In-House Transactions in the Real Estate Brokerage Industry: Matching Outcome or Strategic Promotion?

Transcription

1 In-House Transactions in the Real Estate Brokerage Industry: Matching Outcome or Strategic Promotion? Lu Han Rotman School of Management University of Toronto Seung-Hyun Hong Department of Economics University of Illinois August 6, 2014 Abstract This paper examines to what extent agents strategic incentives explain in-house transactions for which buyers and sellers are represented by the same brokerage. We construct an agentintermediated search model that predicts both strategically-promoted and matching-based in-house transactions. Taking these predictions to home transaction data, we find that agents are more likely to promote internal listings when they are financially rewarded and such effect becomes weaker when consumers are more aware of agents incentives. We further develop a structural model and find that about one third of in-house transactions are explained by agents strategic promotion, causing significant utility loss for homebuyers. Keywords: incentive misalignment, real estate brokerage, in-house transaction, agent-intermediated search, structural estimation JEL classification: C35, C51, L85, R31 We thank conference participants at the Stanford Institute of Theoretical Economics, Pre-WFA Summer Real Estate Symposium, Rotman Real Estate Microstructure Conference, AREUEA Meeting, Israel Real Estate and Urban Economics Symposium, as well as seminar participants at the Atlanta Fed, Korea University, Seoul National University, UC Berkeley, UIUC, and the University of Toronto for their helpful comments. Contact information: Lu Han, Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto, 105 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3E6. Seung-Hyun Hong, 213 David Kinley Hall, 1407 West Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL

2 1 Introduction Over 80% home buyers and sellers carry out their transactions with the assistance of licensed real estate agents. Yet concerns persist that the misalignment between the goals of agents and those of their clients can cause a loss in consumers benefit. For example, recent studies have shown that the current commission structure leads real estate agents to leave their own homes on the market longer and sell at a higher price, compared to homes they sell for their clients (e.g., Rutherford, Springer, and Yavas, 2005; Levitt and Syverson, 2008a). A phenomenon that is equally important for understanding incentive issues and their implications for market efficiencies but has received much less attention is in-house transactions, that is, transactions for which buyers and sellers are represented by the same brokerage office. In-house transactions account for about 20% of home transactions in North American markets. In theory, in-house transactions could create information efficiency and reduce transaction costs, leading to an efficient match between home buyers and sellers. However, it is also possible that agents may promote in-house transactions for their own financial interest. In particular, since matching internal listings with internal buyers helps clear inventories faster and increase the chance of securing both ends of a transaction, brokerage firms often pay a higher commission to reward agents engaged in in-house transactions (Gardiner, Heisler, Kallberg, and Liu, 2007). Quite naturally, these in-house transactions reflect agents strategic interest, creating a distortion in the home transaction process that benefits agents rather than home buyers and sellers. In this paper, we aim to contribute to the literature by examining the extent to which strategic in-house transactions occur and further assessing their welfare impact on the efficiencies of home matching. Strategic in-house transactions, if present, have at least two deleterious effects on home buyers and sellers. First, in the search stage, real estate agents may misguide buyers (sellers) by directing their interest to internal listings (buyers), resulting in a suboptimal choice for consumers. Second, in the negotiation stage, an apparent conflict of interest arises from having the same agency represent both 1

3 buyers and sellers, making it impossible for the agency to help one party without hurting the other. For these reasons, many jurisdictions in North America have now introduced disclosure requirements for dual agency in order to help consumers avoid unintended dual agency relationship. The legislation requires brokerages and agents to inform both buyers and sellers about the nature of dual agency relationship in writing. In order to understand the potential importance of the strategic issues involved in in-house transactions, we present an empirical analysis that examines the presence and the extent of agents strategic promotion in the home search stage and evaluates the welfare consequence of the disclosure policies for home buyers. To motivate our empirical strategy, we first construct an agent-intermediated search model that has three key ingredients. The first is search costs: each buyer has an idiosyncratic valuation for each house which can be learned through costly search. The second is the information advantage enjoyed by real estate agents relative to buyers with high search costs. The third is a promotion bonus that agents receive from their affiliated firms for selling listings originated from the same firm. In an environment with these three ingredients, two types of in-house transactions naturally arise: matching-based and strategically-promoted. In the first case, a buyer may purchase an internal listing because the listing yields the highest utility for the buyer. This could be due to the information advantages and transaction efficiencies associated with in-house transactions. For example, agents affiliated with a brokerage firm may be believed to possess superior information about both sides of a certain market segment, permitting them to provide a better and quicker match for a buyer and a seller. However, in-house transactions can also occur for incentive rather than efficiency reasons. When agents are financially rewarded by their brokerage firms for selling internal listings, the information advantage of agents relative to their clients may compound incentive conflicts, making it possible for cooperating agents (i.e., buyers agents) to influence buyers choice by directing their interest to 2

4 internal listings first, resulting in a suboptimal match. However, the impact of strategic promotions should be weaker when clients are more informed about agents incentives. To test these implications, we utilize a rich dataset that covers one third of properties transacted through the Multiple Listing Service (MLS) in a large North American metropolitan area from 2001 to The dataset has three appealing features. First, it contains detailed information about house characteristics, neighborhood information, listing and transaction prices, as well as real estate brokerage firms on both sides of a transaction. Second, it includes properties that have been transacted multiple times, which allows us to control for unobserved house characteristics. Third, the sample period covers a natural experimental opportunity permitted by a new legislation (Real Estate and Business Brokerages Act referred to as REBBA hereafter) that requires agents engaged in inhouse sales to inform their clients about the dual agency relationship in writing. Exploiting these unique data, we first estimate a reduced-form model of in-house transactions to test the presence of strategic promotion. Our estimation strategy is akin to a difference-in-differences approach. We first exploit differences in commission structures. Specifically, agents in a traditional brokerage firm give their firm a predetermined ratio (usually 40-60%) of their commission revenue on the per-transaction basis. Full commission brokerage firms, on the other hand, allow their agents to retain 100% of commission revenues but require fixed amount of upfront fees instead (Munneke and Yavas, 2001). The revenues from the traditional brokerage firms strictly increase with the number of either end of transactions, and hence, these firms are more likely to offer their agents higher bonuses for promoting in-house sales (Conner, 2010). Such promotion bonus would be particularly attractive for cooperating agents if commission fees they receive from listing agents are lower than the market rate. Thus, we expect that cooperating agents working for traditional brokerage firms are more likely to engage in in-house transactions, and that this effect is stronger if the commission rate offered by the listing agent is lower. However, these effects alone can be problematic, as the commission structure/rate could endogenously vary with the degree of matching efficiency involved in in-house 3

5 transactions. Possibly, houses listed with different commission rates could have different distribution of true quality. Similarly, brokers working for firms with different commission policies could have different distribution of skills and motivations. To identify the presence of strategic in-house transactions, we then examine differences in the incidence of in-house transactions for agents with different commission incentives before and after the implementation of the REBBA. Presumably, by making consumers more informed about the agency relationship and related incentive issues, the REBBA policy constrains agents ability to promote internal listings, while leaving other types of in-house transactions unaffected. Thus, the identification in our model does not require the commission rates or split structure to be exogenous. Instead, it relies on the assumption that no other commission related factors differentially affect the incidence of inhouse transactions at the same time as the REBBA was implemented. To show this is indeed the case, we control for a large number of time-varying house and brokerage observable characteristics. We also include the interaction of house fixed effects with the REBBA and the interaction of brokerage fixed effects with the REBBA to control for possible time-variation in unobservable house and brokerage characteristics that may be correlated with commission variables. Our reduced-form results show that cooperating agents are more likely to engage in in-house transactions when they split the commission fees with firms on the per-transaction basis. This effect is stronger when they receive less compensation from listing agents. More importantly, such effects are substantially weakened after the introduction of the REBBA. Together, these results are highly in line with the theoretical predictions, hence providing strong evidence for the presence of strategic in-house transactions. These results are robust to a rich set of controls. By further including brokerage fixed effects interacted with housing market segment fixed effects, we also show that these patterns are unlikely to be explained by brokerage specialization either in geographical areas or in price segments. In light of the reduced-form evidence for strategic promotion, we further attempt to quantify the extent of strategic versus efficient in-house transactions, and evaluate the welfare consequence 4

6 of strategic in-house transactions before and after the REBBA. This calls for structural estimation, because matching efficiencies are generally unobserved and hard to quantify. The key idea of our structural approach is as follows: for a given buyer, her decision on whether purchasing an internal listing (e.g., a house listed by the buyer s agent affiliated office) reflects the difference between the net utility that she obtains from internal versus external listings and the net cost that she incurs when searching for internal versus external listings. If her cooperating agent strategically promote internal listings, such promotion would artificially increase the buyer s cost of searching for external listings. Thus, to the extent that the idiosyncratic matching values for internal and external listings can be estimated, we can recover the implicit costs that the agent may impose on the buyer for searching external listings. To this end, we first use a nonparametric hedonic approach developed by Bajari and Benkard (2005) to recover the unobserved house characteristic and buyer-specific preferences for house characteristics. We then exploit econometric matching techniques (e.g., Heckman, et al. 1997, 1998) to recover the idiosyncratic match value that a buyer obtains from internal listings as well as from external listings. This enables us to estimate the implicit cost that buyers incur when shopping for external versus internal listings. To identify part of the cost that is due to agents promotion, we again rely on the difference-in-differences strategy, exploiting variations generated by commission variables combined with the REBBA policy, both of which are well-motivated by the theory. We find that about 64.3% of in-house transactions can be explained by buyers own preference. In this case, agents strategic promotion does not lead to a distortion in the home search process, because home buyers ex ante preference for internal listings agrees with agents interest. This is more likely to occur when agents work for a firm with a larger pool of listings, as larger firms tend to produce better internal matches. The remaining in-house transactions are likely due to agents strategic promotion. For these transactions, we find that an agent s promotion of internal listings imposes a substantial cost when a buyer searches for external listings. In this case, even if a buyer s interest is best matched by 5

7 an external listing, she ends up purchasing a house from internal listings because expected utility gain from purchasing externally is not sufficient to outweigh the associated cost imposed by the agent s promotion. Lastly, we find that the REBBA has helped homebuyers make more informed choices and constrained agents ability to strategically promote. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the related literature. Section 3 provides background information about the residential real estate brokerage industry, and presents a simple agent-intermediated search model that motivates our empirical strategy. Section 4 describes our data and Section 5 provides reduced-form evidence for strategic promotion. Section 6 further develops our structural model and presents the results to quantify the extent of strategic promotion and its associated welfare loss. Section 7 concludes the paper. 2 Related Literature Broadly speaking, our paper is informed by an important literature on the distortion of agents incentives (e.g., Gruber and Owings, 1996; Mehran and Stulz, 1997; Hubbard, 1998; Garmaise and Moskowitz, 2004). In light of the central role of housing markets in the recent economy, there has been substantial interest in examining incentive issues in different sectors in housing markets. One such sector is the mortgage industry. For example, Jiang, Nelson, and Vytlacil (2014) find that loans issued by mortgage brokers have higher delinquency rates, reflecting incentive structures that compensate brokers mainly based on origination volume rather than loan performance. Another sector that plays a crucial role in housing markets is the brokerage industry. An extensive and growing literature has examined the consequence of the misalignment between goals of real estate agents and those of home sellers. For example, recent work has examined the effects on selling price and time on the market of agent-owned versus client-owned properties (Rutherford, Springer, and Yavas, 2005; Levitt and Syverson, 2008a), MLS-listed versus FSBO properties (Hendel, Nevo, and Ortalo-Magne, 2009), and properties sold by traditional agents versus discounted agents (Levitt and 6

8 Syverson, 2008b; Berheim and Meer, 2008). One common thread between these papers is that the current commission arrangements have resulted in a distortion of agents incentives, which in turn affects how much a house is sold for and how long it takes to sell. Despite a significant interest in real estate agents incentive issues, their importance in the specific context of in-house transactions has not been extensively studied. This seems surprising given the sheer magnitude of in-house transactions and obvious incentive issues that could arise from the dual agency representation. Gardiner, Heisler, Kallberg, and Liu (2007) are among the first to study the impact of dual agency in residential housing markets. They find that dual agency reduced the sales price and the time on the market and that both effects were weaker after a law change in Hawaii in 1984 which required full disclosure of dual agency. Using repeated sales properties, Evans and Kolbe (2005) examine the effect of dual agency on home price appreciation. In addition, Kadiyali, Prince, and Simon (2012) study the impact of dual agency on sales and listing price, as well as time on the market. However, like the previous literature on the real estate brokerage, these studies focus on transaction outcomes for home sellers. None of the existing work examines the consequences of agents incentives on the quality of home match, which is the key transaction outcome for home buyers. The lack of such work is in large part due to the difficulty of determining the quality of a match between a buyer and a house. In this paper, we marry the insights from the incentive distortion literature to the methodologies developed in the recent structural industrial organization literature (e.g., Bajari and Benkard, 2005; Bajari and Kahn, 2005). Specifically, we develop a structural model of in-house transactions and propose an approach to recover the idiosyncratic match value in home transaction process. 1 By linking our empirical work to an agent-intermediated search theory, we are also able to distinguish between different sources of in-house transactions ranging from strategic promotion to efficient 1 To the best of our knowledge, no empirical study has attempted to solve the difficult problem of determining the quality of a match between a buyer and a house. We certainly do not claim that our approach presents a complete solution. Instead, our goal is to propose a tractable approach based on existing empirical frameworks, in hopes that the future research can build upon our approach to develop better solutions to the problem. 7

9 matching. Doing so allows us to evaluate the economic harm that the incentive misalignment brings to homebuyers. Such evaluation contributes to a better understanding of market efficiency in this important industry. In this regard, our work also complements the recent literature that examines social inefficiencies resulted from free entry in the real estate brokerage industry (Hsieh and Moretti, 2003; Han and Hong, 2011; Jia Barwick and Pathak, 2014). 3 In-House Transactions in the Real Estate Brokerage Industry 3.1 In-House Transactions In a world where cooperating agents interests are fully aligned with home buyers interests, there should be no efficiency loss associated with in-house transactions since all transactions represent the best matching outcome for buyers. On the other hand, if agents have strategic interest to promote internal listings, buyers benefits would be inevitably sacrificed, and a suboptimal match would be generated. Two characteristics of the residential real estate brokerage industry make the possible incentive issues particularly concerning for in-house transactions. First, the agency relationship in real estate transactions does not encourage cooperating agents to represent the best interests of their buyers. In a typical multiple listing agreement for a real estate transaction, the listing agent has a contractual relationship with the seller, which explicitly defines his fiduciary obligations to the seller. The usual MLS agreement constitutes an offer of sub-agency to all other MLS members. The cooperating agent who brings the buyer to close the deal is deemed to have accepted the sub-agency offers and hence has fiduciary duties to the seller. Those duties effectively preclude the cooperating agent from adequately representing the buyer, even though the agent appears to work for the buyer. 2 While the conflicting loyalty by cooperating agents for buyers may seem obvious, many unsophisticated buyers are not aware of the agency relationship and rely heavily on their agents in searching for a home and negotiating the price of a home. The incentive misalignment problem is likely to worsen in in-house transactions, since agents from the same agency 2 See Olazabal (2003) for detailed discussion on the agency relationship. 8

10 are more likely to share the information with each other and influence their clients decisions from both ends. Second, both academic researchers and market practitioners have noted that brokerage firms tend to offer a promotion bonus to agents who successfully sell in-house listings. 3 There are at least two motivations for such promotions. First, in-house transactions help the firm clear inventory faster, allowing agents to earn commissions from existing clients sooner and hence have more time/resources to compete for new clients. Second, by promoting in-house sales, brokerage can potentially influence clients decision from both sides, making a transaction easier to go through and hence maximizing the chance of capturing commission income from both ends. 4 Consistent with this, a descriptive analysis of our data shows that brokerage firms with a higher fraction of in-house sales have a larger number of total transactions (separately counting each end of a transaction), even after controlling for the number of agents in each firm. For these reasons, cooperating agents may strategically promote in-house transactions. For example, a cooperating agent may show her client internal listings before external listings. 5 Alternatively, a cooperating agent may take her client to visit externally listed houses before visiting the internally listed house, but these external listings would be selected to appear less attractive than the internal listings that the agent tries to promote. These efforts are strategic and may lead to an in-house transaction that is inconsistent with the interest of home buyers. Of course, an in-house transaction could also occur due to spontaneous visits or information sharing. For example, a buyer may see a for-sale sign on a property and call the listing agent whose name is 3 For example, Gardiner, Heisler, Kallberg and Liu (2007) find that many brokerage firms give a financial reward to agents who successfully match internal clients with internal listings. Similarly, a popular industry practice book, Buying a Home: The Missing Manual, reports that some agencies pay agents a bonus for selling in-house listings because the agency makes more money in such transactions. In addition, a recent report by the Consumer Advocates in American Real Estate explicitly points out that agents who avoid in-house transactions may bear with some financial consequences, such as a less favorable commission split with the brokerage firm. 4 To see this, note that signing a contract with a client does not provide a guarantee for an agent to receive any commission as the transaction may not occur during the agent s contract term. This is particularly a concern for cooperating agents as they tend to have less exclusive and shorter contracts (or even no contract) with buyers. 5 Similarly, a listing agent may show his client s house to internal buyers before external buyers. In this paper, we focus our discussion on cooperating agents, but the logic can be easily extended to listing agents. 9

11 listed on the sign. Similarly, an agency may become a dual agency if a buyer who is represented by a cooperating agent independently discovers a house where the listing agent works for the same agency as the buyer s agent. It is not obvious whether these types of transactions would generate an efficient matching outcome or a suboptimal choice for consumers. However, their existence makes detecting strategic promotion empirically challenging. In this paper, we do not attempt to classify whether any particular in-house transaction occurs for strategic reasons; instead we exploit key differences in agents financial incentives and in consumers awareness of the agency relationship. In particular, we examine differences in the distribution of in-house transactions for agents with different financial incentives before and after a legislation that requires agents to disclose their agency relationship. 3.2 A Model of Agent-Intermediated Search The Setup Our motivating theoretical framework follows closely Hagiu and Jullien (2011), who provide an inspiring economics analysis of search diversion in an online shopping setting. We apply their search diversion theory to the real estate brokerage industry and show that agents can misguide homebuyers by introducing noise in the home search process. Unlike their model that assumes an intermediary receives a fixed amount of revenues from each store visit by buyers regardless of actual sales, we make a different assumption to reflect the key compensation feature of the real estate brokerage industry. That is, agents receive a fixed percentage of realized sales revenues and this percentage is larger when a transaction occurs within the same brokerage firm. As shown later, such compensation feature is the driving source of agents strategic promotion. To simplify the analysis of the search process in the housing market, let us consider a setup where there are two types of buyers (buyer 1 and buyer 2), two types of houses (house 1 and house 2), and one cooperating agent. Buyers: Buyers differ along two dimensions: preferences for houses and search costs. Along the first dimension, there are two types of buyers: type 1 buyers make up a fraction α of the population 10

12 and derive net utilities u H from visiting house 1 and u L from visiting house 2; type 2 buyers make up a fraction 1 α of the population and derive net utilities u H from visiting house 2 and u L from visiting house 1. We assume that u H > u L, which implies that ex ante type 1 buyers prefer house 1 over house 2, and that type 2 buyers prefer house 2 over house 1 in the sense that will be described below. Along the second dimension, buyers are differentiated by the search cost c they incur each time they visit a house. We use F (c) to denote the cumulative distribution of c. They can only visit at most two houses sequentially. More specifically, take buyer 1 as an example. Her valuation of a specific house h, vh 1, is unknown prior to the visit but is learnt upon inspection of the house, so that the expected utility prior to visiting the house is u 1 h = k p h (vh 1 p h)dg(vh 1 ), where G(v) denote the cumulative distribution of v,6 k = H if h = 1 and k = L if h = 2. Assuming that 0 < L < H, it follows that u 1 1 > u1 2, and that u H = u 1 1 and ul = u 1 2. In other words, ex ante house 1 is a better match for buyer 1 than house 2. Note that u 1 h should be interpreted as encompassing the utility of just looking around the house plus the expected utility of actually buying the house, net of the price paid. Upon visiting a house, a buyer observes the realized value of being matched with a specific house, vh 1, and then decides to whether to buy the house. Houses: Houses also differ along two dimensions: matching quality and the listing brokerage firm. Along the first dimension, as described above, type 1 house stands for houses that ex ante match the buyer 1 s preference best, whereas house 2 stands for houses that ex ante match the buyer 2 s preference best. Along the second dimension, house 1 is listed by a firm that is different from the cooperating brokerage firm, whereas house 2 is listed by an agent affiliated with the same brokerage firm. For simplicity, we assume that prices of houses are exogenously given at p 1 and p 2. This is because house prices are typically determined by general market conditions, which is much broader than the 6 For any given buyer, v1 1 and v2 1 are assumed to be independently distributed. 11

13 choice of intermediaries. In addition, the listing price of a house is publicly advertised before the cooperating agents and their buyers are engaged in the search process. To the extent that the sales and listing prices are highly positively correlated, the exogeneity assumption is justified. Cooperating Agent: The cooperating agent observes each buyer s type (1 or 2) but not her search cost c. Since the agent is assumed to have superior information about houses available in the market, he immediately knows which house ex ante fits the buyer s preference best. Following Hagiu and Jullien (2011), we denote by q 1 the probability that the agent takes buyer 1 to house 1 for the first visit. If the cooperating agent always optimize the match process between buyers and houses, then we should expect q 1 = 1. In contrast, we say that the cooperating agent strategically promotes his own firm s listings (i.e., house 2) whenever q 1 < 1. The cooperating agent receives a fixed percentage of actual sales price as commission income when a transaction is completed. This income is then split with the agent s affiliated brokerage firm. In net, the cooperating agent obtains a fixed share of transaction price, τ 1 (or τ 2 ), from the sale of house 1 (or house 2). If an agent receives a bonus for promoting internal listings, then all else equal, τ 2 > τ 1. As a result, the cooperating agent for buyer 1 may sometimes find it profitable to recommend house 2 which generates the highest revenue, rather than house 1 which matches buyer 1 s preference best. The incidence of q 1 < 1 captures precisely the inefficiency resulted from the commission structure described above. Timing: The timing of decisions is as follows: (i) the agent publicly announces q 1 ; (ii) buyers observe q 1 ; (iii) buyers decide whether to follow agent s guidance, engage in the search process, and make their purchase decisions after visiting the house(s) Solving the Model Without loss of generality, let us focus our analysis on type 1 buyers. First, consider a type 1 buyer with high search costs, i.e., c > u H (p 1 ). In this case, the buyer would not visit any of the two houses, and as a result, the agent receives zero commission income. 12

14 Next, consider a type 1 buyer with low search costs, i.e., c u L (p 2 ). She will visit both houses irrespective of where the agent directs her for her first visit. Upon visiting both houses, the buyer compares two houses and purchases the one that gives her the largest net realized utility, max {v 1 p 1, v 2 p 2 }. Accordingly, the probability of buyer 1 purchasing house 2, ρ 1 2, is given by: ρ 1 2 Pr(v 1 2 p 2 > v 1 1 p 1 ) = = H L p 1 H v 1 1 p 1+p 2 dg L (v 1 2)dG H (v 1 1) p 1 ( 1 GL (v 1 1 p 1 + p 2 ) ) dg H (v 1 1) (1) Thus the cooperating agent receives commission income τ 2 p 2 with probability ρ 1 2 and τ 1p 1 with probability 1 ρ 1 2. Finally, consider a type 1 buyer with intermediate search costs, i.e., u L (p 2 ) c u H (p 1 ). In this case, if the buyer is first sent to house 1 (which happens with probability q 1 ), she would make a purchase and stop visiting another house if the net realized value from buying house 1, (v 1 p 1 ), is greater than the expected utility of continuing visiting house 2, max {u L (p 2 ) c, 0}. Since u L (p 2 ) c, max {u L (p 2 ) c, 0} = 0, so that she will not visit house 2 with probability 1. If she is first sent to house 2 (which happens with probability 1 q 1 ), she would stop searching if and only if the net realized utility, (v 2 p 2 ), is greater than the expected utility of continuing visiting house 1, that is, max {u H (p 1 ) c, 0} = u H (p 1 ) c. In the event when buyer 1 visits both houses, she will purchase house 1 with probability 1 ρ 1 2 and house 2 with probability ρ1 2. Knowing the probability q 1, a type 1 buyer follows the agent s guidance if her search cost is above u L (p 2 ) and below some critical value u 1, where u 1 = c is implicitly defined by q 1 u H (p 1 ) + (1 q 1 ) max ( v 2 p 2, u H (p 1 ) c ) g L (v 2 )dv 2 c = 0 Note that when q 1 = 1, we have u 1 = u H (p 1 ) and du 1 dq 1 = u H (p 1 ) u L (p 2 ). 13

15 Turning to the agent s side, the revenue he derives from type 1 buyers is then: Π 1 = ( τ 1 p 1 (1 ρ 1 2) + τ 2 p 2 ρ 1 2) F (ul ) + q 1 τ 1 p 1 (F (u 1 ) F (u L )) [ (τ1 +(1 q 1 ) p 1 (1 ρ 1 2) + τ 2 p 2 ρ 1 ) u 1 2 G L (p 2 + u H c)f(c)dc u L u1 ] +τ 2 p 2 (1 G L (p 2 + u H c))f(c)dc u L (2) The first term represents the revenue that the agent receives from type 1 with low search costs, i.e., with c u L (p 2 ). The second term represents the revenue that the agent receives from type 1 buyers who have intermediate search costs, i.e., with u L (p 2 ) c u 1, and have been efficiently matched to house 1 on their first visit. The third term represents the revenue that the agent receives from type 1 buyers who have intermediate search costs but have been strategically directed to house 2 first. Note that the first integrant term is the probability that the buyer decides to continue searching conditional on having visited house 2 in the first round of search. In this case, the agent receives τ 1 p 1 with probability 1 ρ 1 2 and τ 2p 2 with probability ρ 1 2. Maximizing (2) over q 1 yields the following proposition, which contains our baseline results: Proposition 1 The cooperating agent strategically promotes in-house transactions (i.e., q 1 < 1) if and only if τ 2 p 2 > F (uh ) F (u L ) (1 ρ 1 2 ) u1 u G L L (p 2 + u H c)f(c)dc + f(u H )(u H u L ) τ 1 p 1 F (u H ) F (u L ) (1 ρ 1 2 ) u 1 u G L L (p 2 + u H c)f(c)dc (3) Proof: The cooperating agent maximizes (2) over q 1. Using the fact u 1 (q 1 = 1) = u H (p 1 ) and du 1 dq 1 (q 1 = 1) = u H (p 1 ) u L (p 2 ), it is straightforward to show that Π 1 q 1 (q 1 = 1) < 0 if and only if (3) holds Strategic In-House Transactions Condition (3) is central to understanding of agents incentives to strategically promote in-house transactions. In particular, at q 1 = 1, all type 1 buyers with intermediate search costs will be first directed to houses that match their preference best, leading to an efficient matching outcome. By laying out 14

16 conditions under which the cooperating agent lowers q 1 below 1, condition (3) immediately delivers several predictions of strategic in-house transactions that can be taken to the data. Prediction 1: The commission structure matters. It is clear from condition (3) that the optimal amount of strategic promotion increases with the ratio τ 2p 2 τ 1 p 1. If the prices of two houses are not too different from each other (which is not too unreasonable given that buyers usually specify a price range for houses they search for), the larger is the ratio τ 2 τ 1, the more likely condition (3) will hold, and the stronger is the agent s incentive to promote her own firm s listings. In the brokerage industry, agents need to split commission fees with their affiliated brokerage offices, in return for the brand value and for the supporting services that brokerage offices provide. In practice, full commission brokerage firms, such as ReMax, let the agents keep all commission fees but require a fixed amount of upfront fees each month. More traditional brokerages firms, such as Royal LePage, split commission fees with their agents on the per-transaction basis. Naturally, the revenues in the latter type of brokerage firms strictly increase with the number of either end of transactions. Therefore, these brokerage firms are more likely to reward their agents for selling internal listings, making τ 2 > τ 1. 7 Thus, we expect that the per-transaction split commission structure is associated with a stronger presence of strategic in-house transactions. In addition to commission structure, commission rate also matters. Note that the commission rate for a cooperating agent is typically predetermined when the listing is posted on the MLS. While the commission rate is usually set at 2.5%, some listing agents would offer a higher or lower rate to cooperating agents. Intuitively, by rewarding cooperating agents a greater proportion of the commission, an external listing agent can effectively increase τ 1 in condition (3), and this helps offset the promotion bonus that the cooperating agent receives from her own firm for promoting internal listings. Conversely, when the commission rate offered by a listing agent is low, the cooperating agent is more likely to respond to the financial incentives offered by the brokerage firm for promoting in-house 7 See the footnote 3 for discussion on the related industry practice. 15

17 transactions. The strategy of using substandard commission rates to artificially increase the frequency of dual-agency transactions is discussed in Yavas, et al (2013) and also evidenced by a recent industry report. 8 Thus, we expect that lower commission rates offered by listing agents are associated with a stronger presence of strategic in-house transactions. Prediction 2: The extent to which cooperating agents can promote in-house transactions depends on the difference in the matching quality that a given buyer obtains from internal and external listings. As we can see from condition (3), the bigger is (u H u L ) and/or ρ 1 2, the smaller is the likelihood of strategic promotion (q 1 < 1). Intuitively, if the best house that a buyer can find from external listings is far better than the one she can find from internal listings, either ex ante (reflected by u H u L ) or ex post (reflected by ρ 1 2 ), then it becomes difficult for her agent to promote internal listings. Empirically, we do not observe matching quality. However, matching in housing markets is typically characterized by increasing returns to scale (Ngai and Tereyro 2014; Genesove and Han 2012b). When a brokerage firm has a larger number of listings which a buyer can choose among, there should be less dispersion in the buyer s valuation of her most-preferred house from the market-wide pool and from the internal listings. As a result, the brokerage firm will find it easier to promote its own listings. Although the promoted listings may not match the buyer s preference best, the resulting efficiency loss should be smaller since these listings are closer to the buyer s preference. Prediction 3: The brokerage firm s ability to strategically promote in-house transactions also depends on whether buyers are aware of agents incentives to strategically promote. So far, the model has assumed that buyers faced with a known probability of q 1. If buyers are not aware of agents strategic incentives, this would remove the dependence of du 1 dq 1 in deriving the derivative of Π 1 with respect to q 1. As a result, the right-hand-side of condition (3) is reduced to 1. In this case, the agent s incentive to promote in-house transactions would purely depend on the financial reward ( τ 2 τ 1 ) and search 8 For example, a recent report by the Consumer Advocates in American Real Estate states that offering less than the going rate in your area will decrease the financial attractiveness of your home [to cooperating agents] and increases the likelihood that your broker will collect a double commission (see an article titled Dual Agency Schemes in accessed August 1, 2014). 16

18 cost. The quality difference would no longer matter, since buyers believe that agents always match them to their first best house and hence would not be sensitive to the difference between the first and second best houses (u H u L ). As discussed later, our sample covers a natural experimental opportunity permitted by a legislation that required real estate agents engaged in in-house transactions to disclose the possibility of strategic promotion to both buyers and sellers. This provides an opportunity for us to empirically test this prediction Efficient In-House Transactions In-house transactions could also occur for efficiency rather than incentive reasons. We define an inhouse transaction as efficient if the buyer s net utility from internal listings is larger than her net utility from external listings, either ex ante or ex post. In our model, the probability of efficient in-house transactions is given by: P = ( αρ (1 α)(1 ρ 2 1) ) F (u L ) + (1 α)(f (u 2 ) F (u L )) (4) The first term in (4) refers to the probability of in-house transactions by type 1 and type 2 buyers with low search costs. With probability ρ 1 2, a type 1 buyer purchases house 2 because house 2 delivers larger net realized utility than house 1. Similarly, with probability 1 ρ 2 1, a type 2 buyer purchases house 2. In both cases, transactions occur within the same brokerage firm, and these in-house transactions represent the outcome of buyers own choices rather than agents promotional efforts. In particular, the low search cost removes the reliance of buyers on agents in looking for ideal homes, resulting in an efficient match between buyers and houses, regardless of whether the transaction occurs within the same brokerage firm or not. The second term in (4) refers to the probability of in-house transactions by type 2 buyers with intermediate search costs. It is straightforward to show that with probability q 2 = 1, all type 2 buyers will be first directed to house 2. 9 Moreover, these buyers would end up purchasing house 2, since 9 To see this, note that for type 2 buyers, a similar condition as condition (3) can be obtained by changing only the 17

19 the expected utility of visiting house 1 is less than the search cost. In this case, the agents incentive to promote their own listings is consistent with the buyers interest, because these listings match the buyers ex ante preference best. This type of in-house transactions, although promoted by cooperating agents, represents an efficient matching outcome. Thus, the model predicts two types of efficient in-house transactions. Under the first type, a buyer receives the largest ex post utility from an internal listing through her own comparison of all available listings. Under the second type, a buyer is directed by an agent to an internal listing that matches her ex ante preference best. Since the first type of in-house transactions are not driven by agents, we focus our discussion on the second type of in-house transactions, which is driven by mutual interests of buyers and their agents. Note that our model takes the buyer s choice of the cooperating brokerage as given (reflected by an exogenous α), hence we are unable to explicitly model the sources of efficient in-house transactions. In practice, buyers ex ante preference for an internal listing may agree with the agent s self-promotion interest for various reasons. For example, an in-house transaction may lower transaction costs and improve the efficiency in the bargaining and closing stage, making buyers more likely to favor transactions within the same brokerage house. Alternatively, a buyer may choose a cooperating agent simply because the agent s affiliated firm specializes in listing houses that fit the buyer s interest best. In both cases, in-house transactions are caused by a mixture of transaction efficiencies and information advantages. In sum, there are a number of brokerage- and transaction-specific features that can be tied to predictions about in-house transactions. These range from sources of strategic promotion to sources of efficient matching. In addition, a legislation that increases consumers awareness of agents incentives would affect in-house transactions under strategic promotion but not those under efficient matching. Together, these predictions provide a basis for the difference-in-differences strategy used in our emleft-hand side in (3) to τ 1p 1 τ 2 p 2. Assuming that houses 1 and 2 are in the same price range, with the in-house promotion bonus, the left-hand side is less than 1, while the right-hand side is greater than 1. This implies that the threshold condition will never be met, and hence q 2 = 1. 18

20 pirical analysis. The model also implies that a full control of efficient matching can be obtained by comparing a buyer s expected utility from internal and external listings, which further motivates the structural approach that we exploit in Section 6. 4 Data The main source of our data is the Multiple Listing Service (MLS) in a large North American metropolitan area from January 2001 to December Our sample covers 28 districts which comprise a third of the metropolitan area. There are over 200,000 transactions and about 1,500 brokerage firms. The MLS data contain detailed information on house characteristics, including the number of bedrooms, the number of washrooms, lot size, the primary room size, dummy variables for basement, garage space and occupancy. In addition, the data provide neighborhood information, listing and transaction prices, as well as real estate brokerage firms on both sides of a transaction. Properties are identified in the MLS data by district, MLS number, address, unit number (if applicable). To avoid some extreme cases, we exclude the following transactions from the estimation sample: (1) transactions for which the sales price is less than $30, 000 or more than $3, 000, 000; (2) transactions for which the cooperating commissions are less than 0.5% or more than 5%; (3) listings that stay on the market for less than one day or more than one year. 10 We define in-house transactions as transactions for which the cooperating agent and the listing agent are associated with the same brokerage office. In our sample, about 20% of transactions occur within the same brokerage office. Tables 1-2 report the fraction of in-house transactions by brokerage office size. In Table 1, we rank cooperating brokerages in order of their total market shares in our data, and group them by their rankings. In Table 2, we group cooperating brokerages by the number of real estate agents. Both tables show that larger brokerages tend to have relatively higher fractions of in-house transactions, as what one would expect. 10 We also estimated our model using somewhat different cutoffs (e.g. the cooperating commission rates are less than 1%; listings stay on the market for fewer than 2 days), our results are robust to these changes. 19

21 One might wonder whether these in-house transactions can simply be a result of independent hiring decisions made separately by buyers and sellers. In that case, conditional on a given buyer working with brokerage j, the probability that the buyer purchases a house listed by the same brokerage should be equal to the market share of listing brokerage j. In other words, Pr(listing = j cooperating = j) = Pr(listing = j). (5) However, as shown in Figure 1, brokerage-office-level fractions of in-house transactions at any given district of the sample city are much higher than the dashed line which depicts the fractions predicted from (5). This suggests that a significant fraction of in-house transactions cannot be explained by independent interactions among brokerage firm, hence providing a key motivation for the empirical analysis in this paper. As noted earlier, a legislation named the REBBA was implemented in the sample city in March 2006, and it requires brokerages and agents involved in in-house sales to inform buyers and sellers of the nature of their relationship in writing before a transaction is conducted. The agents need to disclose not only the fact that the listing and cooperating agents work for the same office but also the fact that the cooperating agent is a sub-agent of the listing agent and hence has fiduciary duties to the seller. 11 By making clients more aware of the agency relationship and the possible incentive issues, the REBBA is most likely to affect the incidence of in-house transactions that occur for strategic reasons while leaving other types of in-house transactions unaffected. Table 3 shows a slight downward trend for in-house transactions in our sample, with a discrete drop after 2006, consistent with what we expected. The downward trend further continued in the years after This is not surprising, as we expect that it takes time for the policy to be fully enforced and for consumers to fully understand the incentive issues behind dual agency. 11 The anecdotal evidence suggests that agents sometimes need to disclose the financial rewards they received from the brokerage firm for promoting in-house sales. 20

22 5 Testing Strategic Promotions: A Reduced-Form Approach 5.1 Testing the Effects of Commission Incentives To test the presence of strategic promotion, we estimate the following linear probability model E(d ibt Z it, X it, W bt, η ibt ) = Z it α + X it β + W bt δ + η ibt, (6) where d ibt is the indicator variable for whether transaction i at period t is an in-house transaction carried out by brokerage b, and Z it is a vector of firm- and transaction-specific variables related to commission structure/rate in transaction i. Specifically, Z it = (COMM it, COMM it REBBA it ), where COMM it is defined below, and REBBA it is a dummy variable for the REBBA. X it refers to a vector of control variables including house lot size, number of bedrooms, number of washrooms, dummy variables for the basement, garage space, and occupancy status. W ib refer to brokerage-level variables such as the number of internal listings by brokerage b in the same district during the month before the transaction. 12 In addition, η ibt denotes various fixed effects for location, time, brokerage, and house. The key variable of interest is COMM it, which captures agents commission incentives to promote in-house transactions. As described in Section 3.2.3, this is measured by two commission variables. The first is split, a firm-specific dummy variable that equals 1 if the cooperating agent splits commission fees with the brokerage firm on the per-transaction basis. The second is low.commission, a transactionspecific dummy variable that equals 1 if the commission fees received by the cooperating agent from the listing agent in a given transaction are lower than 2.5% of the house price. Note that the commission fees are determined at the beginning of the listing process and remain the same until a transaction is completed. As discussed earlier, agents who split commission fees with firms on the per-transaction basis are more likely to receive a promotion bonus; and a lower commission rate offered by the listing agents from other brokerages would make the in-house promotion bonus effectively more attractive 12 If in-house sales transactions help enhance search efficiency, liquidity theory suggests that such benefits are bigger for firms with a larger number of listings. This effect would be captured by a positive δ in (6). 21