The Corporate Culture Conundrum Cross Cultural Issues in International Human Resource Management by Leonard Musielak

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1 TheCorporateCulture Conundrum Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHuman ResourceManagement by LeonardMusielak Humanresourcemanagementisanintegralpartoforganizationalsuccess.Thisistrueofbothdomestic andinternationalcompanies. (Strohetal.1).However,whendealingwiththecomplexitiesofdeep seatedculturalbiasesandassumptionsinherentwithinthemanagementofinternationalhuman resources,itisessentialthatorganizationalleadershipgraspthedepthoftheseissuesandformulatean HRphilosophythatallowsculturalintricaciestoexistwithintheoverallglobalHRframework.Thiscan beaccomplishedthroughtheinternationalizationofheadquarterbasedhumanresourcestaff;the training,development,andplacementoflocalnationalsinkeyleadershippositionswithinthe internationalaffiliates;andthroughtheadoptionofhrpoliciesthatallowthoseleadersthefreedomto accountforlocalcustomswhileremainingcompliantwiththeglobalhrstrategy. Page 0

2 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement The positive impact of effective strategic human resource management on organizational success has been studied extensively both qualitatively and quantitatively by researchersformanyyearsandhasbeenfoundtobetrueinorganizationsofassortedsizesand structures(birdiandcollins)asorganizationsextendtheirglobalreachandincreasethescope ofoverseasoperations,thestrategicmanagementofhumanresourceswithintheorganization becomes increasingly difficult while remaining extremely important (Schuler et al ). EveryculturefosterscertainassumptionsthatdirectlyinfluencetheeffectivenessofcertainHR polices(ngoetal.633). Whilethe internet,satellitecommunications,and cellulartelephone technologyhaveallowedbusinessestoefficientlyexpandglobaloperations,thesetechnologies havenotdampenedthecomplexitiesoftheculturalcontextofinternational human resource management (HRM). These cross cultural complexities must be accounted for in the developmentofhrstrategyifaninternationalhrmpolicyistobesuccessful. There are three basic attitudes towards multinational human resource management: ethnocentric, polycentric, and geocentric. As the name implies, an ethnocentric human resourcepolicyisinfluencedexclusivelybythecultureofthecorporateheadquarters.inthis strategy,hrpolicyisdictatedtointernationalaffiliatesbythe homeoffice (Ngoetal.634).In anethnocentricallymanagedmultinationalitiscommonfor parentcompanynationals tobe placed in key management positions at overseas operations. Conversely, in a polycentric mindedorganization,mostkeymanagementpositionsareheldbyhostcountrynationals(kopp 582).ThisisduetothefactthatthepolycentricHRattitudetakesthepositionthatcorporate headquarters should have a hands off approach in terms of the management of human Page 1

3 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement resources. This HR policy type is identified by the complete control of HR decisions by the internationalaffiliateonthelocallevel.finally,thegeocentricapproachattemptstobridgethe gapbetweenethnocentricityandpolycentricismbybalancingthedesireforcorporatecontrol withtheneedforlocalizationofhrpolicies(ngoetal.634). As a company expands globally, there may be a temptation to continue to utilize established human resource management policies and techniques. Sometimes this is rationalized as an attempt to instill a corporate culture that will override the purveying nationalcultureoftheinternationalsubsidiariestherebydecreasingculturalclasheswithinthe organization. However, while the strategy of employing one human resource management policy is logical and desirable, it is inevitable that the preexisting policies are inherently ethnocentric. It is, therefore, essential that any international strategic human resource managementframeworkbebuiltfromthegroundupandbeflexibleenoughtoallowforsome deviation for cultural differences (Schuler et al ). Seminars and training sessions cannot override values instilled over the course of a lifetime. Memos cannot erase societal norms and mores established over centuries. When developing a global strategic human resource management strategy, organizational leadership must first understand the cultural differenceswhichprecludethesuccessofanethnocentrichrpolicyandthenbuildastrategic human resource management policy that does not attemptto override those differences but allowsthemtoexistwithintheconfinesoftheoverallcorporateculture. Cross CulturalConsiderations Page 2

4 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement In a multinational organization (MNO), headquarters based human resource management professionals are often looked at as Professors of HRM in that they are expected to design a strategy thatwill prevent or solve all human resource issues that occur worldwide within the organization. Often, this leads to the development of an ethnocentric human resource policy (Laurent 92). In an article for The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Ngo et al. showed that human resource policies of multinational corporationsoperatingwithinonecountrybutwithdifferent countriesoforiginwereacutely dissimilartherebyprovingthatcountryoforigin hasadefiniteeffectonhrpolicy(ngoetal. 646).TheseculturallylinkedHRbiaseswithinanMNOaremostlikelytheresultofassumptions thatthedesignersofthehrpolicydidn tknowtheyhadorbelievedtobeuniversal.thisisthe root of the corporate culture conundrum. When HR policy is set by the headquarters of an MNO, which is generally a culturally comparable cadre of people, they are often completely unawarethatthepoliciestheysetarenotnormalacceptedbeliefsworldwide. The depth to which cultural assumptions permeate the human resource function is almost unfathomable. A survey of executives in development programs at The European InstituteofBusinessAdministration(INSEAD),formsaveryclearpicture oftheimportanceof culture to views and assumptions about management. The results showed that nationality outweighed all other surveyed characteristics by threefold in terms of influence on those assumptions and views. The additional factors the survey polled included age, education, function, [and] type of company (Laurent 93). When analyzed by country of origin, the differentiations of assumptions are astounding. For example, in responding to the following statement: Page 3

5 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement It is important for a manager to have at hand precise answers to most of the questionsthathissubordinatesmayraiseabouttheirwork 77% of respondents from Japan agreed with the statement compared to, 49% from Belgium, 30% from Great Britain and only 13% from the United States and Sweden. The same study showed that even the basic idea of organization was highly influenced by national differences.whereas,italianandfrenchrespondents consistentlyperceivedorganizationsas social systems of relationships monitored by power, authority, and hierarchy their American counterparts viewed an organization as a set of tasks to be achieved through a problemsolving hierarchy where positions are defined in terms of task and functions and where authority is functionally based (Laurent 94). Ergo, the view point of the French and other likeminded nations is that power is vested more in the person than in their role within the company.asubsequentstudyconcludedthatthesedifferencesarenotdilutedbyorganization affiliation. Managers within one US based multinational corporation echoed the viewpoints their countrymen expressed in the INSEAD study. In fact, the results indicated there was slightlymoredivergencesbetweenthenationalgroupswithinthismultinationalcompanythan originallyfoundintheinseadmulti companystudy (Laurent95). Thefactis,theseresultsonlyscratchthesurfaceoftheunderlyingattitudeswhichaffect an employee s expectations of HRM. In National vs. Corporate Culture: Implications for HumanResourceManagement published inhumanresourcemanagement,susanschneider cites many examples of well intentioned HR policies completely missing their intended mark duetoculturalassumptionincapability.oneillustrationshedetailsisthatofanmnooperating Page 4

6 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement inafricawhich offeredworkerscomplimentarylunchestoincreaseproductivity.ratherthan acceptthegratuitousmealasaperkofemployment,thestaff demandedthatthecostofthe mealbepaiddirectlytothe[them]sothattheycouldfeedtheirfamilies (Schneider238).In termsofinternationalhumanresources,itmustneverbeassumedthatwhatisanormal,and oftenencouraged,practicewithinonecountryisanexportableidea.thecommonpracticesof management by objectives and direct feedback in US corporations, and desired by US employees,comeacrossas tactless andare viewedsuspiciouslyasanexerciseofarbitrary powerandamanipulativeployofmanagement whenattemptedinothercultures. (Schneider ).AnothercommonpitfallofWesternHRthinkingistheassumptionthat peoplewant tobepromoted. ItwouldprobablyneveroccurtoaUShumanresourcestrategydesignerthat insomecountriespromotionsaregenerallyviewedaszerosumatbestandnegativeatworst (Schneider263).Evensimplytheideaof longtermhumanresourceplanning isnotwithout itsculturalcompatibilitycomplicationsinsocietieswherelongtermstrategizingisconsidered tobeanarrogantaffronttothewillofgodornature(schneider234).itshouldalsobepointed out that each of these examples is just as meaningful when the roles are reversed. An employeeofausaffiliateofaninternationalmnowouldmostlikelybejustasunhappywith thelackofdirectfeedbackandmanagementbyobjectivesashiscounterpartinaninternational affiliateofausmultinationalwouldbewiththeirinclusion. The findings of the aforementioned studies create a picture of an almost insurmountableproblemforahumanresourceexecutiveutilizingethnocentricallybasedhrm theory. Rather than solving potential, perceived, or persistent human resource issues, an ethnocentricmanagementpolicyisfraughtwithperilousproblemsofitsown.researchasfar Page 5

7 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement back as 1974 pointed the inability to fully utilize the talents of non home country nationals, discontentamonglocalnationalmanagers,highturnoverrateoflocalnationalmanagers,and reentry problems for expatriates returning to the home country as just a few examples of problemsexperiencedbyethnocentricallymindedmnos.askoppsummarizes ingeneral,the lessethnocentricafirm sinternationalpoliciesandpractices,thelesslikelyitistoexperience international human resource management problems thereby implying that more ethnocentric policies breed more international HRM problems (Kopp 182). Based on the documented link between effective HRM and organizational success, it is of the utmost importanceforamultinationalorganizationtoconquerthischallenge. DevelopingaCross CultureHumanResourcePolicy Ultimately,theendgameofhumanresourcemanagementis tosupport,manage,and maintainhigh commitmentandhigh performanceemployees (Strohetal.2). Themeansto achievingthisgoalistofirstunderstandtheneedsoftheemployee.thisisnottosaythatan organizationmustunderstandthespecificneedsofeachindividualemployee.however,italso does not suffice to say that basic human needs are [consistent] throughout the world regardlessofculturalvalues(lemak26).onecannotextrapolatetheuniversalneedforfood, water,andshelterintothesolecriterionforthedevelopmentofinternationalhumanresource managementpoliciesbecausehowoneviewsthoseuniversalneedsisspecifictotheindividual culture. The first example from Schneider of the MNO in Africa providing free lunch to employeesdemonstratesthis.obviously,thatpolicysatisfiedtheuniversalneedforfood.yet, Page 6

8 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement inthiscasethepervasivecultureofcommunitylivingwithinafamilypreventedthispolicyfrom achievingitsintendedgoal. It was previously shown here that views, assumptions, and needs of employees and managers vary greatly based on cultural and geographical variance. It was also shown that ethnocentric, or home office dictated HRM policy is not only generally ineffective and inefficient;itcanalsoleadtoproblemsinitsownright.yet,theanswerisnotthecompleteand totaldelegationofthedevelopment,adoption,andenforcementofhumanresourcepolicesto international affiliates. Schuler et al., citing Bartlett and Ghoshal (1991), elucidatethat multinational organizations need to be co ordinated[sic] or integrated in some form and to some degree. The logic behind this statement is self evident when looked at from a broad perspective.amultinationalorganizationwithoutcoordinationisnotanorganizationatall,but ratherindividualbusinesseslinkedbynamealone(schuleretal.719).ergo,itisclearthatboth theethnocentricandpolycentrichrmattitudesdiscussedpreviouslymustbedismisseddueto theirinabilitytosatisfythetwobasicnecessitiesofglobalhrm,flexibilityandcoordination. With coordination and integration being essential compatriots to the integral need to adapt HRM policy to the culture, mores, and morals of global affiliates host countries, it becomes apparent that any strategy adopted by in international organization must be appropriately flexible while remaining firmly cohesive (Ngo et al. 634 and Schuler et al.724). Theeliminationofethno andpolycentrismbasedontheirinabilitytofulfillthiscriterialeaves geocentrism as the only plausible alternative. The geocentric model bridges the chasm between ethnocentrism and polycentrism while allowing the organization the opportunity to Page 7

9 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement determinewhereinthespacebetweenutterinflexibilityandcompleteautonomytheirhuman resourcemanagementpolicyshouldreside(schuleretal.274).justashrmpolicymustfitthe pervasive national culture; it must also fit the organization s corporate culture. Geocentrism allowsfortheflexibilitytoreachacompromisebetweencountryandcompany. In the formulation, or reformulation, of an international HRM policy, one of the first steps an MNO should take is to internationalize headquarters HR itself. It was previously demonstratedthateveryculturefosterscertainbiasesandassumptionswithintherealmofhr andthat,evenwhenthestatedgoalofanhrpolicyistoremainculturallyneutral,thesehidden biasesmayresultinrenderingthepolicyineffectiveatbestandcompletelyimpotentatworst (Schneider 238 and Ngo et al. 633). By hiring new international expatriates, or reassigning existinglocalstafffrominternationalaffiliatestoheadquartersandallowingthemtoparticipate in the planning of the HR policy, the organization will gain an outsider s perspective and mitigatethepossibilityofculturalbiassilentlycontaminatingthenewpolicy(ngoetal.633). Afterplacingmultinationalexpatriatesinpositionskeytothedevelopmentofthenew policy,themnocanbegintheprocessofformulatingtheframeworkfortheirmultinationalhr philosophy.oneareaoffocusshouldberealigningthegoalsoftheheadquartershrstafffrom the actual micro management of human resources across the globe to hiring and developing hostcountrynationalsforhostcountryhrmanagementpositions(kopp594).ifthehrpolicy is to rely on foreign affiliates to implement and uphold the corporate HR philosophy, the training of international HR staff is an integral component of achieving success. The developmentofaworldwide leadershiptrackingsystemmaybeusefulinthisendeavor.the Page 8

10 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement purposeofthissystemwouldbetoidentifypotentiallocalleaderswithininternationalaffiliates andthenrotatethemthroughouttheorganizationtoenhancetheirmulticulturalperspective (Kopp595).TheseleaderswouldthenbeprimecandidatestoinherittheHRMrolewithintheir home affiliate. Taking this step allows headquarters to retain the control over HR personnel necessary to have a consistent and manageablehuman resource policy worldwide while also providingthelocalaffiliatewithhrmstaffthatembodiesthelocalculturebuthasinternational experience necessary to interact with headquarters and other foreign affiliates (Laurent 97). The redirection of micromanagement of HR from the home office to the local affiliate also freestheheadquartershrmstafffromspendingcountlesshours,days,orevenyearspatching problems caused by an ethnocentric policy and allows them to perform more effective tasks such as further training and development of those identified as potential future global HR leaders(schuleretal.724). The final step in the development of an internationally appropriate HR strategy is the formulationofindividualpolicies.asdemonstratedpreviously,thedictationofspecificpolicies to foreign affiliates is inherently undesirable. However, an MNO can adopt policies that addressareassuchascompensationandperformanceevaluationwhicharevieweddifferently byindividualcultureswhileremainingculturallyneutral(schuleretal.724).thisisachievedby settinggeneralguidelineswhichmaythenbeappliedbythelocalaffiliatehrstaffaccordingto the cultural norms, morals, and mores of the local country. General statements, such as performance will be rewarded, allows for both a consistent company global HR policy but leavesthedetailsofhowthatpolicyisappliedtolocalmanagementwhoarebetterpositioned to understand local attitudes that would affect the application of that policy. The example, Page 9

11 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement performance will be rewarded creates a worldwide policy of encouraging performance through some type of compensation whilst allowing the local managers to determine the substanceofthecompensationandhowthatcompensationisdistributed(schuleretal.725). Incountrieswherecommunityisvaluedovertheindividual,thecompensationmaybeinthe formofabonusdistributedequallytotheentireworkforceiforganizationalgoalsareachieved. Conversely,inmoreindividualisticallymindedcultures,therewardmaybeabonustothetop performersindividually.ifalocalaffiliateiswithinanareawhereleisuretimeishighlyvalued, theincentivemaybeadditionalvacationtimeoratriptoalocalrecreationfacilitypaidforby the firm. By adopting broad policies that represent the ideals of the global organization but allowing the leadership within the local affiliates to determine how those polices are implemented,themnocanachieveboththecoordinationanddifferentiationnecessaryforan internationalstrategichumanresourcepolicytobesuccessful. Conclusion Humanresourcemanagementisanintegralpartoforganizationalsuccess.Thisistrue ofbothdomesticandinternationalcompanies. (Strohetal.1)However,whendealingwith the complexities of deep seated cultural biases and assumptions inherent within the management of international human resources, it is essential that organizational leadership graspthedepthoftheseissuesandformulateanhrphilosophythatallowsculturalintricacies to exist within the overall global HR framework. This can be accomplished through the internationalization of headquarter based human resource staff; the training, development, andplacementoflocalnationalsinkeyleadershippositionswithintheinternationalaffiliates; Page 10

12 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement andthroughtheadoptionofhrpoliciesthatallowthoseleadersthe freedomtoaccountfor localcustomswhileremainingcompliantwiththeglobalhrstrategy. Page 11

13 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement Bibliography Birdi,K.,Clegg,C.,Patterson,M.,Robinson,A.,Stride,C.B.,Wall,T.D.,&Wood,S.J.(2008). TheImpactofHumanResourceandOperationalManagementPracticesonCompany Productivity:ALongitudinalStudy.PersonnelPsychology,61(3), doi: /j Thepurposeofthisarticleistoa)determinetheperformanceeffectoftheintroduction ofeachofthehumanresourceoroperationspracticesseparately;b)establishwhether thesynergiesamongthepracticesthatarepredictedbytheoryaredemonstratedin practice;andc)whereeffectsareestablished,examinehowlongbeforetheyemerge andforhowlongtheypersist.themethodsusedbytheresearcherwerequalitative. Thesubjectsoftheresearchwere308companiesover22years,duringwhichtimethey implementedsomeorallofthefollowingpractices:integratedmanufacturingandlean production,placegreateremphasisonoperationinitiativessuchastotalquality management,just in time,advancedmanufacturingtechnology,andsupply chain partneringasdeterminantsoforganizationalperformance.theresearchersconcluded thatthereispartialsupportforboththestrategichumanresourcemanagementandthe extendedleanproductionperspectives,butnodefinitiveconfirmationofthefullforms ofeither Collins,C.J.,&Smith,K.G.(2006). KnowledgeExchangeandCombination:TheRoleofHuman ResourcePracticesinthePerformanceofHigh TechnologyFirms.Academyof ManagementJournal,49(3), doi: /AMJ Thepurposeofthisstudyistoexaminehowcommitmentbasedhumanresource practicesinfluencethebroadersocialcontextsuchasafirm ssocialclimate.the methodsusedbytheresearcherwerequantitative.thesubjectsoftheresearchwere 136knowledgeintensivefirmsintworegionsoftheUnitedStatescharacterizedashightechnologyhotspots.TheresearchersfoundthatcommitmentbasedHRpracticesare significantlyrelatedtothesocialclimatesoftrust,cooperation,andsharedcodesand languagethatfacilitatesexchangeandcombinationamongknowledgeworkers. Importantly,theeffectswediscoveredarealsomeaningfulfromapracticaland financialstand point.inparticular,ourresultsshowedthataonestandard deviation increaseincommitmentbasedhrpracticesyieldsa16.9percentincreaseinsales. Gröschl,S."DiversityManagementStrategiesofGlobalHotelGroups:ACorporateWebSite BasedExploration."InternationalJournalofContemporaryHospitalityManagement 23.2(2011): Print. Page 12

14 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement Inthisstudy,StefanGroschlfromtheESSECBusinessSchoolinCergy Pontoise,France explorestheeffectivenessofcorporatediversityamonginternationalhotelgroups. Usingqualitativecontentanalysisofcorporatewebsites,theauthorconcludesthat mostoftheselectedhotelcompanieswithdiversitymanagementstrategiesand policiesneedtocommunicatetheirdiversitymanagementactivitiesandactionsmore extensivelyandclearlyviatheircorporatewebsitestohelpsupportemployee recruitmentefforts,attractionoftalentswithdifferenteducationalandcultural backgrounds,developmentofmultiple(minority)supplierrelationsandcorporatesocial responsibilityimage,andaccessibilityintonewmarkets. Harvey,Michael,CheriSpeier,andMiloradM.Novecevic."ATheory BasedFrameworkfor StrategicGlobalHumanResourceStaffingPoliciesandPractices."InternationalJournal ofhumanresourcemanagement12.6(2001): Print. InthisstudyfromtheInternationalJournalofHumanResourceManagement,Michael Harvey,CheriSpeier,andMiloradNovecevicexaminestrategicglobalhumanresource staffingpolicies.specifically,ontheuseof expatriationasaneffectivemethodfor managing,thebreadthofinternationalhumanresourceopportunities. Theyconclude thatthereisevidencethat relianceonexpatriation basedstaffingwillimpedeeffective managementofinternationalhumanresourcesstaffing. Johnson,JamesP.,TomaszLenartowicz,andSalvadorApud."Cross CulturalCompetencein InternationalBusiness:TowardaDefinitionandaModel."JournalofInternational BusinessStudies37.4(2006): Print. TheauthorsofthisarticlefromtheJournalofInternationalBusinessStudiesclaimsthat manyinternationalbusinessfailureshavebeenascribedtoalackofcross cultural competence wheninrealitytheissueisalackof anadequateconceptualizationand definitionofthetermcc. Kopp,R."InternationalHumanResourcePoliciesandPracticesinJapanese,European,and UnitedStatesMultinationals."HumanResourceManagement33.4(1994): Print. Koppexamines theuseofexpatriatesoverlocalsinoverseasmanagement,adoptionof nonethnocentricpolicies,andincidenceofinternationalhumanresourcemanagement problems withinmultinationalcorporations.utilizingregressionanalysis,theauthors determinedthat ethnocentricstaffingandpoliciesareassociatedwithhigherincidence ofinternationalhumanresourcemanagementproblems. Laurent,André."TheCross CulturalPuzzleofInternationalHumanResourceManagement." Page 13

15 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement HumanResourceManagement25.1(1986): Print. TheauthorsattempttobuildaframeworkofinternationalHRMasitappliesto the culturaldiversityofmanagementconceptionsacrossnations. Lemak,DavidJ.,andWiboonArunthanes."GlobalBusinessStrategy:AContingencyApproach." MultinationalBusinessReview5.1(1997):26 37.Print. FromtheMultinationalBusinessReview,thispaperbyDavidJ.Lemakexamines the ongoingdebateofstandardizationversusadaptation andattemptstoresolvethe debate byarguingthathigherperformancedependsonfirmschoosinganappropriate globalbusinessstrategyfortheiruniquesetofcircumstances. Leung,Kwok,RabiS.Bhagat,andNancyR.Buchan."CultureandInternationalBusiness:Recent AdvancesandTheirImplicationsforFutureResearch."JournalofInternationalBusiness Studies36.4(2005): Print. Inthispaper,theauthorsreview severalinnovativeadvancesincultureand internationalbusiness focusingon theissuessurroundingculturalconvergencesand divergence. Levy,O.,etal."WhatWeTalkAboutWhenWeTalkAbout GlobalMindset :Managerial CognitioninMultinationalCorporations."JournalofInternationalBusinessStudies38.2 (2007): Print. Thisliteraturereviewofstudiesonglobalmindsetaimsto clarifysomeofthe conceptualconfusionsurroundtheconstruct. Inaddition,throughtheuseoftwo constructsfromthesocialsciences cosmopolitanismandcognitivecomplexity itaimsto developanintegrativetheoreticalframeworkofglobalmindset. Luo,Yadong,andOdedShenkar."TheMultinationalCorporationasaMultilingualCommunity: LanguageandOrganizationinaGlobalContext."JournalofInternationalBusiness Studies37.3(2006): Print. InthispaperfromtheinternationalJournalofHumanResourceManagement,the authors investigatetheeffectsofcountryoriginsonhrpracticesoffirmsfromthe UnitedStates,GreatBritain,Japan,andHongKong. EventuallyconcludingthatHR practiceswererelatedtovariousmeasuresoffirmperformance. Page 14

16 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement Palich,LeslieE.,andPeterW.Hom."ManagingintheInternationalContext:TestingCultural GeneralityofSourcesofCommitmenttoMultinationalEnterprises."Journalof Management21.4(1995): Print. Thisstudyexploredthe internationalexportabilityofamericanmanagementtheory andpractice amongeuropeanandcanadianaffiliatesofusmultinationalfirms.they concludedthatamongtheseaffiliates jobscope,roleclarity,extrinsicrewards,and participativemanagement arefactorswhich bindeuropeanandcanadianmanagers toamericanglobalcorporations. Furthermore,thesefindingsmirrorthoseofdomestic surveyssuggestingthatamericanmanagementtheoryandpracticesare,infact, exportabletoeuropeanandcanadiancultures. Rosenzweig,P.M.,andN.Nohria."InfluencesonHumanResourceManagementPracticesin MultinationalCorporations."JournalofInternationalBusinessStudies(1994): Print. Aquantitativeanalysisof 249USaffiliatesofforeign basedmultinationalcorporations concludesthataffiliatehumanresourcepracticescloselyfollowlocalpractices. Additionally,theyfoundstarkdifferencesbetweencorporationsofdifferentnational origins. Schneider,SusanC."NationalVs.CorporateCulture:ImplicationsforHumanResource Management."HumanResourceManagement27.2(1988): Print. Thisstudyexaminesthepromotionofcorporatecultureasameanstoimprovecontrol, coordination,andintegrationoftheirinternationalsubsidiaries.specifically,itexamines howsubsidiaries embeddedinlocalnationalcultures areeffectedbythenationaland corporatecultureoftheparentcorporation. Schuler,RandallS.,PeterJ.Dowling,andHelenDeCieri."AnIntegrativeFrameworkofStrategic InternationalHumanResourceManagement."InternationalJournalofHumanResource Management4.4(1993): Print. Schulerexaminesthe linkageofhumanresourcemanagementwithstrategy which offeranunderstandingofhowsinglecountryourdomestichumanresource managementcanfacilitateorganizationalunderstandingandeffectiveness andattempt to extendthislineofworkintotheinternationalarena. Shen,Jie,etal."ManagingDiversitythroughHumanResourceManagement:AnInternational PerspectiveandConceptualFramework."InternationalJournalofHumanResource Page 15

17 TheCorporateCultureConundrum:Cross CulturalIssuesinInternationalHumanResourceManagement Management20.2(2009): Print. Thisliteraturereviewon managingdiversitythroughhumanresourcemanagement examinesthe majorissuesandobjectivesofmanagingdiversityandexaminethesate ofhumanresourcediversitymanagementpracticesinorganizations. Stroh,LindaK.,andPaulaM.Caligiuri."StrategicHumanResources:ANewSourcefor CompetitiveAdvantageintheGlobalArena."InternationalJournalofHumanResource Management9.1(1998):1 17.Print. ThisstudyofHRexecutivesfromsixtylargeusemultinationalcorporation, first identifiesten guidingprinciplesthatfacilitate effectiveglobalhumanresources managementfunction.inaddition,theauthorssurveyedmanagersofnon HRareasand analyzed howthemembersofthevariousgroupsratedtheeffectivenessoftheglobal HRfunction. TheconclusionofthestudyisthatClevelandHRmanagersratetheHRM effectivenessasextremelyhighwhilemanagersofotherareasratetheeffectivenessas low. Tung,R.L."TheCross CulturalResearchImperative:TheNeedtoBalanceCross Nationaland Intra NationalDiversity."JournalofInternationalBusinessStudies39.1(2007): Print. Inthiscommentary,RosalieL.TungfromtheBusinessSchoolatSimonFraserUniversity inburnay,canada,highlightsthe evolutionofcomparativemanagementtheories. In particularshediscussessomefaultsamongcommonlyheldinternationalmanagement beliefs.first,shedescribesthe fallaciousassumptionofculturalhomogeneitywith nations. Secondly,shedispelsthenotionthatculturesarestableovertime.Finally, she callsfortheneedtobalancecross nationalandintra nationaldiversityinorderto trulyunderstandthecross culturalphenomena. Page 16