification with a particular team (Moody, 1997; Wann, 2000; Wann, Tucker, & Schrader, 1996; Wann & Wilson, 1999a; Wann & Wilson, 1999b). This study focused on a concept that has attracted much attention in sport literature, namely fans motivations, and uses a scale developed by Wann (1995) and validated by Wann, Schrader, and Wilson (1999). The scale has been widely used in the attempts to better understand sport fan motivation. To that end, studies have utilized various correlates of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS). Some have examined how different demographic characteristics such as gender, race, and marital status are related to sport fan motivation (Bilyeu & Wann, 2002; James & Ridinger, 2002; Wann & Ensor, 2001; Wann, Lane, & Duncan, 1998; Wann & Wilson, 1999a). Other research examined how sport fan motivation is related to a preference for various types of sport (Wann, Schrader, & Wilson, 1999; Wann & Wilson, 1999a, 1999b). This study, by examining soccer fan motivation is Israel, made two contributions to research in the field. First, it applied the SFMS to one particular sport rather than to sport in general. Second, it utilized and validated the scale in a setting different from those used previously in North America and Europe, thus enabling us to see whether concepts developed in the North American culture are applicable to other cultures. This study also examined the predictive validity of the scale. Studies performed to date had not done this. This study examined whether and how the soccer fan motivation scale is related to patterns of sport participation. While a variety of correlates have been examined in relation to the SFMS, few studies have examined what outcomes, such as participation in sport, might result from this motivation. This study developed a scale to measure such participation and examined its relationship to the soccer fan motivation scale. Finally, demographic characteristics were also examined in relation to soccer participation.

3 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS 421 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES Based on an extensive review of the literature, Wann (1995) developed what he termed the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS). His goal was to develop a scientific tool with which to examine the motives of sport fans or spectators. By better understanding the motives of sport fans, more practical steps for increasing and directing this behavior can be taken. This 23-item Likert-type scale assesses eight different motives of sport fans: (1) entertainment the desire to be entertained by sports, (2) eustress the positive rush or stress release experienced by individuals when they watch sport, (3) self-esteem the personal enhancement individuals obtain from their sport consumption experiences, (4) escape the opportunity to use sport consumption as a diversion from everyday life, (5) group affiliation needs the identification offered by the contact or association with other sport consumers, (6) economic gains the benefits offered by activities such as wagering, (7) family motives the desire to spend time with family members, (8) aesthetics the appreciation of the beauty and artistic characteristics of sport performances (Armstrong, 2002). The goal was to develop a short and useful scale. An examination of the SFMS was performed by Wann (1995) using a multistage investigation. The results indicated that the eight-factor scale had statistically acceptable psychometric properties and was an internally consistent, reliable, and valid measure of eight different motives (Armstrong, 2002). Subsequent validation of the SFMS was provided by Wann, Schrader and Wilson (1999), who reported that the psychometric structure remained intact even when the tool was administered through telephone interviews to a more heterogeneous sampling than in the first validation. The goal of this study is to continue to examine the applicability of the SFMS as developed by Wann and validated by Wann, Schrader, and Wilson and to determine if it applies equally well to a single sport in this case, soccer. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS The main hypothesis advanced here refers to the relationship between the SFMS and participation in soccer activities. The motivation of fans has to be demonstrated in relevant behaviors, in our case, participation in soccer activities. We reasoned that these activities could be largely divided into active behaviors and passive ones. Active behaviors include fans attending home games of their favorite team or even traveling to see them play on the road. Passive participation refers more to watching soccer games on television or reading soccer news in the newspaper. Our hypotheses were based on the assumption that participation in soccer activities is a multidimensional construct. This assumption was tested.

4 422 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS Despite the exploratory nature of this study, several hypotheses were advanced for testing the relationships between the SFMS and participation in soccer activities. The main hypothesis expected that the SFMS would be related to participation in soccer activities. The rationale for this hypothesis was explained above. Thus: Hypothesis 1: The SFMS will be related to participation in soccer activities In addition to the main general hypothesis, we advanced several specific hypotheses regarding the relationship between each of the motives and between active and passive participation in soccer activities. Eight such hypotheses are presented. The main rationale behind these hypotheses was the belief that some of the motives are related to active participation in soccer activities rather than to passive forms of participation. The group motivation reflects the fans desire to be with other people. This motive involves the fans need to belong. By becoming an active fan of a team and attending games, an individual is able to share the experience with other fans of the same team (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We expected that those individuals whose dominant motivation is the group motivation would tend to demonstrate active soccer participation. In this way, they can become involved with others like themselves, thereby satisfying their need to be with others and to belong. Dressing in emblematic garb, such as a uniform or a scarf, and bringing certain symbols to the field further strengthens the feeling of team belonging. Thus: Hypothesis 1a Soccer fans group motivation will be related to the active forms of participation more than to the passive forms The economic motivation for watching sports is based on a desire to gamble on the events (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We hypothesized that individuals whose dominant motivation is the economic one will tend to demonstrate passive forms of soccer participation. One whose main interest in soccer is based on wagering can check the outcome of a game through a variety of media. Such people will not necessarily go to the field to watch the game. Indeed, they would prefer to be closer to the phone, radio and/or television because they can follow the results of several games simultaneously if they have made several bets. Thus: Hypothesis 1b Soccer fans economic motivation will be related to passive forms of participation more than to active forms Eustress is a positive form of stress that stimulates and energizes an individual. Individuals motivated by eustress enjoy the excitement and anxieties that often accompany watching sport (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We expected that individuals whose dominant motivation is the eustress motivation would tend to demonstrate active forms of soccer participation. One whose main interest in soccer stems from the need for a rush will find it on the field, in real games, with all of the excitement of being in the field and experiencing the game directly.

5 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS 423 Thus: Hypothesis 1c Soccer fans eustress motivation will be related to active forms of participation more than to passive forms The self-esteem motivation is attributed to individuals who are motivated by a desire to enhance their self-esteem. Being a sport fan helps many individuals create and maintain a positive self-concept. When a fan s team is successful, he or she gains a feeling of achievement and accomplishment (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We expect that individuals whose dominant reason for watching sport is their need to enhance their self-esteem will tend to demonstrate active forms of soccer participation rather than passive ones. Such individuals can feel the personal achievement and accomplishment most palpably in the field with their team and with the fans. One would feel more like a winner and a part of the team by actually being in the field and watching them win a match than by watching the same event at home on television. Thus: Hypothesis 1d Soccer fans self-esteem motivation will be related to active forms of participation rather than to passive ones The escape motive for fans means that fans who are dissatisfied or bored with their life may be able to forget about their troubles temporarily by rooting for a favorite team (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We assumed that individuals who are dominated by the escape motive would tend to demonstrate more active forms of soccer participation. Experiencing games in real time and in the field can result in total dissociation from daily troubles and from reality. On the other hand, passive participation through communication media does not offer the same escape value. For example, an individual who is having domestic problems can escape from them only by going to the game, not by watching soccer on television at home. Thus: Hypothesis 1e Soccer fans escape motivation will be related to active forms of participation more than to passive ones The entertainment motive expresses the desire to be entertained by sports. Some fans see watching sports as a pastime similar to watching movies or television or listening to music (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We assumed that individuals whose dominant motivation is the entertainment motivation would tend to be involved in passive forms of soccer participation. The entertainment motive is satisfied by watching games on television or listening to them live on the radio. Thus: Hypothesis 1f Soccer fans entertainment motivation will be related to passive forms more than to active forms of participation The aesthetic motive is expressed in the beauty and artistic characteristics of sport performances. Some fans are attracted to the beauty and grace found in athletic performances (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We hypothesized that individuals whose dominant motivation is aesthetic would tend to demonstrate

6 424 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS passive forms of soccer participation. Participation through communication media is more aesthetic, as it removes the gritty and unpleasant aspects of watching a live game. In addition, sometimes television cameras capture and replay particularly fine performances that one might miss when watching the game live. Indeed, improvements in technology have increased the aesthetic value of their transmissions significantly. Thus: Hypothesis 1g Soccer fans aesthetic motivation will be related more to passive participation forms than to active ones Finally, those who are motivated by the desire to spend time with their family members will prefer the passive forms of participation over active ones. While one can go to a game with family members, it is more likely that not everyone in the family is a fan. Therefore, one who wants to spend time with his or her family and watch soccer at the same time is more likely to stay at home and watch the game on television. In that way, it is more likely that even those who are not fans will join the family in watching the game. Thus: Hypothesis 1h: Soccer fans family motivation will be related more to passive participation forms than to active ones DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES The demographic characteristics were integrated into this study mainly to control the relationship between SFMS and the patterns of soccer participation. Despite the homogeneity in age among the individuals surveyed here, it was anticipated that there would be personal differences that might affect the relationships between the conceptual research variables. The study needed to control for these anticipated differences. The variables controlled in this study were gender, income, and parents education. While the main reason for controlling these variables was methodological in nature, conceptual arguments are presented and hypotheses are formulated for their expected relationship to the dependent variable, namely participation in soccer activities. Naturally, the first variable that was controlled was gender. While soccer has become an increasingly popular sport for both sexes, it is still considered, particularly in Israel, a predominately male activity, in terms of both watching and playing the game. The vast majority of soccer spectators in Israel, particularly at live games, are males. Therefore, we hypothesized that male students would participate in soccer activities, both the passive and active ones, more than would females. Thus: Hypothesis 2a Male active and passive participation in soccer will be greater than female participation The second control variable to be included in this study was parental income. We hypothesized that students whose parents income is high are more likely to attend live games because they can afford the ticket prices and can pay for the

7 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS 425 travel costs if they choose to follow their team on the road to an international tournament. Thus: Hypothesis 3b Those whose families have a higher income will participate more in active forms of soccer participation than will those with a lower family income Parents educational level might also be related to participation in soccer activities. Soccer in Israel is still considered a lower and middle class sport, particularly with regard to attending live matches The level of maintenance of soccer stadiums in Israel is very low and may deter many upper-class soccer fans from attending. Therefore, we hypothesized that those whose parents have a higher level of education will have a lower level of active participation. Thus: Hypothesis 3b Lower educational level of the father and/or the mother will be related to active forms of soccer participation more than to passive forms. RESEARCH DESIGN SAMPLE The participants in this study were 327 high school students (47% males; 53% females) in a high school located in the north of Israel. The students were in the last year of high school (seven classes were surveyed) and the second- to lastyear before graduation (six classes were surveyed). With the permission of the local Ministry of Education, questionnaires were distributed in class to 379 high school students in the 13 classes. With 327 usable questionnaires returned, we had a response rate of 86%. The participants mean age was 17 years (SD=2.04). With regard to the educational level of the subjects parents, 32.1% of the participants mothers had obtained a high school degree, and 59.1% had obtained an academic degree. Of the fathers, 33 had obtained a high school degree and 58.1% had obtained an academic degree. The income of participants parents was reported as above average for 60.3% of the sample and below average for 19%. RESEARCH VARIABLES The scale for participation in soccer activities was developed for this study. Twenty statements dealing with different aspects of participation in soccer activities were devised, each scored from 1 = never to 5 = always. The items included statements designed to measure passive participation in soccer activities and active participation. The items are presented in Table 1. A principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation of the 20 items of soccer participation was performed. Results in Table 1 revealed two factors. Items with factor loadings below.60 or those with a high loading on more than one factor were omitted. Seven items of the first factor clearly represent what can be termed passive participation in soccer activities. Seven items on the second factor

8 426 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS clearly represent behaviors that can be defined as active participation in soccer activities. The third factor includes only one item and is not interpretable. TABLE 1 RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS OF PARTICIPATION IN SOCCER ACTIVITIES ITEMS Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 1. I go to soccer games on the weekend I go to the home games of my favorite team I m also a fan of a foreign soccer team and follow their games I listen to the radio show, Songs and Goals, every Saturday I watch live television broadcasts of the soccer games in Israel During the game I cheer my team on by singing and shouting I read the sports section of the daily newspaper I have season s tickets to my team s games I watch the television show, Sports News I m willing to confront the fans from the rival team who insult my team I watch live television broadcasts of the soccer games in Europe I check soccer websites on the Internet I buy accessories and products with my team s logo from the team s store or from other stores I join in with the crowd when they jeer the rival team and its players I watch European or South American soccer I go to Europe to watch soccer matches I go to my team s away games I support my team even when it s not doing so well I prefer to make friends with those who are fans of my team I listen to radio shows about soccer Eigenvalue % Common variance accounted for Note: Only factor loading higher than.3 are shown In the second step a confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS structural equation modeling program was performed. Two different models were examined. First, the hypothesized two-factor model (the model incorporating the two hypothesized independent subscales) was tested. The results of confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the data fitted the model well (χ 2 =519.86, df=76; Comparative Fit Index [CFI] =.90; NFI=0.86; TLI=.88). In the second model that was tested, all 20 items were loaded onto a single factor. The findings revealed a χ 2 = (df=77), CFI =.81, NFI=.79, and TLI=.77. A comparison of the twofactor model with the single factor model revealed that the two-factor version was superior to the one-factor model and fitted the data better. As for the internal

9 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS 427 consistency of the scales, the findings show that the two seven-item scales were highly reliable. The Cronbach alphas were.95 for the passive participation scale and.92 for the active participation one. This result supports the multidimensionality of the soccer participation scales. The measurements of the Soccer Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) scale are based on the approach suggested by Wann (1995). The original Sport Fan Motivation Scale was used here. This scale includes eight dimensions reflecting the eight motives advanced by Wann (1995). It should be mentioned that the original scale was found to accurately reflect the hypothesized eight factors, be internally consistent, to be reliable, and contain criterion validity (Wann et al., 1999; pp ). However, in this research we adjusted it to measure soccer fan motivation instead of sport fan motivation by changing the phrasing of the items, generally by replacing the word sport with soccer. The Soccer Fan Motivation Scale was measured by a sum of agreements to 23 statements, each scored from 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree. As for the different dimensions, following Wann (1995), each of the eight dimensions included three items, except for the family one that included two items. The demographic variables were coded as dichotomous variables. Gender (0=female; 1=male), father and mother s education (0=not academic; 1=academic), and income (0-below average; 1=above average). FINDINGS Table 2 presents the intercorrelations among the research variables, including descriptive statistics and reliabilities for the dependent and independent variables. The measures demonstrated acceptable reliabilities. The only case of a low reliability was in the family motive (.40). This low reliability can be attributed to the fact that this scale has only two items. As for the correlations themselves, one should note the somewhat high correlations among the dimensions of the SFMS. A comment should be made in this regard. Blalock (1972) argued that whenever there are high correlations between independent variables, it is necessary to have both large samples and accurate measurement. Both conditions were met in this research. The sample was above 300, and the SFMS and its dimensions are established scales. The correlations between the two forms of soccer participation and the eight dimensions of SFMS are all positive and significant (except between passive participation and economic motive). These results generally support many of the hypotheses of this research. However, in order to provide a much more accurate examination of the hypotheses, a regression analysis was performed.

10 428 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS TABLE 2 BASIC STATISTICS AND INTERCORRELATIONS AMONG VARIABLES M SD Income (above average) Mother s education (academic) Father s education (academic) *.46 *** 4. Gender (male) Passive participation ** * -.11 * (.94) 6. Active participation ** ** ** (.92) 7. Escape * -.14 * **.53 *** (.89) 8. Family **.13 *.33 **.35 ***.48 *** (.40) 9. Aesthetic * **.54 ***.53 ***.49 *** (.86) 10. Group **.42 ***.54 ***.54 ***.57 *** (.72) 11. Entertainment ** **.59 ***.49 ***.44 ***.66 ***.69 *** (.90) 12. Economic ***.28 ***.21 ***.23 ***.24 ***.10 (.82) 13. Self esteem * ***.60 ***.70 ***.56 ***.65 ***.64 ***.65 ***.23 *** (.68) 14. Eustress * ***.66 ***.66 ***.51 ***.74 ***.67 ***.77 ***.25 ***.76 *** (.84) Note: Cronbach alphas are shown on the diagonals in parentheses. * p<=.05, ** p< =.01, *** p< =.001 N = 315

11 TABLE 3 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS (STANDARDIZED COEFFICIENTS) ON ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PARTICIPATION IN SOCCER Passive participation Active participation Research variables Step1 Step2 Step 1 Step 2 Control variables Income.16 ** ***.11* Gender (male) -.50 *** -.28 *** -.36 *** -.17 *** Education mother Education father ** -.10 * Fan motives Family Economic -.08 * -.01 Aesthetic * Escape Group * Self-esteem.21 **.25 ** Entertainment.40 ***.11 Eustress * R Adjusted R F 22.6 *** *** *** *** R F for R *** *** N = 315 * p<=.05; ** p< =.01; *** p< =.001 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS 429 Table 3 shows the results of the hierarchical regression analysis. Two regressions with two steps each were performed. One regression was performed for passive participation and a second for active participation. In the first step of each regression, the demographic variables were entered and in the second step the eight motives of SFMS. In general a large amount of variance of both passive and active participation was explained by the research model. The variables explained 69% of the variance of passive participation and 55% of the variance of active participation. The demographic variables added significantly to the variance of both participation forms, with gender having the strongest relationship with participation forms. Despite the strong relationship of the control variables, it should be noted that there was a very high amount of variance added by the motivation variables to the variance already explained by the demographic ones. Forty-one percent of the variance was added to the explanation of passive participation by the SFMS variables and 39% was added to the explanation of the active forms. All of the above provides strong support for hypothesis 1 that expected a relationship between SFMS and participation in soccer activities.

12 430 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS As for the more specific research hypotheses, some of them were strongly supported by the research model and some were only partly supported or not supported at all. Hypothesis 1a expected that group motivation would be related to active rather than passive participation. The findings partly supported this hypothesis. The absence of a relationship between the group motivation and passive participation was as expected by the hypothesis. However, although the findings in Table 3 showed a significant relationship between group motivation and active participation and no relationship between group motivation and passive participation, the sign of the relationship was the opposite from the expected one. The findings showed that the more group motivation one has, the less actively one will participate. Thus, hypothesis 1a is partly supported by the data. Hypothesis 1b expected that economic motivation would be related to passive rather than active participation. This hypothesis was also partly supported by the data. As expected, the findings in Table 3 show that economic motivation was not related to active participation. However, the findings unexpectedly show that the more economic motivation one has the less passive participation one will have. Hypothesis 1c expected that eustress motivation would be related to active rather than passive participation. This hypothesis was supported by the data. The findings show that eustress motivation has a strong and positive relationship with active participation and no relationship with passive participation. Hypothesis 1d expected that self-esteem motivation would be related to the active rather than the passive form of participation. The hypothesis was partly supported by the data in Table 3. The findings show that self-esteem motivation was positively related to the two forms of participation, not only to the active one. Hypothesis 1e expected that the escape motivation would be related to active rather than to passive participation. This hypothesis was not supported by the data in Table 3. The escape motivation was not related to any of the participation forms. Hypothesis 1f expected that the entertainment motivation would be related to passive rather than active forms of participation. This hypothesis was strongly supported by the data. Results in Table 3 showed a strong and positive effect of the entertainment motivation on passive participation and no relationship between this motivation and active participation. Hypothesis 1g expected that aesthetic motivation would be related to passive rather than active participation. This hypothesis was rejected by the data. The findings in Table 3 showed that aesthetic motivation was related to active and not passive participation. Hypothesis 1h expected that family motivation would be related to passive rather than to active participation. This hypothesis was also rejected by the data. Family motivation was not related to any type of participation. As for the demographic variables, the findings strongly support hypothesis 2a that expected more active and passive participation from males than from

13 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS 431 females. Hypothesis 2b, which expected that those with higher income would have higher levels of active participation, was also supported by the data. The findings in Table 3 show that higher income was related to active participation. The significant relationship with passive participation disappeared in step 2 when the motivation variables were entered into the equation. Hypothesis 3b, that predicted a negative relationship between education and active participation, was supported by the data. The findings in Table 3 show a negative relationship between the father s education and active participation in soccer activities. DISCUSSION The SFMS has received much attention in recent years. The increase in scientific efforts to explore fans motives for watching sport is a result of the growing interest across the world in viewing sporting events and the marketing opportunities that result from the popularity of sport. Wann s (1995) scale and the studies that resulted from the presentation of this scale have provided an important step towards a better understanding of the reasons behind the popularity of sport. This study makes several contributions in that regard. First, the findings here showed that Wann s scale can be applied to a specific type of sport such as soccer, rather than to sport in general. Second, the findings showed that Wann s scale could be applied to cultures other than North America, such as Israel. Third, the findings of this study demonstrated the predictive validity of Wann s scale by relating it to a scale of participation in soccer activities. Fourth, this study has advanced a preliminary conceptual and methodological framework for the continued examination of SFMS. While our research makes a number of conceptual contributions to the field, it should be noted that the study was exploratory in nature. Its hypotheses were developed based on the limited knowledge that exists in the field, yet the findings here are interesting and important and can stimulate future research in the area. As expected, active participation in soccer was related to both eustress and selfesteem motivation. Simply stated, young people who are looking for action or who want to strengthen their ego, will attend live games. It should be noted, however, that while the eustress motivation is unique in its contribution to active participation, the findings showed that an individual could also increase his or her self-esteem by watching the games at home on television. The negative relationship of group motivation with active participation was not expected. We expected that young fans would fulfill part of their social needs by watching and supporting their team live, as members and part of a group. It appears, however, that such is not the case, but more research is needed before a firm conclusion can be made about this finding. The significant effect of the aesthetic motivation on active participation was also unexpected. Israeli stadiums are not well

14 432 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS maintained. Nevertheless, young people still see the aesthetic value of watching soccer live rather than at home with the benefit of high quality replays supplied by television broadcasting. This finding is, in a way, a tribute to Israeli soccer, which is not well-known for its achievements, but more than that, it is a tribute to the potential of this sport to attract fans to games. Among the demographic variables, one should note the effect of the economic variable on active participation. The findings show that those who are more actively involved are those whose parents can afford the expenses associated with such participation. On the other hand, it is interesting to note the negative effect of education on active participation. The study demonstrated that active participation in soccer is considered a lower class activity in Israel. Those with a higher level of education generally prefer to watch it on television. As mentioned before, developing highquality stadiums is one way to attract a higher class of young soccer fans to the matches. The relationship of gender to both active and passive participation was expected. One of the challenges of those who want to increase the popularity of soccer is to find ways to make soccer more attractive to women, as both potentially active and passive participants. The strong relationship of the entertainment motivation with passive participation was expected. This variable has the strongest coefficients among the motivation variables, demonstrating the potential of soccer to compete with other forms of entertainment. Watching soccer on television ranks as a leading leisure time activity. Making soccer even more appealing by improving the quality and scheduling of its broadcasts would perhaps increase its popularity among young females. Several other comments about the measurement instrument are worthy of mention. The applicability of Wann s scale in Israeli culture was demonstrated by the construct validity of the scale, as shown in the relationships between the dimensions of the scale and participation in soccer activities. The intercorrelations among the dimensions of the scale are slightly higher, but do not differ much from earlier findings (Wann, 1995), and provide additional support for the applicability of the scale to other cultures. The findings of this study showed other similarities to findings of other studies that have applied the scale. For example, similarly to the findings here, Amstrong (2002) found a negative correlation between sport fan motivation and income. Armstrong also found, as we did, that education was negatively correlated with sport fan motivation. This study found a strong correlation between gender and SFMS, and James and Ridinger (2002) reported a similar finding. All of the above support the usefulness of Wann s scale in different cultures. Naturally, there is a need to examine this scale in additional cultures to strengthen this conclusion. The soccer participation scale developed here showed good psychometric properties. Its construct validity was demonstrated by the findings regarding its

15 MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS 433 relationship with the SFMS. The distinction advanced here between active and passive participation was supported by the data and is an important differentiation, both conceptually and practically. There is a difference between those who watch sports at home and those who actually go to the games, and the data supported this distinction. These differences have conceptual and practical implications. Different motives seem to drive those who actively participate in sport and those who passively participate, and marketers need to be aware of these distinctions and address them. Varying the sports and cultures to which Wann s scale is applied could further test its predictive validity. This study has some limitations. First, it is cross-sectional in its design and, as such, limits the drawing of causal conclusions. Second, the sample is composed of high school students, and the findings cannot be generalized to an older population. For example, the findings here about the nonsignificant relationship of the escape motivation and the family motivation can be attributed to the age of the respondents. Despite its limitations, the study makes important contributions to the continuation of research on sport and soccer fans motivation. It proposed a conceptual framework for further examination of this topic; it developed and advanced the fans participation scales, and examined this topic in a culture different from those of North American and Europe. More research is needed to validate the findings and approach advanced here. This study, however, contributes by stimulating further research to increase understanding of this important and interesting topic. REFERENCES Arbuckle, J. L. (1997). AMOS user s guide, version 3.6. Chicago: Marketing Division SPSS Inc. Armstrong, K. L. (2002). Race and sport consumption motivations: A preliminary investigation of a black consumers sport motivation scale. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(4), Bilyeu, J., & Wann, D. (2002). An investigation of racial differences in sport fan motivation. International Sports Journal, 6(2), Blalock, H. M. (1972). Social statistics. Kogahasha: McGraw-Hill. Gaskell, G., & Pearton, R. (1979). Aggression and sport. In J. Goldstein, (Ed.) Sport, games and play. New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, James, J., & Ridinger, L. (2002). Female and male sport fans: A comparison of sport consumption motives. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(3), Moody, S. (1997). Changes in scores on the mental rotations test during the menstrual cycle. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84, Recours, R., Souville, M., & Griffet, J. (2004). Expressed motive for informal and club/associationbased sports participation. Journal of Leisure Research, 36(1), Snyder, E. E., & Spreitzer, E. A. (1973). Family influence and the involvement in sports. Research Quarterly, 49, Snyder, E. E., & Spreitzer, E. A. (1976). Socialization into sport: An exploratory path analysis. Research Quarterly, 47,

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