Security. Friends and Enemies. Overview Plaintext Cryptography functions. Secret Key (DES) Symmetric Key
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1 Friends and Enemies Security Outline Encryption lgorithms Protocols Message Integrity Protocols Key Distribution Firewalls Figure 7.1 goes here ob, lice want to communicate securely Trudy, the intruder may intercept, delete, add messages Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE Overview Cryptography functions Secret key (e.g., DES) Public key (e.g., RS) Message digest (e.g., MD5) public key Security services Privacy: preventing unauthorized release of information : verifying identity of the remote participant Integrity: making sure message has not been altered Security private key Secret Key (DES) Cryptography algorithms Security services Secret key (e.g., DES) Public key (e.g., RS) Message digest (e.g., MD5) Privacy Message integrity Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE Symmetric Key 64-bit key (56-bits 8-bit parity) 16 rounds Each Round Substitution cipher: substituting one thing for another monoalphabetic cipher: substitute one letter for another Round 1 Initial permutation plaintext: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Round 2 L i 1 R i 1 F K i ciphertext: mnbvcxzasdfghjklpoiuytrewq 56-bit key E.g.: : bob. i love you. alice ciphertext: nkn. s gktc wky. mgsbc Round 16 Final permutation L i R i Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE
2 Repeat for larger messages Public Key (RS) IV lock 1 lock 2 lock 3 lock 4 public key private key DES Cipher 1 DES DES DES Cipher 2 Cipher 3 Cipher 4 Encryption & Decryption c = m e mod n m = c d mod n Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE RS (cont) Choose two large prime numbers p and q (each 256 bits) Multiply p and q together to get n Choose the encryption key e, such that e and (p - 1) x (q - 1) are relatively prime. Two numbers are relatively prime if they have no common factor greater than one Compute decryption key d such that d*e = 1 mod ((p - 1) x (q - 1)) Construct public key as (e, n) Construct private key as (d, n) Discard (do not disclose) original primes p and q RS Example ob chooses p=5, q=7. Then n=35, z=24. e=5 (so e, z relatively prime). d=29 (so ed-1 exactly divisible by z). encrypt: decrypt: letter m m e c = m e mod n l c c d m = c d mod n letter l Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE Cryptographic checksum Message Digest just as a regular checksum protects the receiver from accidental changes to the message, a cryptographic checksum protects the receiver from malicious changes to the message. One-way function given a cryptographic checksum for a message, it is virtually impossible to figure out what message produced that checksum; it is not computationally feasible to find two messages that hash to the same cryptographic checksum. Relevance if you are given a checksum for a message and you are able to compute exactly the same checksum for that message, then it is highly likely this message produced the checksum you were given. Spring 2007 CSE Goal: ob wants lice to prove her identity to him Spring 2007 CSE
3 E(y, CHK) E(x, Public ) I am lice encrypt(password) Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE Protocols Trusted third party (Kerberos) Three-way handshake S Client Server, ClientId, E (, CHK) E((T, L, K, ), K ), E((T, L, K, ), K ) Y E((, T), K ), E ((T, L, K, ), K ) E(SK, SHK) E(T 1, K ) Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE Public key authentication x Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE
4 Message Integrity Protocols Digital signature using RS special case of a message integrity where the code can only have been generated by one participant compute signature with private key and verify with public key Keyed MD5 sender: m MD5(m k) E(E(k,rcv_public), snd_private) receiver recovers random key using the sender s public key applies MD5 to the concatenation of this random key message MD5 with RS signature sender: m E(MD5(m), private) receiver decrypts signature with sender s public key compares result with MD5 checksum sent with message Certificate Public Key Distribution special type of digitally signed document: I certify that the public key in this document belongs to the entity named in this document, signed X. the name of the entity being certified the public key of the entity the name of the certification authority a digital signature Certification uthority (C) administrative entity that issues certificates useful only to someone that already holds the C s public key. Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE Key Distribution (cont) Chain of Trust if X certifies that a certain public key belongs to Y, and Y certifies that another public key belongs to Z, then there exists a chain of certificates from X to Z someone that wants to verify Z s public key has to know X s public key and follow the chain Certificate Revocation List Serial number (unique to issuer) Certificate info about certificate owner, including algorithm and key value itself (not shown) info about certificate issuer valid dates digital signature by issuer Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) PGP designed by Phillip Zimmerman for electronic mail Uses three known techniques: IDE for encrypting message International Data Exchange lgorithm block cipher with 64-bit blocks similar in concept but different in details from DES uses 128-bit keys patented, but free for non-commercial use RS public key encryption permits keys up to 2,047 bits in length Digital signatures use MD5 or SH-1 PGP generates a random 128-bit symmetric key, used by IDE for each message PGP generates its own public/private key pairs Keys are stored locally using a hashed pass phrase PGP does not use conventional certificates (too expensive) Instead, users generate and distribute their own public keys sign each other s public keys save trusted public keys on public-key ring users build a web of trust users determine how much to trust Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE
5 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) PGP (cont) Encryption and authentication for . Create a random k Original message Sender identity and message integrity confirmed if checksums match Encrypt message using DES with k Decrypt message using DES with k Calculate MD5 checksum over message contents Calculate MD5 checksum on received message and compare against received value Encryptk using RS with recipient s public key Decrypt E(k) using RS with my private key k Sign checksum using RS with senderõs private key Decrypt signed checksum with senderõs public key Encode message E (k ) in SCII for transmission Convert SCII message Transmitted message Transmitted message Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE PGP GPG: Gnu Privacy Guard Internet encryption scheme, a de-facto standard. Uses symmetric key cryptography, public key cryptography, hash function, and digital signature as described. Provides secrecy, sender authentication, integrity. Inventor, Phil Zimmerman, was target of 3-year federal investigation. PGP signed message: ---EGIN PGP SIGNED MESSGE--- Hash: SH1 ob:my husband is out of town tonight.passionately yours, lice ---EGIN PGP SIGNTURE--- Version: PGP 5.0 Charset: noconv yhhjrhhgjghgg/12epjlo8ge4v3mqj hfevzp9t6n7g6m5gw2 ---END PGP SIGNTURE--- GPG is primarily meant for securing can also use it to encrypt/decrypt/sign any message... free alternative to PGP llows you to: create public/private key pairs encrypt/decrypt messages sign/check messages Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE GPG Create your own public/private key pair: gpg --gen-keys you will be asked several questions: which kind of key you want, which size, how long it will stay valid, username, address, etc. (keep default values) then it will ask you for a passphrase: type any passphrase (e.g., I like rabbits very much ) your private key will be encrypted with the passphrase before storing on disk GPG will ask you for your passphrase each time it needs to access your private key Distributing Your Public Key You can give it to anyone: people who may want to communicate with you using GPG never hand out your private key What s my public key? gpg --export --armor <Your_Name> You can add somebody else s public key to your keyring: gpg --import <filename> You can list the keys in your keyring: gpg --list-keys Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE
6 Encryption/Decryption with GPG Encryption: must specify the destination of your message, message will be encrypted with the recipients public key (key must be in keyring) gpg --armor --encrypt -r <recipient> < <file_to_encrypt> Decryption: GPG will use your private key to decrypt a received file, you will be asked for your passphrase gpg --decrypt < <file_to_decrypt> Signatures with GPG Sign a message (you will be asked for your passphrase): gpg --output <output_file> --clearsign <document_to_sign> message and signature will be written to output_file Check a signature: gpg --verify <document_to_check> You can encrypt and sign a document: gpg --armor --sign --encrypt -r cpoellab@cse.nd.edu < message To decrypt and check: gpg --decrypt <encrypted_and_signed_message> Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE Secure Shell (SSH) Remote login service (replaces telnet and rlogin). Provides authentication, integrity, and confidentiality. SSH version 2: SSH-TRNS, SSH-UTH, SSH-CONN. Transport Layer Security (TLS) Secure Socket Layer (SSL). Secure HTTP (HTTPS). Handshake protocol and record protocol. Host pplication client SSH Direct connection Forwarded connection pplication server SSH Host pplication (e.g., HTTP) Secure transport layer TCP IP Subnet Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE Firewalls Firewall Proxy-ased Firewalls Problem: complex policy Example: web server Rest of the Internet Local site Remote company user Firewall Internet Company net Web server Filter-ased Solution example ( , 1234, , 80 ) (*,*, , 80 ) default: forward or not forward? how dynamic? Random external user Solution: proxy External client Firewall Proxy External HTTP/TCP connection Design: transparent vs. classical Limitations: attacks from within Local server Internal HTTP/TCP connection Spring 2007 CSE Spring 2007 CSE
7 Denial of Service flood of maliciously generated packets swamp receiver Distributed DOS (DDOS): multiple coordinated sources swamp receiver e.g., C and remote host -attack C Spring 2007 CSE Packet Sniffing broadcast media promiscuous NIC reads all packets passing by can read all unencrypted data (e.g. passwords) e.g.: C sniffs s packets src: dest: Spring 2007 CSE C payload IP Spoofing can generate raw IP packets directly from application, putting any value into IP source address field receiver can t tell if source is spoofed e.g.: C pretends to be C src: dest: payload Spring 2007 CSE
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