How To Understand International Trade

Transcription

1 International economics R. Versteeg EC Undergraduate study in Economics, Management, Finance and the Social Sciences This is an extract from a subject guide for an undergraduate course offered as part of the University of London International Programmes in Economics, Management, Finance and the Social Sciences. Materials for these programmes are developed by academics at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE). For more information, see:

2 This guide was prepared for the University of London International Programmes by: Dr R. Versteeg, Department of Economics, Mathematics and Statistics, Birkbeck College, University of London. The previous edition of International economics was written by: Dr D. Petropoulou, Stipendiary Lecturer in Economics, Hertford College, University of Oxford; and A. Vanags, Director of the Baltic International Centre for Economic Policy Studies (BICEPS), Latvia, and Lecturer in International economics at the Stockholm School of Economics, Riga, Latvia. Some material in this subject guide has been adapted from the subject guide for course EC3115 Monetary economics (2011) written by: Ryan Love, formerly of the London School of Economics and Political Science. This is one of a series of subject guides published by the University. We regret that due to pressure of work the authors are unable to enter into any correspondence relating to, or arising from, the guide. If you have any comments on this subject guide, favourable or unfavourable, please use the form at the back of this guide. University of London International Programmes Publications Office Stewart House 32 Russell Square London WC1B 5DN United Kingdom Published by: University of London University of London 2015 The University of London asserts copyright over all material in this subject guide except where otherwise indicated. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. We make every effort to respect copyright. If you think we have inadvertently used your copyright material, please let us know.

3 Contents Contents 1 Introduction to the subject guide Introduction Route map to the course Introduction to the subject area Syllabus Prerequisites Aims of this course Learning outcomes for the course Overview of learning resources The subject guide Essential reading Further reading Online study resources VLE Making use of the Online Library Study time Examination advice The examination Examination technique Part 1 International trade 11 2 The Ricardian model of international trade Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content i

4 Contents 2.2 Chapter content The Ricardian model Techniques and some formal results Empirical evidence and application Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Feedback to selected activities The Heckscher Ohlin model Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content Assumptions Tools and results for a closed economy Trade, income distribution and factor price equalisation Empirical evidence Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions The specific factors model Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading ii

5 Contents References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content Assumptions Tools and results Effects of trade The pattern of trade Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions The standard trade model Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content Techniques of the standard trade model The gains from trade International borrowing and lending as intertemporal trade Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Factor movements Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading iii

6 Contents Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content International mobility of labour International mobility of capital International borrowing and lending as intertemporal trade Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Imperfect competition and other alternative trade models Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content Alternative models The Krugman monopolistic competition model of trade Other models Reciprocal dumping Control and multinational enterprises Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Instruments of trade policy Introduction Aims of the chapter iv

7 Contents Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content A taxonomy of trade policy instruments Trade policy issues Partial equilibrium analysis General equilibrium analysis Equivalence of a tariff and an export tax Analysis of a tariff and quota with a domestic monopolist Effective protection Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Economic arguments for protection and the political economy of trade policy Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content Economic arguments for protection The political economy of protection The anti-globalisation movement the globalisation backlash Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions v

8 Contents 10 Preferential trading arrangements, customs unions and economic integration Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content Basic theory Trade creation and trade diversion Terms of trade effects Other effects Other levels of integration Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Feedback to selected activities Trade policy in developing economies Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content The dual economy, trade policy and the Harris-Todaro model Import-substitution as a development policy Export-oriented development Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding vi

9 Contents Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Part 2 International finance National income accounting and the balance of payments Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content National income account The balance of payments Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions An Introduction to foreign exchange markets Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content Foreign exchange markets Parity conditions The asset approach to exchange rates The demand for money Exchange rate overshooting (Dornbusch model) vii

10 Contents 13.3 Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Feedback to selected activities Prices and the exchange rate Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content The law of one price Purchasing power parity Balassa-Samuelson effect The flexible price monetary model The real exchange rate Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Feedback to selected activities Output and the exchange rate Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content viii

11 Contents 15.2 Chapter content The AA DD paradigm Short and long-run equilibria for an open economy Further issues in the AA DD framework Competitive devaluations The Mundell-Fleming model Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Feedback to selected activities Fixed exchange rates Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content Different exchange rate regimes Intervention, the money supply and sterilisation Stabilisation policies under a fixed exchange rate Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Currency crises Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading ix

12 Contents Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content First generation: inconsistent policies Second generation: contingent policies Third generation: financial fragilities Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Feedback to selected activities Monetary systems Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content The impossible trinity The Gold standard, circa 1870 to Bretton Woods, 1944 to Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions Feedback to selected activities Optimum currency areas Introduction Aims of the chapter x

13 Contents Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content European Monetary Union The costs of a common currency Benefits of a common currency Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions International capital markets Introduction Aims of the chapter Learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Synopsis of chapter content Chapter content Growth of the international capital market Capital market performance Overview of chapter Reminder of learning outcomes Test your knowledge and understanding Sample examination questions Guidance on answering Sample examination questions A Sample examination paper 229 B Examiners Commentary 233 C Bibliography 243 xi

14 Contents xii

15 Chapter 1 Introduction to the subject guide 1.1 Introduction Welcome to this course in International economics, which is divided into two parts: international trade and international finance. In this introductory chapter, we will look at the overall structure of the subject guide, we will introduce you to the subject area, to the aims and learning outcomes for the course and to the learning resources available. Finally, we will offer you some Examination advice. We hope you enjoy this course and we wish you every success in your studies. 1.2 Route map to the course The subject of International economics falls rather neatly into two distinct parts. One part deals with international trade and the other part deals with international finance. An undergraduate economics programme typically takes one term (or semester) to cover each part. Accordingly, the guide has been structured to provide you with two separate work programmes, one for international trade and one for international finance. The subject guide consists of one introductory chapter, 10 chapters on international trade, nine chapters on international finance and one Sample examination paper with the associated Examiners commentary. You are advised to work through the introductory chapter and the 10 chapters of international trade in the Autumn term; in the Spring term, you are advised to work through the chapters on international finance; and at the end to attempt the Sample examination paper under examination conditions (that is, with closed books, limiting yourself to three hours). You are advised to progress at a rate of one chapter per week (about 20 weeks in total). 1.3 Introduction to the subject area All countries are involved in economic relationships with other countries: they trade goods and services with each other; they buy and sell each other s assets; often, they engage in the direct transfer of factors of production between one another in the form of foreign direct investment or migration. The nature of these relationships experiences constant change. Over time, a variety of formal and informal regional trading blocs and monetary unions has evolved. Increasing liberalisation and integration of the world economy has led to an explosion of international trade and movement of capital. In April 1998, average daily global foreign exchange trading was already a staggering $1.5 billion but by April 2013 daily turnover 1

16 1. Introduction to the subject guide exceeded $5.3 trillion (Source: Bank of International Settlements), making foreign exchange markets the largest financial markets in the world. With the liberalisation of trade and capital movements, the importance of international economic relationships has increased; as have the links through which economic shocks are transmitted across countries. The extent of these links can be witnessed in the global effects of the 2007 US sub-prime crisis. The above all highlights issues in the sphere of international economics. International economics addresses questions such as: Why do countries trade and what determines the pattern of international trade? What are the sources of gains from trade and who might the losers be? International economics is at the core of many important policy issues; for example: Problems surrounding bilateral trade have, for years, dominated China/US economic relationships. The Asian financial crisis of 1997 was a consequence of the development of complicated international financial linkages. As the financial crisis emanating from the US sub-prime crisis continues to unfold, important issues regarding the causes, consequences and policy responses to financial crises are reevaluated. The Euro, which may yet challenge the US dollar as a world currency, is a direct product of the drive to European integration. Considering the importance of international economics, it is not surprising that our understanding of international economics is subject to constant change and development. Within the context of your degree, international economics represents an important application of the basic principles and methods that you have learned in your microeconomics and macroeconomics modules. 1.4 Syllabus The module international economics is divided into two parts: international trade and international finance (sometimes referred to as international macroeconomics or international monetary economics). This split essentially coincides with the distinction between the microeconomics and the macroeconomics of the open economy. International trade covers the reasons for trade and explanation of trade patterns and the gains accruing from trade or from restricting trade. These are core areas and call for extensive coverage. Linked to this core are a number of specific issues which must also be studied: 2 increasing returns and trade; international factor movements; growth and trade;

17 1.5. Aims of this course income distribution and trade; economic integration; multinational enterprises; North-south issues. Empirical evidence supplements the theoretical treatment. The European Union (EU), World Trade Organization (WTO) and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) are institutionally involved in trade policy issues and their major concerns are included in the subjects to be studied. International finance covers the balance of payments, exchange rates and open-economy macroeconomics. Linked to this core are a number of specific issues which must also be studied: national income accounting; spot and forward markets; parity conditions; exchange rate determination; exchange rate regimes; exchange rate stability and currency crises; and currency unions. Empirical evidence, though often inadequate and conflicting, is relevant in many areas. Issues associated with the European Monetary System (EMS), the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and, in general, with international monetary relations are also included in the syllabus Prerequisites If you are studying for this course as part of a University of London International Programmes BSc degree, you must have already passed EC2065 Macroeconomics and either MN3028 Managerial economics or EC2066 Microeconomics. Students should refer to the degree structures in the Regulations when choosing which prerequisite to select. 1.5 Aims of this course The course aims to enable you to: acquire the analytical methods needed and understanding of how and when to apply different models and approaches to events in the world economy provide an understanding of the intellectual and practical problems that arise from the economic interaction between countries offer explanations of the international pattern of trade and specialisation and of the reasons why similar economies often trade more with each other than with dissimilar ones provide an account of the sources of the gains from trade offer explanations, in the monetary sphere, of the determinants of exchange rates; of the timing and causes of financial crises and an analysis of the channels of international economic interdependence. 3

18 1. Introduction to the subject guide 1.6 Learning outcomes for the course At the end of the course and having completed the Essential reading and activities, you should be able to: discuss and explain specific policy issues such as environmentalism as protectionism ; international dumping; the choice of exchange rate regime; the desirability of free capital flows apply a specific framework to illustrate the connection between a variety of models and approaches. Explain the connections between Ricardian, Heckscher Ohlin and the specific factors models in trade theory, or between the monetary approach and the asset approach in exchange rate theory explain how international economic theory has been shaped by real world events. 1.7 Overview of learning resources The subject guide The subject guide is intended for you to use in conjunction with the suggested textbooks. Therefore, it is important that you understand that the subject guide is not itself a textbook or a substitute for a textbook. Each chapter of the guide roughly corresponds to one week s work if you were studying as a student on campus and covers a distinct topic or set of topics. Each chapter begins with a list of Essential reading and Further reading. As the name suggests, Essential reading is required reading in order for you to fully understand the concepts introduced in the particular chapter. The items listed under Further reading will give you greater insight into the topics covered in the chapter. They are meant to both provide alternate textbook sources, if you still feel uncomfortable with the material; and advanced references if you want to read more on a particular topic. Each chapter also provides you with a set of activities together with some Sample examination questions that will enable you to test your understanding of the basic ideas and concepts. It is vital that you attempt all the suggested activities since actively doing is a better way of learning than passively absorbing material by reading Essential reading This course is built predominantly around the following textbook: Krugman, P., M. Obstfeld and M. Melitz International Economics: Theory and Policy. (Boston, Mass.; London: Pearson/Addison-Wesley, 2014) Pearson global edition; tenth edition [ISBN ] (referred to as KOM in the subject guide). International economics has a vast literature, including a large number of very good textbooks; the book by Paul Krugman, Maurice Obstfeld and Marc Melitz, in 2014 in its tenth edition, is one of the very best. It is written by three economists who have been at the forefront of recent 4

19 1.7. Overview of learning resources advances in international economics and contains some of the latest developments. At the same time, the textbook remains very user-friendly, is grounded in real-world experience and is widely used throughout the world. The main body of the text is non-technical and more advanced material is contained in appendices and mathematical appendices. References in this subject guide are to the ninth edition, which has the advantage of including more recent case studies, as well as an up-to-date discussion on international economic issues. Earlier editions of the textbook are sufficient for much of the material, but do not address recent debates such as those surrounding the global financial crisis and issues surrounding the use of unconventional monetary policy in the wake of the crisis. Detailed reading references in this subject guide refer to the editions of the set textbooks listed above and below. New editions of one or more of these textbooks may have been published by the time you study this course. You can use a more recent edition of any of the books; use the detailed chapter and section headings and the index to identify relevant readings. Also check the virtual learning environment (VLE) regularly for updated guidance on readings. It is essential that you access the textbook and we advise you to purchase it if at all possible. Note that references to book chapters, diagrams, etc. are for the editions of the books indicated above. Earlier editions of the textbook may be available second hand at more favourable prices, but you should weigh this against the fact that the references in this guide will not match exactly. Some of the chapters of this syllabus refer to the Online Appendices of KOM. These Online Appendices can be found athttp://wps.aw.com/bp_krgmnobstf_interecon_10/. In the second part of the syllabus, on international finance, there are a couple of instances where KOM is supplemented with required readings from one other textbook: Copeland, L. Exchange Rates and International Finance. (Harlow: Prentice Hall, 2014) sixth edition [ISBN ] (referred to as C in the guide) Further reading Please note that as long as you read the Essential reading you are then free to read around the subject area in any text, paper or online resource. You will need to support your learning by reading as widely as possible and by thinking about how these principles apply in the real world. To help you read extensively, you have free access to the VLE and University of London Online Library (see below). There are many textbooks that cover the topics discussed in this subject guide; one textbook that can be used as a complement to KOM is: Feenstra, R. and M. Taylor International Economics. (New York: Worth Publishers, 2014) third revised edition [ISBN ] (referred to as FT in the guide). You may also find Copeland (2014), mentioned under Essential reading, useful as Further reading for many chapters of Part 2 of the subject guide. There are two free online textbooks available on international trade and international finance written by Suranovic. These are excellent online resources that are very easy to access: Suranovic, S.M. International Trade: Theory and Policy. (referred to as S(IT) in the subject guide); 5

20 1. Introduction to the subject guide Suranovic, S.M. International Finance: Theory and Policy. (referred to as S(IF) in the subject guide); However good a book might be, it is nevertheless essential that you read more widely. Many of the chapters of the subject guide provide several additional references under Further reading, which contain seminal contributions to the academic literature, survey papers, or in some instances relevant policy reports. Unless otherwise stated, all websites in this subject guide were accessed in February We cannot guarantee, however, that they will stay current and you may need to perform an internet search to find the relevant pages Online study resources In addition to the subject guide and the Essential reading, it is crucial that you take advantage of the study resources that are available online for this course, including the VLE and the Online Library. You can access the VLE, the Online Library and your University of London account via the Student Portal at: You should have received your login details for the Student Portal with your official offer, which was ed to the address that you gave on your application form. You have probably already logged in to the Student Portal in order to register. As soon as you registered, you will automatically have been granted access to the VLE, Online Library and your fully functional University of London account. If you have forgotten your login details, please click on the Forgotten your password link on the login page VLE The VLE, which complements this subject guide, has been designed to enhance your learning experience, providing additional support and a sense of community. It forms an important part of your study experience with the University of London and you should access it regularly. The VLE provides a range of resources for EMFSS courses: 6 Self-testing activities: Doing these allows you to test your own understanding of subject material. Electronic study materials: The printed materials that you receive from the University of London are available to download, including updated reading lists and references. Past examination papers and Examiners commentaries: These provide advice on how each examination question might best be answered. A student discussion forum: This is an open space for you to discuss interests and experiences, seek support from your peers, work collaboratively to solve problems and discuss subject material.

21 1.8. Study time Videos: There are recorded academic introductions to the subject, interviews and debates and, for some courses, audio-visual tutorials and conclusions. Recorded lectures: For some courses, where appropriate, the sessions from previous years Study Weekends have been recorded and made available. Study skills: Expert advice on preparing for examinations and developing your digital literacy skills. Feedback forms. Some of these resources are available for certain courses only, but we are expanding our provision all the time and you should check the VLE regularly for updates Making use of the Online Library The Online Library contains a huge array of journal articles and other resources to help you read widely and extensively. To access the majority of resources via the Online Library you will either need to use your University of London Student Portal login details, or you will be required to register and use an Athens login: The easiest way to locate relevant content and journal articles in the Online Library is to use the Summon search engine. If you are having trouble finding an article listed in a reading list, try removing any punctuation from the title, such as single quotation marks, question marks and colons. For further advice, please see the online help pages: Study time Study time is very much an individual matter. However, a student following an internal degree programme would normally have three to four hours of contact time per week on an international economics subject at this level. Normally an internal student would be expected to back this up by at least the same amount of time devoted to individual study. This implies a minimum of say, eight hours per week. If you are studying this subject over one year you would be advised to devote at least as much time to the subject but you can break this up into three or four sessions over the week. 1.9 Examination advice The examination Important: The information and advice given here are based on the examination structure used at the time this guide was written. Please note that subject guides may be used for several years. Because of this we strongly advise you to always check both the current Regulations for 7

22 1. Introduction to the subject guide relevant information about the examination, and the VLE where you should be advised of any forthcoming changes. You should also carefully check the rubric/instructions on the paper you actually sit and follow those instructions. Assessment is by a three-hour unseen examination. From 2014, the examination will have two sections: Section A requires candidates to answer one compulsory question worth 40 marks (Question 1). Answers must be supported with a brief justification or explanation, which may include diagram(s) or equations, where appropriate. Unsupported answers will receive no marks. Section B contains 10 predominantly essay-style questions. Candidates are required to choose any three questions from this section, each carrying 20 marks. These questions are designed to test candidates analytical understanding of the course and require application of knowledge to details provided in the question. Candidates should refer to the VLE and read the Examiners commentaries on the Zone A and Zone B examinations of recent years. These contain guidelines regarding what constitutes a poor/good/excellent answer to past examination questions and general advice on how to approach the examination, areas where candidates have exhibited weakness, etc Examination technique Good examination technique can significantly improve your examination performance and poor technique may result in serious underachievement relative to your ability and understanding. Some aspects of good technique are elementary and require only awareness and self-discipline while others are more subtle. You should regard the examination as an opportunity for you to demonstrate to the Examiners that you have covered the material of the subject, that you understand the material and that you can use and apply it in different situations. You should bear in mind that your examination script is the only evidence available to the Examiners on which to base their judgement about what you have achieved. They cannot read your mind, or ask you what you mean. Accordingly, it is important that what you write, clearly and unambiguously, demonstrates your mastery of the subject. This suggests a number of rules that you should follow: You should read carefully the instructions at the beginning of the question paper and follow them. In particular, if you are asked to answer, say, three questions you should answer three. If you answer only two questions you will receive zero marks for the missing third question. Thus you should pace yourself to allow time to answer all the required questions as even a moderately-answered question will score more than zero! If a question is compulsory, then you must answer it. Also, there is no advantage in answering more than the required number of questions you will receive credit only for what you are asked to do. It is important that what you write is legible. The Examiners can only give credit for what they can read. If you have problem handwriting you would be advised to write more slowly to ensure legibility. You might ask a friend or teacher to advise you on the legibility of your handwriting. If you use diagrams or equations it is important that you label them and explain them clearly 8

23 1.9. Examination advice and that you refer to them in the text (narrative) of your answer. An isolated and unexplained diagram is useless. You should read each question carefully and attempt to identify the nuances that the Examiners may have included. Questions are rarely of the form: Write all you know about comparative advantage. Usually a question requires you to show how a concept or theory might be used or interpreted. You need to identify the particular angle the Examiner has decided to emphasise and address that particular angle. Often it is helpful to use the opening paragraph of your answer to discuss your interpretation of the question. This serves the purpose of informing the Examiners of how you are thinking and may also help you to structure your answer. Remember, it is important to check the VLE for: up-to-date information on examination and assessment arrangements for this course where available, past examination papers and Examiners commentaries for the course which give advice on how each question might best be answered. 9

24 1. Introduction to the subject guide 10

25 Part 1 International trade 11

26

27 Introduction to international trade The subject matter of international economics divides rather neatly into what are referred to as international trade and international finance. These areas form the two Parts of this subject guide. The body of thought that comes under the title of international trade is concerned with real aspects of international economics where the term real is to be understood as contrasting with monetary or financial. Alternatively, you might wish to think of international trade as the application of microeconomics to the international economy; and international monetary economics as the application of macroeconomics. The starting point for studying international trade concerns questions such as: Why do countries trade with each other? How do countries gain from international trade? What determines the international pattern of specialisation and the commodity and composition of trade? These are issues addressed in Chapters 2 to 7 which together form a conceptual unit. Each chapter deals with different international trade models and offers a model that provides alternative theoretical explanations of international trade. Chapters 2 to 4 relate to models of international trade based on comparative advantage. Chapter 5 provides a synthesis of the common features of the comparative advantage models dicussed in Chapters 2 to 4. Chapter 6 considers the movement of factors. Chapter 7 examines models of trade based on economies of scale and imperfect competition. The different models/explanations for international trade are in part complementary and in part competing, and the intention of these chapters is to highlight these features. Chapters 8 to 11 form another block that deals with trade policy or commercial policy. Trade or commercial policy is to be understood as intervention by governments of international agencies in the trading process. Chapter 8 deals with the fundamentals of trade policy: what are the instruments of trade policy intervention? How do they work? How can they be compared? Economists are typically in favour of the absence of trade policy intervention (that is, in favour of what is sometimes known as free trade ). In practice, very few countries operate free trade regimes and Chapter 9 is devoted to exploring the reasons for this. Regional trading arrangements have proliferated in recent years and Chapter 10 is devoted to exploring the reasons for this. Chapter 11 finishes up with some of the special trade issues faced by developing countries. 13

28 14

29 Chapter 2 The Ricardian model of international trade 2.1 Introduction International trade theory seeks to explain or answer some of the following questions: Why do countries trade with each other? What are the gains from trade? What explains the pattern of international specialisation? What explains the commodity composition of trade? How is it possible for low productivity countries to trade with high productivity ones? How are international prices determined? How are the gains from trade distributed? Answers to most of these questions are offered by the principle of comparative advantage Aims of the chapter At the end of this chapter, and having completed the Essential readings and activities, you should be able to: summarise the theory of comparative advantage, in particular with reference to the Ricardian model, and apply this theory in the real world Learning outcomes By the end of this chapter, and having completed the Essential readings and activities, you should be able to: explain the concept of comparative advantage and distinguish it from the idea of absolute advantage explain how comparative advantage based on technological differences is the determinant of the pattern of trade and specialisation in the Ricardian model explain how the gains from trade arise in this model explain the relationship between relative international productivity and relative wages manipulate the RD/RS diagram to illustrate different possible equilibria in the Ricardian model explain how comparative advantage might be interpreted in a real world situation. 15