International political theory

Transcription

1 International political theory K. Hutchings IR3083, Undergraduate study in Economics, Management, Finance and the Social Sciences This is an extract from a subject guide for an undergraduate course offered as part of the University of London International Programmes in Economics, Management, Finance and the Social Sciences. Materials for these programmes are developed by academics at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE). For more information, see:

2 This guide was prepared for the University of London International Programmes by: Kimberly Hutchings, PhD, Reader in International Relations, London School of Economics and Political Science. Website: This is one of a series of subject guides published by the University. We regret that due to pressure of work the author is unable to enter into any correspondence relating to, or arising from, the guide. If you have any comments on this subject guide, favourable or unfavourable, please use the form at the back of this guide. The University of London International Programmes Publications Office Stewart House 32 Russell Square London WC1B 5DN United Kingdom Website: Published by: University of London University of London 2005 Reprinted with minor revisions 2011 The University of London asserts copyright over all material in this subject guide except where otherwise indicated. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. We make every effort to contact copyright holders. If you think we have inadvertently used your copyright material, please let us know.

3 Contents Contents Chapter 1: Introduction... 1 Introduction... 1 Aims... 1 Learning outcomes... 1 Essential reading... 1 Further reading... 2 Online study resources... 4 The structure of the guide... 5 How to use this subject guide... 7 Examination advice... 9 Chapter 2: The history of international thought Introduction Aims and objectives Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading Thucydides (approx 450s 400 bce) Augustine of Hippo ( ce) Machiavelli ( ce) Hugo Grotius ( ce) Thomas Hobbes ( ce) Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( ce) Immanuel Kant ( ce) Karl Marx ( ce) Conclusion A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 3: Major schools of international theory Introduction Aims and objectives Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading Liberalism Realism International society Marxism/Structuralism Problems with the theories The neo-realist/neo-liberal consensus A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions i

4 83 International political theory Chapter 4: The critique of mainstream international relations Introduction Aims and objectives Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading Critical theory Poststructuralism Feminism Similarities and differences A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 5: Methodology Introduction Aims and objectives Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading Can IR be a science? The Agency/structure debate Constructivism A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 6: Theorising international politics in the twenty-first century Introduction Aims and objectives Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading Normative discourse in international politics Unipolarity and the question of empire Cultural bias and blindspots in IR theory A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Appendix 1: Sample examination paper and guidance on answering an examination question Sample examination paper Guidance on answering an examination question Appendix 2: References cited Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Appendix 3: Glossary ii

5 Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 1: Introduction Introduction Aims International political theory is about different ways in which the nature of international politics can be explained, understood and judged. In other words, we will be exploring different frameworks for thinking about why and how international politics works in the way that it does, but also for thinking about how international politics ought to be. As a topic it is focused on theoretical texts and concepts (rather than empirical, historical material). However, you will be expected to relate the ideas discussed in this subject to the empirical material about international relations which you studied in 11 Introduction to international relations, a prerequisite for this course. This subject develops, extends and deepens theoretical topics covered in 11 Introduction to international relations, Chapter 1, as well as introducing you to a range of new texts, theories and concepts. It will give you a broad knowledge of the tools used in studying international relations and of the debates between different theoretical perspectives. It will also improve your skills of academic reading, conceptual analysis and argument. The aims and objectives of the course are to: give an account of different frameworks of thinking about international politics acquaint you with ideas, concepts and texts in international political theory, both classical and modern, in their historical context introduce you to issues of methodology in the study of international politics enable you to think critically about alternative ways of explaining, understanding and judging international politics in the early twentyfirst century. Learning outcomes At the end of this course, and having completed the Essential reading and activities, you should be able to: demonstrate knowledge of different frameworks for thinking about international politics demonstrate knowledge of a range of ideas, concepts and texts in international political theory and the historical contexts in which they arose distinguish and evaluate different methodological approaches within the study of international politics evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of alternative ways of explaining, understanding and judging contemporary international politics. Essential reading Baylis, John and Steve Smith (eds) The Globalization of World Politics. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001) second editon [ISBN ]. 1

6 83 International political theory Brown, Chris, Terry Nardin and Nicholas Rengger (eds) International Relations in Political Thought: texts from the Ancient Greeks to the First World War. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002) [ISBN ]. Brown, Chris Understanding International Relations. (Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2001) second edition [ISBN (hbk)/ (pbk)]. Burchill, S., Andrew Linklater et al. Theories of International Relations. (Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2001) second edition [ISBN (pbk)/ (hbk)]. Williams, H., M. Wright and T. Evans (eds) A Reader in International Relations and Political Theory. (Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 1993) [ISBN ]. As a minimum you should buy copies of the books by Baylis and Smith and by Brown, Nardin and Rengger. You should consider also buying the other books on the Essential reading list. Detailed reading references in this subject guide refer to the editions of the set textbooks listed above. New editions of one or more of these textbooks may have been published by the time you study this course. You can use a more recent edition of any of the books; use the detailed chapter and section headings and the index to identify relevant readings. Also check the virtual learning environment (VLE) regularly for updated guidance on readings. 2 Further reading Please note that as long as you read the Essential reading you are then free to read around the subject area in any text, paper or online resource. You will need to support your learning by reading as widely as possible and by thinking about how these principles apply in the real world. To help you read extensively, you have free access to the (VLE) and University of London Online Library (see below). Other useful texts for this course include: Books Bauer, J.R. and D.A. Bell (eds) The East Asian Challenge for Human Rights. (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999) [ISBN ]. Bell, D.A. East Meets West: Human Rights and Democracy in East Asia. (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000) [ISBN ]. Booth, K., and S. Smith (eds) International Relations Theory Today. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995) [ISBN ]. Boucher, D. Political Theories of International Relations. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) [ISBN ]. Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce Predicting Politics. (Columbus: Ohio State UP, 2002) [ISBN ]. Brown, C. Sovereignty, Rights and Justice: International Political Theory Today. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002) [ISBN ]. Clark, I. and I. Neumann (eds) Classical Theories of International Relations. (London: Macmillan, 1996) [ISBN ]. Donnelly, J. Realism and International Relations. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000) [ISBN ]. Dunne, T. and N.J. Wheeler (eds) Human Rights in Global Politics. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) [ISBN ]. Forsyth, M. and M. Keens-Soper (eds) The Political Classics: A Guide to the Essential Texts from Plato to Rousseau. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992) [ISBN ].

7 Chapter 1: Introduction Forsyth, M. and M. Keens-Soper (eds) The Political Classics: Hamilton to Mill. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) [ISBN ]. Gallie, W.B. Philosophers of Peace and War. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978) [ISBN ]. George, J. Discourses of Global Politics: a critical (re)introduction to international relations. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994) [ISBN ]. Groom, A.J.R. and M. Light (eds) Contemporary International Relations: A Guide to Theory. (London: Pinter, 1994) [ISBN X]. Halliday, F. Rethinking International Relations. (London: Macmillan, 1994) [ISBN ]. Hampsher-Monk, I. A History of Modern Political Thought: major political thinkers from Hobbes to Marx. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992) [ISBN ]. Held, D. Democracy and the Global Order. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995) [ISBN ]. Hobson, J.M. The State and International Relations. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000) [ISBN ]. Hollis, M. and S. Smith Explaining and Understanding International Relations. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991) [ISBN ]. Holzgrefe, J.L. and R.O. Keohane Humanitarian Intervention: ethical, legal and political dilemmas. (Cambridge: CUP, 2003) [ISBN ]. Kegley, C.W. Controversies in IR Theory: Realism and the Neoliberal Challenge. (London: Macmillan, 1995) [ISBN ]. Keohane, R. (ed.) Neorealism and Its Critics. (New York: Columbia UP, 1986) [ISBN ]. Knutsen, T. The History of International Relations Theory. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992) second edition [ISBN ]. Little R. and M. Smith (eds) Perspectives on World Politics. (London: Routledge, 1991) second edition [ISBN ]. Luard, E. (ed) Basic Texts in International Relations. (London: Macmillan, 1992) [ISBN ] Chapters 3, 4, 7, 10, 11 and 26. Neumann, I. and O. Waever (eds) The Future of International Relations: masters in the making. (London: Routledge, 1997) [ISBN ]. Petito, F. and P. Hatzopoulos (eds) Religion in International Relations. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) [ISBN ]. Risse, T., S. C. Ropp and K. Sikkink (eds) The Power of Human Rights: international norms and domestic change. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) [ISBN ]. Smith, S., K. Booth and M. Zalewski (eds) International Theory: positivism and beyond. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). [ISBN ]. Steans, J. Gender and International Relations. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998) [ISBN ]. Thompson, K. Fathers of International Thought: the legacy of political theory. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994) [ISBN ]. Weber, C. International Relations Theory: a critical introduction. (London: Routledge, 2001) [ISBN ]. Wheeler, N. Saving Strangers: humanitarian intervention in international society. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)[ISBN ]. Wight, M. International Theory: the three traditions. Edited by G. Wight and B. Porter (Leicester: Leicester University Press,1991) [ISBN ]. Williams, H. International Relations in Political Theory. (Milton Keynes: Open University Press,1992) [ISBN ]. Woods, N. (ed.) Explaining International Relations Since (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)[ISBN ]. Wyn Jones, R. (ed) Critical Theory and World Politics. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001) [ISBN ]. 3

8 83 International political theory Journals Adler, A. Seizing the Middle Ground, European Journal of International Relations 3, 1997, pp Blanchard, E. Gender, International Theory, and the Development of Feminist Security Theory, Signs: Journal of Women, Culture and Society 28(4), Brown, C. International Theory and International Society: the viability of the middle way, Review of International Studies 21(2), 1995, pp Cox, M. September 11th and the U.S. Hegemony Or Will the 21st Century Be American Too?, International Studies Perspectives 3, 2002, pp Deudney, D. and G.J. Ikenberry The Nature and Sources of Liberal International Order, Review of International Studies 25(2), 1999, pp Forum on American Realism, Review of International Studies 29(3), 2003, pp Forum on the English School, Review of International Studies 27 (3), 2001, pp Huntington, S. The Clash of Civilizations, Foreign Affairs 72, 1993, pp Ikenberry, G.J. American Power and the Empire of Capitalist Democracy, Review of International Studies 27, 2001, pp Keohane, R. International Institutions: Two Approaches, International Studies Quarterly 32, 1988, pp Mallaby, S. The Reluctant Imperialist: Terrorism, Failed States and the Case for American Empire, Foreign Affairs 81 (2), 2002, pp Nye, J. Neorealism and Neoliberalism, World Politics 35, Tickner, J. Ann Feminist Perspectives on 9/11, International Studies Perspectives 3(4), 2002, pp Wendt, A. The Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations Theory, International Organization 41(3), 1987, pp Wendt, A. Anarchy is What States Make of It: the social construction of power politics, International Organisation 46, 1992, pp Wohlforth, W. American Primacy, Foreign Affairs 81(3), Online study resources In addition to the subject guide and the Essential reading, it is crucial that you take advantage of the study resources that are available online for this course, including the VLE and the Online Library. You can access the VLE, the Online Library and your University of London account via the Student Portal at: You should have received your login details for the Student Portal with your official offer, which was ed to the address that you gave on your application form. You have probably already logged in to the Student Portal in order to register! As soon as you registered, you will automatically have been granted access to the VLE, Online Library and your fully functional University of London account. If you forget your login details at any point, please london.ac.uk quoting your student number. The VLE The VLE, which complements this subject guide, has been designed to enhance your learning experience, providing additional support and a sense of community. It forms an important part of your study experience with the University of London and you should access it regularly. 4

9 Chapter 1: Introduction The VLE provides a range of resources for EMFSS courses: Self-testing activities: Doing these allows you to test your own understanding of subject material. Electronic study materials: The printed materials that you receive from the University of London are available to download, including updated reading lists and references. Past examination papers and Examiners commentaries: These provide advice on how each examination question might best be answered. A student discussion forum: This is an open space for you to discuss interests and experiences, seek support from your peers, work collaboratively to solve problems and discuss subject material. Videos: There are recorded academic introductions to the subject, interviews and debates and, for some courses, audio-visual tutorials and conclusions. Recorded lectures: For some courses, where appropriate, the sessions from previous years Study Weekends have been recorded and made available. Study skills: Expert advice on preparing for examinations and developing your digital literacy skills. Feedback forms. Some of these resources are available for certain courses only, but we are expanding our provision all the time and you should check the VLE regularly for updates. Making use of the Online Library The Online Library contains a huge array of journal articles and other resources to help you read widely and extensively. To access the majority of resources via the Online Library you will either need to use your University of London Student Portal login details, or you will be required to register and use an Athens login: The easiest way to locate relevant content and journal articles in the Online Library is to use the Summon search engine. If you are having trouble finding an article listed in a reading list, try removing any punctuation from the title, such as single quotation marks, question marks and colons. For further advice, please see the online help pages: The structure of the guide Chapter 2: The history of international thought This chapter will put the idea of a canon of international political theory into context. It will explain that the canon is the construction of twentieth-century thinkers, who look back for support for their ideas about international politics to famous philosophers of the Western tradition. The international political theory canon is therefore influenced by the preoccupations of twentieth-century thinkers about war and peace, sovereignty, international system or society, the nature of international law and rights and so on. The chapter highlights a selected number of thinkers who are often cited as offering insights into international politics that are 5

10 83 International political theory valid across historical time. The chapter will offer an introduction to the key ideas and concepts of these selected thinkers and ask you to respond critically to their ideas. Chapter 3: Major schools of international relations theory This chapter will deepen and extend your knowledge of mainstream twentieth-century international relations theory, to which you have already been introduced in 11 Introduction to international relations (via the realism, rationalism, revolutionism Wight categorisation). In addition, the chapter will demonstrate how the different twentieth-century schools of thought build on or adapt ideas from the canonic thinkers discussed in Chapter 2 above. The major schools are identified as: liberalism realism international society Marxism/structuralism. The discussion of each school will be structured according to its account of the following: a. sources of explanation in international politics b. possibility of change in international politics. In each case the historical and intellectual context will be emphasised, and the aim will be to enable you not only to understand the main elements of the different theoretical frameworks but also to begin to think about them comparatively and critically. The chapter will end with a brief account of the so-called neo-neo consensus (between neo-realism and neo-liberalism), which arguably continues to dominate research in international relations into the twenty-first century. Chapter 4: The critique of mainstream international relations This chapter will introduce you to critical responses to the theoretical frameworks discussed in Chapter 3. The discussion of critical theory, poststructuralism and feminist theory will be contextualised intellectually (using Kant and Marx as reference points) and historically (end of Cold War, limitations, in particular, of the structural realist framework for dealing with a non-bipolar world). The account of each critical perspective will be structured using the same subheadings introduced in Chapter 3 (sources of explanation and the possibility of change). The chapter will also include a summary of the similarities and differences between the critical perspectives. The aim of the chapter will be to give you an idea of what is at stake in critical responses to mainstream theories of IR and encourage you to assess the strength of the various critiques. 6 Chapter 5: Methodology A large part of the critique of mainstream theory discussed in Chapter 4 revolves around methodological, ontological and epistemological issues in social science. This chapter will focus on some of the key debates about methodology that have characterised twentieth-century international relations theory. Two questions will be highlighted: the question of how scientific the study of international politics can be; and the question of structural versus agent-centred explanations of events in international politics. This will be followed by an introduction to contemporary discussions within IR of constructivism as the way to resolve these issues. The aim of this chapter is to enable you to make the connection between

11 Chapter 1: Introduction different theoretical frameworks and different assumptions about the kind of knowledge about international politics that is possible and how it may be acquired. You will then return to the mainstream schools and the critical responses discussed in Chapters 3 and 4 and assess the plausibility of their claims to explanation/understanding of the nature of international politics. Chapter 6: Theorising International politics in the twenty-first century This chapter discusses three ways in which dominant modes of thinking about international politics have been challenged in the wake of the Cold War. It takes the issues of human rights, American empire and Western cultural bias in IR theory as ones that disturb the vision of international politics encapsulated in the neo-realism/neo-liberalism consensus. The aim of the chapter is to encourage you to think critically about the different theoretical frameworks you have encountered and to make the link between IR theory and the contemporary context of world politics. How to use this subject guide Using the guide This subject guide is designed to be read in conjunction with the essential readings indicated in each chapter and, if possible, at least some of the specific further readings which are also listed in each chapter. Do not be put off by the long list of reading given above, you are not expected to read everything on this list! Instead you should take the essential readings as your starting point, and then read further selectively, depending on the topics you are interested in and wish to revise for your examination (see discussion of assessment below). If you are particularly interested in a specific topic or thinker, then there are further references for you to pursue in the References cited list at the end of the guide. The best way to approach each chapter of the guide is to start by reading at least one of the essential readings suggested at the beginning. You will then have some ideas about the material which the guide will take you through. You should then work through the chapter sub-section by subsection, doing the reading as indicated and giving yourself time to work through the self-assessment exercises. The learning process The purpose of the exercises is to push you to think about the material you have learned and begin to form your opinions about it. Remember that there are several stages involved in your learning, and it will take time and repeated reading and thinking in order to complete them. The stages are: learning the material in the case of a theory subject, this means learning about theoretical ideas both in the work of specific thinkers (e.g. Thucydides, Hobbes, Waltz) and as distinct analytical frameworks for understanding (liberalism, realism, Marxism) analysing the material understanding the underlying assumptions involved in the theories and how the different aspects of the theories link together (e.g. the connection between liberalism s focus on cooperation in world politics and its progressive theory of history) identifying lines of criticism of the theories each of the theories has particular strengths and weaknesses which are often noted 7

12 83 International political theory in the literature and you need to find out what these are (for instance, neo-realism is criticised for not being able to account for change in international politics; critical theory is criticised for being both overly Western and overly Utopian) developing your own lines of criticism once you have learned about the theories and their strengths and weaknesses, you are in a position to begin to form your own view on which theories you think are the most plausible and useful to explain and understand international politics. This is the most difficult part of the learning process, because it involves you thinking independently about the material you have learned and asking yourself the questions: how coherent (clear and internally consistent) are the theories? How well can they explain recent events in international politics? Time needed for study The material covered in this guide is roughly the equivalent of what students being taught face-to-face would cover over a 20-week period, working for 8 9 hours per week. You should expect it to take you a similar amount of time to work through the material in the guide and do the reading and thinking which is required. If it is at all possible, it is very helpful to discuss the topics and debates raised in the guide with other people. This can help to clarify your own ideas. Help with terminology Because this is a guide about theory, its subject matter is highly abstract and is likely to include unfamiliar vocabulary. You will find that the essential reading, Baylis and Smith (2001) is very helpful in offering definitions of theoretical terms (use the index to check them out) and there is also a glossary at the back of the guide to assist you in clarifying meanings. You should also look back at your work for 11 Introduction to international relations which has already introduced you to quite a lot of the terminology used here. Help with empirical examples and illustrations This guide is focused on helping you to understand theoretical traditions and debates in international relations. However, in some of the exercises below you will find that you are being asked to test your understanding of theory by applying ideas to actual historical events. These are all events which you will have come across in 11 Introduction to international relations, so you should have a basic familiarity with them. If you have forgotten the details or need more information, refer back to your notes from the 11 Introduction to international relations guide. You may also find it useful to refresh your memory by reading the chapters in Part One of Baylis and Smith (2001): The Historical Context. Assessment Criteria This subject is assessed by an unseen three-hour examination, in which you are expected to answer four questions out of 12 (see the Sample examination paper and guidance on answering examination questions at the end of the guide). Your examination questions will be assessed according to the following criteria: 8

13 Chapter 1: Introduction Relevance Material Argument Scholarship The extent to which the essay addresses the question set. The substance of the essay: the selection and use of relevant material gained from a variety of sources. Evidence of reading. The extent to which the essay sets out a clearly-structured discussion and analysis of the issues raised. Evidence of clear and independent thinking (i.e. signs that you can weigh up evidence and think through and assess arguments for yourself). Basic literacy, fluency and quality of presentation. Of all of the above criteria, relevance to the question and quality of argument weigh the most heavily. It is not enough simply to be able to learn by heart what for example Hobbes has to say, you also have to be able to reflect on and assess Hobbes argument. Examination advice Important: the information and advice given here are based on the examination structure used at the time this guide was written. Please note that subject guides may be used for several years. Because of this we strongly advise you to always check both the current Regulations for relevant information about the examination, and the VLE where you should be advised of any forthcoming changes. You should also carefully check the rubric/instructions on the paper you actually sit and follow those instructions. Revision involves looking back over what you have learned and trying to consolidate that learning in the light of the kind of questions you will be asked in the examination. Don t try to revise everything. You will need to have a grounding in enough topics to enable you to answer four out of 12 questions. To be on the safe side you should aim to revise around twothirds of the material and to know at least half of it well. You are advised to look at the Sample examination questions, the Sample examination paper and the advice on answering examination questions in this guide, to give you an idea about what to expect. It is a very good idea to practise writing examination essays to a 45-minute time limit. You should also to look at past examination papers and the Examiners commentaries that you receive, and the advice in your Academic Handbook on examinations. When you are preparing for your exam, don t just learn lots of material, but take time to clarify your position on the various theories and debates you are revising. Always prepare your arguments in relation to the questions that are likely to be asked in the examination. So, don t just know about realism or international society, also know what you think about those theoretical perspectives and their strengths and weaknesses. Remember, it is important to check the VLE for: up-to-date information on examination and assessment arrangements for this course where available, past examination papers and Examiners commentaries for the course which give advice on how each question might best be answered. 9

14 83 International political theory Notes 10

15 Chapter 2: The history of international thought Chapter 2: The history of international thought Introduction This chapter introduces you to the key ideas relevant to theorising international politics of Thucydides, Augustine, Machiavelli, Grotius, Rousseau, Kant and Marx. These thinkers are generally agreed to be members of the canon of international political theory. This canon comprises the work of thinkers from the past that is judged to be most authoritative and influential on the ways in which we theorise about international politics today. It is important to remember that canonic thinkers are only identified as canonic, by contemporary scholars, in retrospect. The idea of a canon of international political theory only emerged as the study of international politics was institutionalised in the Western social scientific academy in the twentieth century. The canon therefore reflects the political concerns and cultural biases of primarily Western scholars in particular places at particular times (see Brown et al., 2002, pp.2 6). Aims and objectives The aims of the chapter are to: enable you to learn about the main ideas and concepts of the canonic thinkers and the historical context in which they were formulated enable you to compare and assess these ideas. Learning outcomes By the end of this chapter and having completed the Essential reading and activities, you should be able to: outline the main ideas relevant to international politics of: Thucydides; Augustine; Machiavelli; Grotius; Hobbes; Rousseau; Kant; and Marx explain the ideas of the above thinkers in historical context discuss similarities and differences between the ideas of the above thinkers discuss strengths and weaknesses in the ideas of the above thinkers;outline reasons why you agree or disagree with the ideas of the above thinkers identify the key questions or issues each perspective highlights. Essential reading The Essential reading for this chapter can all be found in Brown, Chris, Terry Nardin and Nicholas Rengger (eds) International Relations in Political Thought: texts from the Ancient Greeks to the First World War. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). As its title states, this book covers the history of international political thought up to the First World War. It provides overviews of the different stages in this history and extracts from all of the canonic texts, including 11

16 83 International political theory the work of the thinkers discussed below. The following passages are required reading: Chapter 2, pp.17 60; Chapter 3, pp , ; Chapter 5, pp ; Chapter 6, pp ; Chapter 7, pp and ; Chapter 9, pp and You are recommended to read all of the editors Introductions, both to the volume as a whole and to the specific chapters. If you are unable to get hold of Brown et al., you will find extracts from the thinkers discussed below in the following collections: Luard, E. (ed) Basic Texts in International Relations. (London: Macmillan, 1992). Chapters 3, 4, 7, 10, 11 and 26. Williams, H., M. Wright and T. Evans (eds) A Reader in International Relations and Political Theory. (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1993). Chapters 3, 5 9 and 12. In the discussions below reference will be made to the original works of thinkers from which the extracts in Brown et al. are taken (listed in References cited at the end of the guide). Although you are not required to read beyond the extracts, you are encouraged to do so for those thinkers in whose work you are particularly interested. Further reading Boucher, D. Political Theories of International Relations. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). Clark, I. and I. Neumann, (eds) Classical Theories of International Relations. (London: Macmillan, 1996). Forsyth, M. and M. Keens-Soper (eds) The Political Classics: A Guide to the Essential Texts from Plato to Rousseau. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992). Forsyth, M. and M. Keens-Soper (eds) The Political Classics: Hamilton to Mill. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). Gallie, W.B. Philosophers of Peace and War. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978). Knutsen, T. The History of International Relations Theory, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992) second edition. Hampsher-Monk, I. A History of Modern Political Thought: major political thinkers from Hobbes to Marx. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992). Thompson, K. Fathers of International Thought: the legacy of political theory. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994). Wight, M. International Theory: the three traditions. in G. Wight and B. Porter (eds) (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1991). Williams, H. International Relations in Political Theory. (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1992). All the above texts cover a variety of thinkers and provide a good introductory starting point. In addition to the above, you should use the suggestions for further reading in Brown et al. to extend your knowledge of particular thinkers. 12 Thucydides (approx 450s 400 bce) Thucydides was a native of Athens. We do not know his exact dates of birth and death and we know of him largely through his work chronicling the ongoing wars between the Athenian empire and other Greek states in the fifth century bce History of the Peloponnesian War (Brown et al., 2002 pp.34 60; Thucydides, 1972; see also Boucher, 1998: Chapter 4). In this work Thucydides sought to present an objective account of the Peloponnesian War both on the basis of his own direct knowledge of the

17 Chapter 2: The history of international thought conflict (he participated as a General on the Athenian side in the war) and that of other eye witnesses. His account of the war has mainly been interpreted as an early formulation of a realist doctrine of international politics (see Chapter 3). The key tenets of this realism are claimed to be: a cynical view of human nature and of human ability to control events the identification of interests rather than justice as being at the heart of political decisions in foreign policy (and perhaps in politics as such) a recognition of the constraints imposed on the behaviour of political units (in this instance Greek city states) by the structure of relations between those units where there is no overarching authority. Let us go on to look at each of these tenets in a little more detail. Human nature: freedom and necessity Ancient Greek political thought is acknowledged as the starting point of many of the themes of Western political thought in general. Philosophers such as Plato ( bce) and Aristotle ( bce) formulated theories about the link between the nature of human beings and the nature of the polis (the Greek city state) and offered arguments about the nature of both the good man (and this does mean man, see Pericles speech as recounted by Thucydides, excerpt in Brown et al. p.42) and of the good political order (see Forsyth and Keens-Soper, 1992: Chapters 1 and 2). Whereas Plato and Aristotle both thought that rationality was the highest virtue and that politics could be governed by reason, Thucydides offers us an account of human beings which is much more mixed. His politicians and soldiers are sometimes heroic, but they also make mistakes through their own pride, greed and emotional attachments or because of their inability to predict the actions of others (for instance the Melians in the Melian Dialogue, Thucydides excerpt in Brown et al. pp.53 60). In general, the capacity of political agents to predict and control their environment is always limited by fate and chance (see the role of the plague in Athens downfall, Thucydides excerpt in Brown et al., pp.42 44). Interests v justice Much of Thudydides s chronicle recounts speeches and debates between different political actors within and between the various states involved in the war. A recurrent dramatic theme of these debates is a tension between doing what is in the interests (i.e. will work to the advantage) of a particular polis and doing what is just in terms of the standards inherent within the polis. In the Mytilenian Debate (Brown et al. pp.44 53), Cleon and Diodotus debate whether or not Athens should punish the city of Mytilene (which had fought against Athens) by putting all men to death and enslaving all women and children in the city. The debate is not straightforwardly between Cleon (who supports this punishment) arguing on grounds of interest and Diodotus (who opposes it) arguing on grounds of justice. Rather, both men use the ideas of justice and interest to make their cases. Cleon makes claims both that Mytelines deserve the punishment because of the injustice of their behaviour (an argument from justice) and that the devastation of Myteline is crucial to Athens interest because it would demolish opposition and deter other powers from doing what Myteline did. Diodotus claims that not only would the devastation of Myteline be unjust and against the great traditions of Athens, but it would also be against Athens s interests, because it would entrench opposing powers in their opposition, discouraging them from surrendering and giving them reasons to further fear and fight against Athenian power. In this debate Thucydides dramatises recurring and crucial themes in Western 13

18 83 International political theory 14 political thought about how states can manage the potentially conflicting claims of self-interest on the one hand and justice on the other. The message of Thucydides seems to be that when these values do conflict in politics, then self-interest tends to be the most powerful argument. The structural constraints of an international system For many modern scholars, Thucydides s world of warring Greek citystates is like a minature version of the contemporary structure of world politics, in which the whole world is made up of sovereign states, which relate to one another without any ruling body to enforce order between them (the idea of the anarchy of the international system, see Chapter 3). One of the most famous comments in Thucydides is his remark that the Pelopponesian war was caused by Sparta s fear of Athenian power (Thucydides excerpt in Brown et al., p.36). This combination of both fear and power can be argued to be the consequence of any anarchic or selfhelp situation. In a self-help situation there is no source of security other than your own ability to protect yourself. This makes it imperative that you increase your own power and weaken that of others as much as you can. The metaphor often used for this is the idea of a balance, in which, as it were, lighter powers band together to equal or outweigh the power of heavier ones, and heavier powers try to prevent them. The trouble is that this creates high probability of war between polities that are all concerned to maximise their own position and undermine that of others. Two thousand years after Thucydides wrote, Hobbes (see p19) dramatised this situation in his notion of the state of nature (he also translated Thucydides and was a great admirer of his work). The key point that both Hobbes and Thucydides make is that it is not necessarily because states are made up of immoral or cruel leaders that they do immoral or cruel things, it may simply be because the context of insecurity makes this the only possibility compatible with survival, it is a question of structure rather than agency. Activity These questions and all the other exercises in this guide are designed to encourage you to think about the issues raised in the particular thinker s work if possible, you should discuss the questions with someone else as well as thinking about them on your own. 1. Read the extracts from the Mytelenian Debate in Brown et al. (pp.44 53). Make a list of the key arguments used by Cleon and Diodotus. Decide which argument you find more persuasive. Give the reasons why you find that argument persuasive. 2. What made the war inevitable was the growth of Athenian power and the fear that this caused in Sparta. (Brown et al., p.36) Having read the extracts from the dialogue do you think Thucydides is right in this claim? If Thucydides is right, what does this suggest about what needs to be done to prevent war between states? Augustine of Hippo ( ce) Augustine was a native of North Africa and lived at a time in which the Roman Empire was beginning to disintegrate, and Christianity had become the dominant religion within the Empire (see Brown et al., p.119). Augustine is best known as one of the most influential of the early Church Fathers (see Forsyth and Keens-Soper, 1992: Ch. 3; Williams,

19 Chapter 2: The history of international thought 1992: Ch. 3; Thompson, 1994: Ch. 5). He wrote very widely on theology and philosophy, and his ideas became part of the orthodoxy of European Christianity and therefore of Western social and political thought throughout the medieval period and beyond. His main work relevant to politics is his book The City of God (Augustine, 1998) in which he puts forward certain ideas about: war and peace the nature of political authority and politics in general. War and peace In complete contrast to Thucydides and the Ancient Greeks more generally, Augustine saw war as an evil (Augustine excerpt in Brown et al., pp ). Many early Christians were complete pacifists, and although Augustine didn t go that far, he was clearly opposed to the kind of aggressive wars of conquest that Thucydides saw as perfectly appropriate within the Pelopponesian context. For Augustine, the proper goal of politics was to ensure peace in the material world with a view to enabling individuals to live good lives and by the grace of God be able to enjoy eternal peace after their deaths. Augustine, therefore, saw war as something that could only be carried out by a legitimate authority (the acknowledged ruler of a state) and was only permissible for reasons of self-defence, to right a particular wrong or to punish a wrongdoer. This is the beginning of what has come to be called the just war theory in Western thought, which remains influential to this day in the criteria for war enshrined in international law. Again, in contrast to Thucydides, it is based on the idea that political conduct needs to be governed by moral (in Augustine s view, divinely inspired) principles. The relations between justice and interests in Augustine s worldview is one in which justice has priority, but this is partly because everyone s ultimate interest is bound up with their fate not in this world (the city of men) but in the next (the city of God). The soldiers in Thucydides s history sought glory in this world, for Augustine the really important thing is salvation in the next. The nature of political authority and politics It might seem from the above account that Augustine has a highly idealised view of politics; however, this is somewhat misleading. Although Augustine was clear that political authority ought to be governed by moral precepts (see Augustine excerpt in Brown et al., p.123), he saw the human condition, according to Christian ideas, as fundamentally flawed. In other words, he thought of all human beings as marked by original sin from birth and only able to transcend their sinfulness and selfishness through the grace of God. For this reason, he regarded the city of men, the mortal human world, as inevitably failing to live up to moral standards and in need of strong political order to constrain the effects of individual selfinterest. In this sense it can be argued that Augustine shares Thucydides s realism about politics. He thought that men were always likely to follow their selfish passions and needed to be kept in order by the threat of punishment, that is to say through manipulation of their fears and desires rather than through their ability to straightforwardly do the right thing. Activity Is it wise or prudent to wish to glory in the breadth and magnitude of an empire when you cannot show that the men whose empire it is are happy? For the Romans always lived in dark fear and cruel lust, surrounded by the disasters of war and the shedding of blood which, whether that of fellow citizens or enemies, was human nonetheless. The 15

20 83 International political theory joy of such men may be compared to the fragile splendour of glass: they are horribly afraid lest it be suddenly shattered. (Augustine excerpt in Brown et al., p.122, see also pp ) Compare the above quotation from Augustine with Thucydides s account of Pericles s funeral oration (Thucydides excerpt in Brown et al., pp.37 42). What does this tell you about the difference in values between Ancient Greek pagan feelings about death, war and conquest and early Christian views? Machiavelli ( ce) Machiavelli lived in Italy at a time which is often referred to as the European Renaissance (meaning literally rebirth ), because it included a great revival of interest in non-christian, Ancient Greek and Roman texts and ideas. At this time also many of the practices of diplomacy and foreign policy that later became part of the European state system were being initiated. Although his world remains remote from ours, it is in many ways more familiar, in terms of both its ideas and institutions, than the worlds of Thucydides and Augustine (see Forsyth and Keens-Soper, 1992: Ch. 4; Williams, 1992: Ch. 4; Boucher, 1998: Ch.5). Machiavelli is most famous for his short book The Prince (see Machiavelli excerpts in Brown et al., pp ; Machiavelli, 1988), in which he offers advice to rulers about how to gain and maintain power in the context of the Italian city-states of the fifteenth century. Other works in which he discusses politics in general and international politics in particular are The Art of War (Machiavelli, 2003) and Discourses on the first Ten Books of Livy (Machiavelli excerpts in Brown et al., pp , Machiavelli, 1997). As with Thucydides, Machiavelli s primary concerns are with analysing the practice of politics, and these concerns reflect his own experience as a diplomat and as someone who suffered for his political loyalties (see Brown et al., p.257). The Prince is famous because instead of following the traditional Christian view that princes should follow the precepts of Christian morality in order to be good rulers (see Augustine excerpt in Brown et al., p.123), Machiavelli argues that in order for princes to be successful at gaining and maintaining power, they need to be prepared to act against morality, and rely on force and cunning. The lessons of Machiavelli s work for international politics are in many ways reminiscent of Thucydides s. Machiavelli teaches us that if polities are to be stable and rich then leaders have to enforce strong order within the city and inspire fear in its neighbours. However, it is misleading to see Machiavelli as simply endorsing the right of the stronger; in his major work on politics, The Discourses, he is interested in political power as something that promotes the good of the best kind of political order, the republic. To be a citizen of a republic, a participant in ruling one s own community, is for Machiavelli the highest purpose of politics. Three aspects of Machiavelli s arguments can be highlighted as having particular relevance for theorising international politics: the logic of means and ends in politics in general the idea that state interest (what later becomes known under the phrase, raison d état, or reasons of state ) is the key determinant of foreign policy the idea of a cyclical pattern in political affairs in which rulers and their kingdoms gain and lose power through combinations of human ability (what Machiavelli refers to as virtie), human weakness and the activities of fortune. 16