Translation Problem Detection: a Pilot Experiment into Students Keystrokes

Transcription

1 1 Faculteit Letteren & Wijsbegeerte Margo Wattel Translation Problem Detection: a Pilot Experiment into Students Keystrokes Masterproef voorgedragen tot het behalen van de graad van Master in het Vertalen 2014 Promotor Prof. Dr. Sonia Vandepitte Vakgroep Vertalen Tolken Communicatie

2 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Sonia Vandepitte, for her time and ideas and my sincere gratitude to the students who voluntarily participated in the experiment. Without Prof. Dr. Sonia Vandepitte and the participants, this dissertation could simply not exist. My gratitude also goes to my parents, for giving me the chance to study and to my sister, for her everlasting support. Finally, I would like to express my appreciation to my cousin for proofreading my dissertation.

3 3 ABSTRACT This is an exploratory study into keystroke logging as a research method for the potential translation problem of NPAPARP structures. The focus of this study is the search for potential translation problems, and in particular, it investigates the extent to which the so-called NPAPARP structure raises translation problems. To reach this aim a translation experiment was organised where one master student's en one first-year student's keystrokes were logged using the screen recording programme Morae. In addition to pauses, the deletions which were made by the participants during the translation process were also examined as possible indicators of translation problems or difficulties. Furthermore, the experiment also delivered translation products which can be subjected to a quality assessment to see whether and how well potential problems were solved. The results were not always as would have been expected: it was discovered that both the trained and untrained student paused longer when translating paragraphs without NPAPARPs and that the majority of the deletions also took place in paragraphs without NPAPARPs. Moreover, some very good translations were found for the NPAPARPs by both the trained and untrained participants, and a wide range of other problems, which were more disturbing than the less good NPAPARP translations, were discovered in the translation product. However, due to its limited number of participants, this study can only inspire other research, call attention to its shortages and provide advice for better research methods.

4 4 Table of Contents 1. Introduction Focus Theoretical Framework Definition of a translation problem Detection of a translation problem Research into NPAPARPs Experienced versus inexperienced translators Research objectives and hypotheses Data and methods Participants Materials Experimental set-up Analysis of the data Results Time Pauses Deletions Quality of the translation Translation of the NPAPARP structure Change of content Grammatical errors Problems with collocations Quality and time Conclusions Bibliography Appendix A. Discussion of translation process per paragraph Trained Untrained... 43

5 5 Appendix B. English source material Trained participant one Untrained participant Trained participant two Appendix C. Dutch translations Trained participant one Untrained participant Trained participant two... 54

6 6 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Focus The teaching of translation was originally a part of the teaching of foreign languages, but in the 20th century translation became a separate topic for study. The training of translators is thus a relatively young discipline, which requires continuous research to ensure the most efficient teaching methods in the present environment. An example of an important topic which cannot be ignored during the training of translators and which is the subject of much research due to its many forms is the translation problem. To guarantee that the students will be as best prepared as possible for their task, the acquisition of methods to recognise and solve potential translation problems, which graduates may encounter later on in their lives, is essential, and research can deliver these useful indicators and strategies. This is an exploratory study into keystroke logging as a research method for the potential translation problem of NPAPARP structures. According to Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011: 68) an NPAPARP (non-prototypical agent 1 with a prototypical agent requiring predicate) is "the combination of an abstract or non-human noun that typically causes or helps cause the action expressed by the predicate, with a predicate that usually requires a human agent". The NPAPARP structure is thus an example of metonymic, i.e. figurative, language usage. Vandepitte and Hartsuiker also mention some examples to show what is meant with an NPAPARP structure and to clarify why they see it as a possible translation problem. One of those example sentences with an NPAPARP in Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011: 68) is "Money buys action and influence". The Dutch word-for-word translation "Geld koopt actie en invloed" is clearly unsatisfactory and gets a question mark in front of it. Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011: 71) states that "languages seem to have different degrees of tolerance with respect to [agent prototypicality] (...). English, for example, is fairly flexible and easily accepts non-human nouns that fulfil the Proto-Agent features to a lesser degree or not at all". The Dutch language, in contrast, favours a passive voice, a general subject or a prepositional phrase, which was applied in the second translation which was proposed for the example sentence: "Met geld koop je actie en invloed". 1 In this study agent is used in the same broad sense as in Vandepitte et al. (2011), which means it includes "both the person performing the action expressed by the predicate and the object that helps perform the action".

7 7 The focus of this study will be the search for potential translation problems, and in particular, it will investigate the extent to which the so-called NPAPARP structure raises translation problems. To reach this aim a translation experiment with keystroke logging will be organised. This study can be situated in the cognitive branch of Translation Studies, since its aim is to discover what is happening inside the minds of the translators when they encounter a specific translation problem and struggle to solve it. There will also be a quality assessment, which means the linguistic approach of Translation Studies will also receive some attention. Although this structure has already been at the centre of several studies, findings have been mixed. We wish to discover what information can be retrieved from new data and whether the analysis of this information supports the hypothesis of the NPAPARP structure as a translation problem. In addition, the results may show whether the present training suffices to handle the potential translation problem. Moreover, this pilot experiment could reveal other translation problems which deserve equal or even more attention in the training of translators. Before the experiment can be initiated, some questions must first be considered: "When can something be considered a translation problem and how can a potential translation problem be detected?", "What is already known about the translation of NPAPARP structure from English into Dutch?",and "Does the structure constitute a problem for all translation students alike?". To answer all of these questions an analysis of the state of the art is necessary. 1.2 Theoretical Framework This section contains information on how a translation problem has been defined in the past and which working definition will be applied in this thesis. In addition there will be a title dedicated to the different methods which can be used to detect translation problems. Of course, the research into NPAPARPs and the influence of experience cannot be omitted Definition of a translation problem Nord (2005) differentiates four kinds of translation problems: pragmatic translation problems, convention-related translation problems, text-specific translation problems and linguistic

8 8 translation problems. Pragmatic translation problems are mainly a consequence of a contradiction within the extratextual factors of the source text and target text, e.g. motive, medium, receivers, etc. and can occur during all translation tasks. Convention-related translation problems are the consequence of different customs in the source and target culture such as measurement units. Text-specific translation problems concern for example the style of a specific work and cannot be generalised. Finally, linguistic translation problems are caused by structural differences between languages, especially concerning lexicon and syntax and can occur during all translation tasks with a specific language pair and in both translation directions. The NPAPARP structure clearly constitutes a linguistic translation problem, when this classification of translation problems is applied, since it has to do with a different tolerance towards the violation of grammatical principles in English and Dutch. Nord (2005) also makes a distinction between translation problems and translation difficulties. She briefly explains the difference between general and personal problems: Nord sees translation problems as objective problems which the translator encounters during the translation process and which he/she will always encounter, no matter how much expertise he/she gains. Translation difficulties, on the other hand, are translator- and situation-bound problems. Krings (1986), on the other hand, did not yet have a clear separation between translation problems and difficulties. He explains a translation problem as a moment where the translation of a specific part of text becomes subjectively problematic, a definition which would better suit a translation difficulty according to Nord (2005). This subjective problem can be large or small, but the sense of an unbridgeable obstacle, jamming the translation process, is always present. It would seem that he believed he could identify translation problems by examining the translation difficulties of advanced language students through verbal data analysis. He wanted to create an overview of all occurring types of problems by scrutinising individual problems, i.e. translation difficulties. To this end he had developed a set of problem indicators, among which were the subjects explicit statement of problems, the use of reference works, untranslated parts and pauses. However, the detection of translation problems will be discussed more elaborately in the following section. When Krings had finally identified all problems he decided to categorise them into reception problems, production problems and reception-production problems: the first

9 9 originating from miscomprehension or lack of comprehension of the source text, the second ones being a consequence of the search to find the right words to express what had been understood from the source text and the latter being a combination of both others. Nord's theory on translation problems and difficulties will be the one applied in this study because it clearly states that not every issue during a translation process and/or with the translation product is necessarily a translation problem: the issue may be due to a translation difficulty. Moreover, she remarks that in some cases a translation problem may even turn into a translation difficulty, for example, if the translator lacks the tools or knowledge to solve a translation problem. When the translator does, however, possess the knowledge required to solve a translation problem, the manner in which he/she comes to this solution is not always clear: just like any other cognitive process, the cognitive process which follows the recognition of a translation problem cannot be seen with the naked eye; the mind is, as they say, a black box Detection of a translation problem Researchers have found several methods to attempt to peer inside the translation process since the 1980's. Many of the models and methodologies used in the cognitive branch of Translation Studies have been adopted from cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics, as is pointed out by Halverson (2008). The popular methods for data collection, which were introduced in those early days, were listed by Jakobsen (2006) as self-observation (introspection), interviews (retrospection) and think aloud vocalizations. Those methods became unpopular because it was assumed that the verbal data, collected both during and after the translation act, were incomplete and irrelevant to the study, and distorted the process. Jakobsen (2011) mentions that although Ericsson and Simon (1984) tried to address and refute those problems, experiments performed in Copenhagen contradict some of their claims and confirm the disadvantages of verbal data. Technological progress has opened new doors, enabling further exploration of the translator's mind. One of the new methods which has been made possible by the use of computers is keystroke logging. Keystroke logging is, as described by Spelman Miller and Sullivan (2006), the electronic recording of all actions performed by the writer or translator as he/she writes on a word processor. This includes keystrokes and mouse movements, together with an exact time record.

10 10 This method allows researchers to reconstruct the writing process (production, navigation and deletion) and subsequently to analyse the fluency of the writing process (where and when the writer or translator paused, and for how long). One advantage of keystroke logging, compared to the previously mentioned methods, is the lack of interference from the researcher, creating a more natural environment for the participants of the study. Another is the factual nature of the data, compared to those retrieved from for example the think-aloud method. Moreover, the exact "time stamp", which is impossible with the other methods, has proven to be very helpful in pausological studies, as is explained in the following paragraph. In the variety of information sources used in the cognitive branch of Translation Studies to discover cognitive processes, pauses are very popular. Göpferich (2008) refers to Séguinot (1989) Jakobsen (1998), Krings (2001), Hansen (2002), Alves (2006), O'Brien (2006) and Englund Dimitrova (2005;2006) as studies which assume that pauses during translation indicate cognitive processes. Pauses can be categorised as online retrieved indirect evidence. The fact that the information is not given directly by the writer or translator could be seen as an advantage, since subjectivity can be avoided. In addition, the real-time (online) registration of pauses eliminates misjudgements through forgetfulness afterwards. The key assumption with the study of pauses is that by analysing the pauses it will be possible to better understand the cognitive processes that are taking place during the translation. The duration and frequency of the pauses may indicate how much cognitive effort it costs the translator to translate a certain text. In the writing process, a pause can take place between every two keystrokes. There will, of course, always be a short period of inactivity between every stroke, but it would not be very meaningful to count all these inactive moments as pauses. Therefore, as a working definition, pauses can be defined as transition times which are longer than the median intra-word transition time, i.e. the "normal" transition time. As for the duration of this "normal" transition time, there are no official values so far, which means researchers have to decide for themselves which criterion they will apply. Wengelin (2006) pointed out that several researchers, including herself, had opted for a "normal" transition time of two seconds, considering all inactivity taking longer than two seconds as a pause. There are at least two advantages and one disadvantage to this approach of determining pause lengths

11 11 beforehand. First of all, the use of the two-second criterion improves comparability, since other researchers have used the same criterion and future investigators can also adopt it. Moreover, there can be no doubt that a pause is anything other than that, since two seconds is already a long time for even a slow writer to find the next key. The evidence for that statement can be found in Wengelin (2006), where reference was made to two corpora for native language writing of different types of texts, viz. a picture elicited narrative, a personal narrative, an argumentative text, a route direction and a job application in the first corpus and a personal narrative and an expository text in the second corpus. The maximum median intra-word transition time of a dyslectic writer is said to be 0.796s and 1.083s with a fourth grader. Göpferich (2008) mentions that Jakobsen (1998) also recognised that every interruption lasting over 1s could be a pause. He believed that any interruption shorter than 1s could be due to poor typing skills. Here also lies the disadvantage of using a pre-determined "normal" transition time for everybody: not everyone has the same typing speed. Ideally a pause should be defined individually. Every moment of inactivity which takes longer than the mean time the participant needs to find the next key is a pause. Whether this pause is a short one, a normal one or a long one should again be determined for each participant separately. However, in the experiment of this study the participants will all be students, i.e. young people who have interacted with others through typing on social network sites for the larger part of their lives, which means they can all be considered to be fast typists and should have similar mean transition times. In addition, according to Wengelin (2006), university students were also the fastest writers in both corpora with a respective mean median intra-word transition time of 0.247s and s. The mean median intra-word transition time for students thus lies around 0.200s and this seems to be the best standard to apply, because a normal transition of a little under two seconds is unimaginable and one second is apparently already abnormal for a dyslectic person. Concerning the location of pauses, it can clearly be concluded from Goldman-Eisler (1968), Swerts (1998) and Wengelin (2001,2002), all mentioned in Wengelin (2006), that both in spoken and written language the boundaries of larger linguistic units are more susceptible for pauses than those of smaller units. This alternation of typing and pausing could be seen as a pulse, a rhythm, which Schilperoord in 1996 suitably called the "cognitive rhythm", as is mentioned in Jakobsen (2006:104).

12 12 There appears to be a correlation between pause location and pause duration. Spelman Miller (2006) indicated that in 1993 Phinney and Khouri discovered that there is a general tendency for pauses to be shorter within words and at word ends, whereas with higher level units they become longer. Spelman Miller was able to confirm this in 2000, as is reported in Wengelin (2006). For this study, this means that a long pause in the middle of a word, for example which is part of the translation of the NPAPARP structure, is an indication of a problem Research into NPAPARPs Since the NPAPARP structure is more acceptable in the English language than in Dutch, Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011) aimed to show that this structure is a translation problem by means of an experiment. If the results confirmed their assumption, this would mean that this translation problem deserves more attention in the training of translators. The aim of the experiment was to identify at which speed untrained and trained students can translate sentences with prototypical and non-prototypical agents. During the translation the software Morae recorded all keystrokes and mouse clicks and provided them with a timestamp. The untrained participants were first-year students in the bachelor in applied language studies and the trained ones were students in the master of translation programme. The conclusion which could be drawn from the results is that NPAPARPs do constitute a translation problem, since both untrained and trained students needed more time to translate sentences with non-prototypical agents than with prototypical agents. In addition to investigating the process, the study also looked at the translations themselves. These showed that both untrained and trained students most of the time, respectively in 83.3% and 72.7% of the cases, could not resist copying the NPAPARP structure in Dutch. In his master's thesis, Delsoir (2011) performed a study to confirm that those Dutch NPAPARP structures which were produced by the students in Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011) are unacceptable for native speakers of Dutch. He concluded that, although nearly a fifth of the translated sentences were considered completely acceptable, the rest was deemed just acceptable or unacceptable. Using the data collected in Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011), a series of case studies were set up, of which one is quite relevant to the present study. The results of the particular case study, together with those of the other studies, were reported in an unpublished manuscript written by

13 13 Vandepitte, Hartsuiker and Van Assche. The case study was a quantitative and qualitative exploratory study into all pauses of one randomly selected student to see whether metonymic constructions slow down translation and cause longer pauses because they need more thought. Many results were revealed to be statistically insignificant. However, the duration of the pauses in the final position of the sentence proved to be significant and supported the hypothesis that metonymic sentences require more cognitive effort than non-metonymic ones: with the metonymic sentences, the total duration of final pauses is s and the mean duration per sentence 2.26 s compared to s and 1.25 s with the non-metonymic ones respectively. Moreover, it was observed that apart from metonymy some non-metonymic constructions also posed some difficulties to translate. Furthermore, the quantitative process findings were related to the quality of the translation and they found that there appears to be no relation between quality and time spent on the translation. Finally, it was concluded that although this participant's high number of final pauses and long final pause duration may already indicate that the NPAPARP structure deserves more investigation and that a well-designed experiment is required to compare the effects of the structure on both comprehension and text production. A study that researched the effect of the NPAPARPs on comprehension was Van Goethem's master's thesis (2012). She found that it was difficult to determine why the sentences with NPAPARPs in Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011) took longer to translate and were unidiomatically translated in Dutch. She assumed that the pauses and unidiomatic Dutch constructions were the consequence of an understanding problem that was caused by the abstract nature of the English sentences. In addition, Van Goethem wanted to create an experiment with higher ecological validity than in Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011), where the group of participants was asked to translate isolated sentences. A reading test with eye-tracking was set up, which would show where the participants, students from the master of translation and the firstyear bachelor in applied language studies, had trouble understanding, i.e. what their eyes focussed on. The material that was used was the same as in Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011), but this time incorporated into larger paragraphs. The first research question Van Goethem posed in her study was whether translation students would experience comprehension problems when confronted with NPAPARP structures during a reading task for comprehension. In the conclusion, the hypothesis that NPAPARP structures

14 14 would increase the workload on the brain was tested against the results of the reading test with eye tracking. It was found that both untrained and trained translation students seemed to experience processing trouble when reading NPAPARP constructions, compared to sentences containing prototypical agents. The presence of NAPARPs triggered an increase in first fixation durations in verb and end zones and an increase in the gaze durations in verb, noun and end zones, elevated dilation pupil sizes and a lower number of regressions into and out of the area of interest. Concerning the research question whether the availability of context would improve the ability of students to process NPAPARPs, the expected results were that both trained and untrained students woul have less difficulty processing NPAPARP structures embedded in a paragraph than when they occur in isolated sentences. The increase in processing ease will then be shown in fewer regressions, shorter gaze durations, first fixation durations and go past times and smaller pupil dilations. Van Goethem found that gaze durations, regressions into the area of interest and pupil dilations increased when participants were reading isolated sentences, i.e. when no context was provided. According to Van Goethem, the data analysis of these three measures is sufficient to suggest that context has a positive effect on the comprehension of NPAPARPs Experienced versus inexperienced translators In both the experiments by Vandepitte and Hartsuiker and by Van Goethem, there were two groups of participants: trained and untrained translators. These translators were first-year students of the bachelor in applied language studies and master of translation students and their participation was necessary to find out whether there is a difference between the two groups when it comes to comprehending and translating an NPAPARP. In Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011), it was discovered that both the trained and untrained experienced more difficulty when translating sentences with NPAPARPs than during the translation of those without the structures. Irrespective of training, the students all needed significantly more time to translate the sentences with non-prototypical agents than sentences with prototypical agents. Both groups also were tempted to translate NPAPARPs in English with NPAPARPs in Dutch, although this tendency was more pronounced in the untrained students.

15 15 The trained students more often searched for other solutions such as introducing a prototypical agent or leaving out the agent all together. In Van Goethem (2012) one of the research questions was whether trained students can process passages with NPAPARPs more easily than untrained students. In the matching hypothesis that was formulated Van Goethem stated that she expected trained students to experience less difficulty than untrained students when they encounter segments containing NPAPARPs. She subsequently expected the trained students to have a lower number of regressions, shorter gaze durations, first fixation durations, go past times and smaller pupil dilations. When compared to the experiment results it was discovered that the second hypothesis could neither be confirmed nor rejected. The fact that the trained translators did not have long first fixation durations could indicate that the presence of non-prototypical agents did not constitute an obvious translation problem for the students because of their higher level of expertise. However, the gaze durations of the trained participants did increase when they encountered sentences and paragraphs containing NPAPARPs, which would give a reason to reject the hypothesis. In an unpublished case study by Vandepitte et al. (2013), yet another group was introduced: students from secondary school education. From the study by Vandepitte and Hartsuiker in 2011, it can be concluded that master students do not differ much from first-year students of English concerning the translation process of sentences with metonymic and non-metonymic structures. The results of the study led to a case study to find the answer to the following question: were the untrained students not already a self-selected group, i.e. what if first-year students cannot be considered as an untrained group? The experiment which was subsequently set up involved submitting 13 students from secondary education (whose knowledge of English was considered as one year behind that of the average untrained student) to the same experiment which was performed by Vandepitte and Hartsuiker in The results indicate that the secondary school students also needed more time to translate a metonymic structure than its counterpart, supporting the conclusion of Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011): NPAPARPs constitute a translation process problem. Moreover, this group needed significantly more time to translate both the metonymic and non-metonymic structures than the university groups. A probable explanation is the higher level of language competence of the university students. Furthermore, also the standard deviation

16 16 was much larger with the secondary school pupils than with the university participants, supporting the idea that the university students are already self-selected group. Although the unpublished case study of Vandepitte et al. showed that the untrained university group was already self-selected and more competent than the secondary school group, it is still more relevant to compare first-year students to master students: the research into NPAPARPs has as a goal to see whether the current training is sufficient or whether improvement is possible in the training of translators. Considering the results of Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011) and Van Goethem (2012), and the fact that the Phinney and Khouri study (1993) revealed a link between foreign language proficiency, on the one hand, and the length and frequency of pauses and word processing during writing, as was remarked by Spelman Miller in 2006, on the other hand, expectations surrounding the influence of the degree of experience do not seem to be out of place. Both trained and untrained participants will most likely experience difficulties during the translation, viz. have more and longer pauses in the paragraphs containing NPAPARPs, but any difference discovered in the pausing behaviour may very well be due to the difference in experience. Moreover, the difference in experience may also be visible in the translation product where the trained students may have more acceptable translations. 1.3 Research objectives and hypotheses As was already mentioned, this study is an exploratory one. This means the research question is a broad one. Although it will focus on keystroke logging of the translation of NPAPARP structures in paragraphs in a pilot experiment, it will also evaluate the translation product.

17 17 Aspects which will receive special attention are: Abnormal pauses in the proximity of an NPAPARP structure, which are expected with the trained and untrained participant The number of deletions, which are expected to be higher in the paragraphs with NPAPARP structures, with both the trained and untrained participant Quality of the translation with the trained and untrained participant The difference between trained and untrained students concerning the translation of NPAPARPs, which is expected Which (already learnt) strategies the participants apply when translating NPAPARPs The idiomaticity of the translation of NPAPARPs The expected positive effect of context on the translation of NPAPARPs Other translation difficulties or problems which the students encountered and are equally or more pressing 2. DATA AND METHODS 2.1 Participants Unfortunately, the group of test subjects in this experiment was rather small, which means the only process data belongs to one master student en one first-year student and the available product data stems from two master students and one first-year student. The reason for this limited number of test-subjects lies in a late change in the nature of the experiment. The means by which the data would be retrieved was initially eye-tracking, in which case the amount of data from two test subjects, one first-year and one master student, would be large enough to analyse and discuss in a thesis. However, in February it became clear that the required equipment and guidance would not be available, which meant another research method had to be found: keystroke logging. If it had been known that keystroke logging would be used as a method in the beginning of the academic year a larger experiment with more participants could have been organised.

18 18 As a consequence of the restricted number of participants it will not be possible to present the results of this experiment as evidence. However, since this is an exploratory study the aim was never to prove that the NPAPARP structure poses a translation problem, but to find out more about the structure and its translation. The data recovered from this small group of test subjects may even suffice to see whether the NPAPARP structure is interesting enough to investigate with the eye-tracking method. 2.2 Materials To find a suitable source text to investigate and compare the translation processes of untrained and trained translators could be seen as quite a challenge: the trained translator may have prior knowledge about a text because of previous jobs with the topic or genre, causing him/her to be less overwhelmed with the task. For this reason experimental paragraphs, with an informative and entertaining character, will be used. The paragraphs will be picked from the list of paragraphs used by Van Goethem (2012), which each contain one sentence from the study by Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011). The use of the same material in all these studies enhances comparability. Another advantage of using these experimental texts is the assurance that the participants will not have to waste time throughout their translation process thinking about the target audience. Initially, two text documents were made, each containing six paragraphs, one for every participant. Every other paragraph contained an NPAPARP structure with PAPARP structures between them. The first-year student and master student either got the version of a paragraph with or without an NPAPARP. After the test with the master student those six paragraphs proved to be not as much work as was expected. This miscalculation on behalf of the researcher was caused by the sudden moving up of the experiment date for personal reasons of the participant. Therefore, four more paragraphs were added to the source text of first-year student, who still had to take the test. The four added paragraphs were actually two new paragraphs, but each once with and once without an NPAPARP structure. The advantage of this addition is the possibility to see whether the chance to compare both versions would alert the participant to the presence of the potential translation problem, i.e. whether the last two NPAPARPs will not be translated as NPAPARPs. Later, a third participant, again a master student, was asked to translate the source text of the master student supplemented with the four additional source paragraphs of the first-

19 19 year student. There is, however, no recording of the translation process of this last student due to an error which occurred during the saving process by Morae. 2.3 Experimental set-up The most popular logging software used in Translation Studies is Translog. The programme was developed by Arnt Lykke Jakobsen and Lasse Schou in 1995 and records all keyboard and mouse activity during the writing of a text or translation. In addition to showing the source text on the same screen, Translog also offers the researcher the possibility to gradually show the source text to the participants. In this study, however, there is no need for that. Moreover, since the 2010 version of Microsoft Office Word allows two windows to be placed neatly next to each other on one screen a Morae recording should deliver all the necessary data: pause duration, pause location, changes and deletions. No internet or dictionaries will be used, guaranteeing that the amount of retrieved information is manageable. The recordings made with the Morae recorder can be exported in several formats. In this case all keystrokes and mouse clicks were exported in an Excel table. Morae is a screen recording programme which runs in the background and records everything that is visible on the screen. With this technology it is also possible to record audio, but since there was no need for vocal data, this option was disabled. A significant advantage of screen recording is the high ecological value: the test subjects can forget that they are taking part in an experiment, because the software is invisible during the translation process. Ecologically valid results are very important in research, and according to Göpferich (2008) the only way to achieve such results when exploring the translation process is by organising tests which take place under similar conditions as when a translator normally translates. This includes the usual workplace with the typically available items, viz. CAT tools, dictionaries and the internet. As was already mentioned above, none of these items were at the disposal of the test subjects. The room where the experiment took place was, however, familiar to both subjects. Especially for the master student, who has many of his translation courses in this room, the location could be deemed a usual workplace.

20 20 The conditions of the experiment in this study could thus be called "artificial". However, Göpferich (2008) points out that laboratory conditions are reasonable and even necessary when a study focuses on research into specific aspects of translational behaviour, in this case how the translator deals with NPAPARPS and other translation problems. Englund-Dimitrova (2010) also recognised that laboratory conditions may strongly differ from a normal translation situation, but saw experiments as a sort of necessary evil to discover more about the fundamental aspects of the translation process. Moreover, she points out that experiments taking place at computers, enabling keystroke logging, increases the ecological validity as a translator's work is almost exclusively computer-based at present. The tests with the master students and the first-year student took place in the same language laboratory class at a PC with Morae on different dates: 14 February 2014 for the first master student, 27 February 2014 for the first-year student and 3 April 2014 for the second master student. The master students came to Ghent earlier to participate before lunch and the first-year student took part after a class in the afternoon. It might well be possible that these different dates and different times of the day influenced the translation process and the results of the tests. The master students may have been in a hurry to finish because they wanted to start with their lunch and the first-year student may have been tired after her classes that day. It was explained to the students in Dutch that they would get an hour to translate some paragraphs and that their data would be used anonymously in a thesis once the consent forms were signed. Then the students followed the Dutch instructions on their hand-outs in order to start the Morae recorder. They opened the Word document with the source text on the USB stick provided by the experimenter and opened a new Word document for the target text next to it on the same screen. At the end, both new files, the recording and the target text, were saved by the students onto the USB stick. 2.4 Analysis of the data Keystroke logging allows the collection of quantitative data such as the number of deletions, the pause frequency and the length of the pauses. These quantitative data require exact analytical criteria and since there are no official pause values, it is up to the researcher to set the bar. As was already mentioned before, ideally a pause should be defined individually, for every participant. However, since the participants will all be students, their mean transition time should be similar

21 21 and the handling of the same standard should not pose any problem. After comparing the mean transition time of the participants, there proved to be, as was expected, little difference between the students (0.54 s for the master student and 0.51 s for the first-year student). The standard which was applied, however, was lower than 0.5 s: in the experiment all pauses longer than 200 ms were marked as significant pauses. The reason for this is the fact that 500 ms to find the next key is already quite long, especially when comparing that transition time to the intra-word transition times found by Wengelin (2006) in two writing corpora: s and s. The mean transition times of the participants were most likely prolonged by long pauses between sentences. As was already pointed out in Spelman Miller (2006) and Wengelin (2006), long pauses are frequent before the start of a sentence or subordinate clause. For this reason the pauses at the boundaries will not be receiving much attention, since they are probably just time spent on reading the source text. The main areas of interest will be in the sentences with the NPAPARP and matching PAPARP structures, viz. before the agent, during the agent, after the agent, before the verb 2, during the verb and after the verb. A pause before the agent or verb is an interval of minimum 200 ms after the stroke of the spacebar and before the first letter of the first word of the agent or the first letter of the verb. A pause while typing the agent or the verb means all intervals of minimum 200 ms between the first letter and the last letter, in the case of the agent this will respectively be the letters of the first word and of the last word of the agent. Finally, a pause after the agent or verb is an interval of minimum 200 ms after the last letter of the last word of the agent or the last letter of the verb and before the stroke of the spacebar. A disadvantage of this method, i.e. not taking into account the pauses before a main clause or subordinate clause, is the loss of pauses which may occur before an agent or verb in an NPAPARP or PAPARP structure which are located at the beginning of the clause. However unfortunate this loss of data is, there is no clear way of determining at which point exactly in the pause or pauses the reading ceases and the thinking starts. 2 In this study the word verb is used to refer to the finite verb

22 22 In addition to the pauses, this study will also discuss the deletions which were made by the trained and untrained participant during the translation process, since these could be possible indicators of translation problems or difficulties. Furthermore, the experiment also delivered translations which can be subjected to a quality assessment. Göpferich (2008) quotes Strauss and Corbin (1998) to explain how qualitative data is good for exploring areas about which little is known or for gaining new insights, which seems quite applicable in this study. 3. RESULTS In this section references will be made to the English source text, which can be found in APPENDIX B, and to the Dutch translations, which were placed under APPENDIX C. 3.1 Time Pauses The trained student needed 29 minutes to translate his six paragraphs and the untrained student 59 minutes for ten paragraphs. The total pause duration for both translation processes, revision and saving included, is respectively 24.5 min ( s) and 51 min ( s). This means both students only spent 4.5 min and 8 min on the typing of the translation, i.e. pushing down the keys, and all the rest of the time (84.75% and 86.21%) was spent purely on cognitive activities. However, not all of those cognitive activities are a part of the translation process, which means that, for example, pauses during the saving process can be left out. Moreover, because no more changes were made at the end of the translation process, i.e. during the final revision and review, it could be assumed that the participants were no longer thinking of better translations or solutions to problems and only rereading their translation, which means these pauses can be excluded as well. This leaves a total pause duration of approx. 23 min ( s) with the trained student and approx. 50 min ( s) with the untrained one. The new total pause duration minus the total pauses in the proximity of and within NPAPARPs, which can be found in the following table, reflects the amount of time that was spent on all other parts of the translation: a little above 23 min ( s) with the trained participant and a little under 50 min ( s) with the untrained one.

23 23 Trained: 3 NPAPARP Paragraphs Trained: 3 PAPARP Paragraphs Untrained: 5 NPAPARP Paragraphs Untrained: 5 PAPARP Paragraphs Before Idea agent Idea During Idea agent Idea After agent Idea Idea 2 Before verb Idea Idea Idea 1b 5.24 During verb Idea Idea Idea 1b 0.22 After verb Idea Idea Total Table 1:The pauses (in seconds) in the proximity of and within the (N)PAPARPs are presented. The "Idea" rows represent the pauses belonging to the subsequent translations the participants came up with for a specific (N)PAPARP. In percentage, the share of pauses, i.e. of cognitive effort, put into the translation of the NPAPARPs is only 0.59% for the trained student and 0.89% for the untrained one. The translation of the PAPARP structures, on the other hand, proved to be more challenging for both the trained participant (2.41%) and the untrained one (1.46%). This result is surprising: not only does the translation of the PAPARP structure require more thought, the trained student also dedicated more of his time to finding translations that were acceptable to him. The reason for the trained student's extraordinarily high figure of pauses with the PAPARPs, as much as four times the total pause with the NPAPARPs, is long pauses in the second paragraph, with the longest one lasting over 15 s. With the untrained participant the PAPARP pauses were only one and a half times longer and it must be noted that the pauses of the ninth paragraph, which contained an

24 24 NPAPARP structure, could not be added to the total because the student simply copied the similar seventh paragraph without an NPAPARP Deletions Both the trained and untrained participant produced different types of deletions. Those were assumed to be: corrections of typing errors, corrections of translation errors and improvements to the Dutch sentences. The corrections of translation errors took place when the participants noticed that a part of the source text was not translated, wrongly translated or that the translation contained information which was not present in the original. The improvements to the Dutch sentences were introduced by the participants because they believed there were problems with the idiomaticity or because of personal preferences. The majority of the trained student's backspace strokes, viz %, as can be seen in the table on the next page, were corrections of typing errors. With the untrained participant, on the other hand, the corrections of typing errors only constitute 20.75% of all deletions. The share of deletions which were the consequence of translation errors is similar with both participants: 11.06% with the trained participant and 10.37% with the untrained participant. A major part of the deletions were apparently necessary for improvements to the Dutch text. The trained participant spent up to 43.78% of his deletions on improvements to his translation. In comparison, the untrained participants insecurity about the Dutch sentences was much larger and the improvements constitute 59.57%, the largest part, of her deletions. Some of the deletions could not be traced to a particular part of the paragraph because the participant used the mouse to change the position of the cursor and there is no indication in the Excel file as to where the participant now starts pressing the backspace key or why. This was the case with both the trained and untrained participant, although the untrained one performed this action more often: 7.17% compared to 0.92%. The untrained participant also had two types of deletions which were not found with the trained participant: when she could not immediately come up with the right translation she would type an ellipsis, slash marks or multiple (partial) translations, which would then all need to be deleted for the final version. 2.14% of her deletions could be considered as part of these "others".

25 25 Trained PAPARP Trained NPAPARP Untrained PAPARP Untrained NPAPARP Total trained Total trained in percentage 3 Total untrained Total untrained in percentage Total PAPARP Total PAPARP in percentage Total NPAPARP Total NPAPARP in percentage Of which corrections of typing errors % % % % Of which corrections of translation errors % % % % Of which improvements 4 to the Dutch sentences % % % % Of which untraceable % % % % Others % % % % Total % % % % Table 2: The deletions performed during the translation process are presented. 3 Rounded off to two decimal places 4 According to the participant

26 26 It was not always possible to make a clear decision on whether the participant was correcting a typing error, a translation error or came up with another translation. In those ambiguous cases the presence of a pause, lasting longer than 0.2 s, and the proximity of the possible typing error to the assumed right letter on the keyboard were consulted to make a choice. If, for example, the participant deletes a letter of which the key is not close to the assumed correct key, the deletion of a typing error is unlikely. If there seems to be no possible translation of the original beginning with the letter in question, improvement of the Dutch sentence is also improbable and the only explanation left is that of the correction of a translation error. When comparing the paragraphs with and without NPAPARP structures, it becomes clear that the presence of the structure does not necessarily mean that there will be more deletions. Both students required more deletions during the translation of paragraphs without NPAPARPs than during those with NPAPARPs. Nonetheless, a difference can be noticed between the master student and the first-year student: the advanced student made one and a half times more deletions in the PAPARP paragraphs than in the ones containing NAPARPS, whereas the difference between the amounts of deletions with the novice is only 11 deletions. An explanation for the trained student's relatively lower amount of deletions in the paragraphs with NPAPARPs could be his higher level of experience and knowledge. Because the participants got the same English paragraphs, but different versions, viz. with or without the structure, one would expect it be possible to compare the number of deletions for every paragraph, depending on the version. However, the untrained participant required far more deletions than the trained one in every paragraph, possibly due to fewer experience and consequently lower self-assurance, making a comparison of deletions between the versions impossible. It is, however possible to take a closer look at the paragraphs with NPAPARPs and see whether the structures cause a large part of the deletions discovered in the paragraphs. The trained student had three paragraphs containing NPAPARPs: the first, the third and the fifth. In the first paragraph, the backspace key was not pressed during the translation of the NPAPARP structure. However, as was already mentioned above, the participant did at first type two possible translations for the agent and later used yet another translation. The reason why no backspaces

27 27 could be detected is probably because the student selected the first two translations and then typed his final translation, replacing the previous ones. The structure in the third paragraph which the master student had to translate did show a series of backspace strokes, where the master student pressed the backspace key seventeen times to change the verb in his translation. Finally, in the fifth paragraph no deletions could be found in the area of interest. The first-year student had NPAPARP structures in the second, fourth, sixth, eighth and ninth paragraph. In the second one, she required no deletions when translating the structure. In the fourth paragraph, she corrected a typing error during her translation of the verb. The reason why this might be interesting to mention, is the fact that the typing error, viz. pressing the same key twice, together with the 2.32 s intra-word pause may be a sign that her mind was dwelling on something else. She may have already thought that this translation would not suffice, because series of backspaces followed, deleting the verb "sprak tegen" (contradicted) and creating space for the copula "was" (was). In the sixth paragraph, there were also a series of deletions in the area of interest, but these are probably largely due to the first-year student translating the wrong sentence and correcting her mistake. She also pressed the backspace key twice to correct a typing error in the translation of the agent, which may also be the consequence of her already pondering over the translation of the verb, because she paused 0.25 s before making the typing error and 0.40s before pressing backspace. In the eighth paragraph, there were initially no deletions in the area of interest. However, as was already mentioned above, the student later decided she would not leave the agent "success" untranslated as she had initially done, leading to 21 deletions to rewrite the sentence. Remarkable is that when the test subject made a typing error during het translation of "success", she again paused 0.4 s before pressing backspace, similar to the discussed typing error in paragraph six, and 0.25 s after. This behaviour of pausing before pressing backspace could be found with most corrections of typing errors, indicating that detecting an error and finding the backspace key on an unfamiliar keyboard takes time in itself and does not necessarily mean that there are problem-solving cognitive processes going on. However, even if the 0.4 s-pause before the backspace in the sixth paragraph may not have been caused by cognitive activity, the pause before the typing error could still support the assumption. The last two sentences of the ninth paragraph, of which one contained an NPAPARP structure were not translated.

28 28 Other behaviour that was detected with the first-year student was what would appear to be pointless deleting: she often typed a word or a letter to then delete it and type it again. This may seem useless in retrospection of the process, but there is most likely a cognitive process going on at that moment. The pauses at these moments would also support this assumption. In this study, it was assumed that these deletions were the consequence of a vague idea of a better formulation in the mind of the participant, which later did not come through, causing the participant to retype what she had originally written. 3.2 Quality of the translation Göpferich (2008) mentions that in 2002 Hansen, and later also Alves (2006), discovered that there is no correlation between the position, number or length of pauses and the quality of the translation. It will thus be necessary to scrutinise the quality of the translations which were produced separately. In addition to the translations which were the result of the previously discussed translation processes, the translation of the second master student, whose process could not be saved, will also be examined. When assessing the quality of these translations, attention will be paid to the translation of the NPAPARPs in specific and in general to accuracy, viz. similar denotation and connotation, grammar and idiomaticity. It should be mentioned that the following judgments are the findings of the researcher and other readers may not agree with them. At first glance, it could already be said that the translations of the master students are better than that of the first-year student: the untrained student left some parts out and some English words were simply copied from the source text. There are however other elements which support the idea that the master students are, as would be expected, better translators. The following is a discussion of the problems in the final translations of each participant Translation of the NPAPARP structure The first master student's translation of the NPAPARP in the first paragraph, "such a nature rendered the neighbourhood unsafe", does not stand out while reading the Dutch translation of paragraph 1. The master student still used a non-prototypical agent in his translation "betekende zo n aard een gevaar voor de omgeving" (such a nature meant a threat to the neighbourhood), but

29 29 because the verb is not active and could even be seen as a copula, it does not feel unnatural. A minor hiccup may be the translation of the NPAPARP structure in the third paragraph. The master student used a non-prototypical agent in Dutch, but this is not the reason why one could find the sentence a bit odd. The reader may slow down because of bad word choice: the verb "genezen" (to heal) constitutes a collocation with "wonde" (wound), but not with "symptoom" (symptom). A symptom does not heal, but it rather disappears, which means the choice for the verb "verdwijnen" (to disappear) would have been better. Moreover, because the verb "verdwijnen" does not express an action, but rather says something about the subject no longer being present, there is no need for the agent to have a will of its own. On the other hand, the verb "genezen", which was used by the trained participant, does not seem to require a prototypical agetn either, since it often appears with the noun "wonde" as its subject. In the fifth paragraph, the sentence with the NPAPARP, "Such a standard saved a lot of money.", was translated almost word for word: "Zo n standaard bespaarde veel geld.", which feels truly wrong in Dutch. It could be significantly improved by using a passive voice and starting with a preposition. The untrained student had a total of five sentences with NPAPARPs, but she only translated four of them, leaving the ninth paragraph unfinished. The first NPAPARP in the second paragraph, viz. " Their advice raised a difficult matter" was translated as an NPAPARP structure in Dutch: "Hun voorstel bracht mij aan het twijfelen" (their proposal made me doubt). A better translation may have been one where the "mij" (me) takes the subject role, but the present translation is not completely unacceptable either. For the translation of the second NPAPARP in the fourth paragraph, viz. "His theory contradicted what I suspected", a copula was used in the Dutch translation: " De theorie die hij in gedachten had, was helemaal anders dan de mijne" (the theory which he had in mind was completely different from mine). The verb "to contradict" is nowhere to be found in the translation, but the message is still the same and is transferred by a idiomatic Dutch sentence. With the third NPAPARP in the sixth paragraph the first-year student again used an NPAPARP structure in Dutch when she translated "but his address changed nothing" as "maar zijn speech veranderde niets aan de situatie" (but his speech did not change the situation). Here it is again hard to label the translation as unacceptable because the verb "veranderen" (to change) is not used in its active meaning of actually changing the form or content of something, but rather in the meaning of having an effect on something, a quality which can be found in both living beings

30 30 and objects. Finally, the fourth and last translated NPAPARP in the eighth paragraph was again translated with a copula in Dutch: "As a result, this success raised expectations for the new performance" became "Het gevolg van dit succes was dat de verwachtingen voor zijn volgende stuk alleen maar groter werden" (The consequence of this success was that the expectations for the next piece only got bigger). As in the other Dutch translation where a copula was used, here too the sentence carries the same message and is idiomatic. The second master student also had five sentences containing NPAPARP structures, the same as the first master student and the last two NPAPARP sentences of the first-year student. The first NPAPARP structure, viz. "Of course, such a nature rendered the neighbourhood unsafe", which could already be found in the first paragraph was translated as " Natuurlijk, zijn gedrag maakte de buurt onveilig" (Naturally, his behaviour rendered the neighbourhood unsafe). The word sequence in the Dutch sentence immediately draws attention because one would expect inversion after "Natuurlijk", which is not the case here. However, the problem with word sequence is probably not due to the NPAPARP structure, but to the adverb "of course". Similar to the verb "veranderen" in the sixth paragraph of the untrained participant, the verb "maken" is not used in its meaning of actually producing something, but rather as having an effect on the safety of the neighbourhood, making it possible to use a non-human subject. In addition, the second trained student chose to translate "such a nature" as "zijn gedrag" (his behaviour), adding a more personal and human touch to the subject. Admittedly, behaviour is not the same as nature, but one could say that it does come down to the same thing, since someone's nature is exposed by his/her behaviour. The second NPAPARP structure in the third paragraph was well translated, because the second trained student here used the verb "verdwijnen" (to disappear), as was advised with the first trained student above. The potential problem with the third NPAPARP in the fifth paragraph was also very well taken care of when the student translated "Such a standard saved a lot of money." as "Met zo n levensstijl werd er veel geld gespaard." (With such a lifestyle, much money was saved). The student added a preposition and used a passive, which is advisable when the human agent is unknown. The same strategy was used with the NPAPARP in the ninth paragraph where "Bijgevolg moest er voor de missie een nieuwe strategie worden ontwikkeld." (consequently, a new strategy had to be developed for the mission) is the translation of "So, the mission developed a new strategy.". In the previous paragraph, the eighth paragraph where there

31 31 was also a sentence with an NPAPARP incorporated, the second master student translated "As a result, this success raised expectations for the new performance" as "Het gevolg was dat het succes hoge verwachtingen creëerde voor het nieuwe toneelstuk" (the consequence was that the success created high expectations for the new play). The Dutch translation also contains a nonprototypical agent, but here again it may be deemed acceptable by some. In conclusion, few NPAPARPs, viz. two out of thirteen, were actually badly translated or not translated at all. Five out of thirteen could be seen as acceptable and six out of thirteen as well translated, which means the large majority posed no insuperable translation problem for the students. Concerning the effect of context it can be concluded that context has a positive effect on the translation of NPAPARPs. The context probably helped the students to better understand the structures, as Van Gouthem (2012) had already discovered, which led to fewer NPAPARPs in Dutch. The untrained participant translated 40% of the NPAPARPs as NPAPARPs, compared to 83.3% in Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011), and left one out of five structures (20%) untranslated, compared to 3.9%. The master students translated 50% of the NPAPARPs as NPAPARPs, compared to 72.7% in Vandepitte and Hartsuiker (2011) and translated all structures, in contrast to the 4% untranslated structures in the isolated sentences Change of content The trained student's translation contained one small change in meaning and two rather incomprehensible translations. The change in meaning can be found in the translation of "consistent" as "rechtlijnig" in the fifth paragraph. In the English sentence, it is meant that the father applied the same rules for everyone, which is positive, whereas the Dutch "rechtlijnig" has the connotation of lacking nuance, which is a negative quality. The two incomprehensible translations can be found in the same paragraph, one of them being the sentence containing an NPAPARP structure. The other problematic sentence was where translator stayed to close to the source text when he translated "This yielded a climate of order in the house " as "Dit veroorzaakte een gestructureerd klimaat in het huishouden ". "Klimaat" is especially used in

32 32 Dutch when talking about the environment, but also to talk about a general situation. In this sentence, where it concerns the household, however, it seems to be out of place. The untrained participant made quite a lot of changes to the content, at least one every paragraph. In the first paragraph she translated "neighbourhood" as "dorp" (village), which is clearly not the same, because a neighbourhood is not necessarily located in a village, it could also be in a city. In the second paragraph she translated "It had also attracted my attention" as "Ook ik was erdoor aangesproken". The problem with this translation is that it lacks the verb "voelen" (to feel), which makes it possible to read it as either "It also appealed to me" or as "I too was addressed". In the same paragraph another case of ambiguity, this time in the source text caused, the first-year student to interpret "they told me to take two more semesters of classes with Gan Lulu from Beijing" as "ze zeiden dat ik nog twee semesters les moest volgen met Gan Lulu uit Peking" (they said that I had to take two more semesters of classes together with Gan Lulu from Beijing). Admittedly, it is not clear from the source text whether Gan Lulu is a student or a teacher. The third paragraph contains a vocabulary problem and an example of poor word choice. The untrained participant translated "wristwatch" as "enkelhorloge" (?anklewatch), which is a nonexisting word in Dutch. She then chose to translate "He soon returned to his daily routine" as "Maar al vlug begon hij weer te werken", which some may find a rather strange because they may not see the routine of a thief a working. The problems in the fourth paragraph were also related to vocabulary. She translated "a middle-aged naturalist" as "een middeleeuwse naturalist" (a medieval naturalist) and "He soon turned out to be a freethinker " as "Al snel bleek dat hij een open geest had" (he soon turned out to have a open mind). The fifth paragraph also shows a problem with vocabulary, although the translation does not deviate that much from the original meaning: "consistent" was translated as "trouw" (loyal) and "a climate of order" as "hiërarchie" (hierarchy). The first-year student also had trouble with vocabulary in the seventh paragraph: "conference" was translated as the more general "vergadering" (meeting), a "representative" was wrongly translated as a "verantwoordelijke" (person in charge) and "longterm partnerships" was poorly translated as a "lange-termijn partnership". The student also stayed too close to the English source text in the eighth paragraph when she translated "drama awards" as "drama awards" and "drama critics" as "toneel critics". The sixth paragraph does not suffer from bad translations, but from missing parts: "was supposed to testify" and "the pupils who had taken the

33 33 time to attend" was restricted to "de studenten die aanwezig waren" (the pupils who were present). The last sentence of seventh paragraph in the translation is missing a "nu" (now) and the last two sentences of the ninth paragraph were also left untranslated. Finally, in the last paragraph, the translation the untrained student wrote for "As a result, this actor raised expectations for the new performance", viz. "Als gevolg hiervan waren de verwachtingen van de acteur voor het volgende stuk groter", can be interpreted in two ways: as a consequence of this more was expected of the actor, or as a consequence of this the actor's expectations were bigger. The second trained student translated more freely than the other participants, which caused shifts in content due to interpretation. In the first paragraph, the participant translated "because he was a wild character" as "omdat hij een onbezonnen karakter had" (because he had an impulsive character). The link between "wild" and "impulsive" is quite obvious, but whether they have exactly the same meaning is disputable. The same problem can be found in paragraph two, where "settle down" was translated as "m n leven beginnen" (to start living), and in paragraph four, where "he observed plant and animal life very carefully " was translated as "besteedde hij veel aandacht aan fauna en flora" (he paid a lot of attention to fauna and flora) Grammatical errors There were few grammatical errors in the first trained student's translation. He used a wrong pronoun when he chose for "haar" (her) in the first sentence of the second paragraph to refer to a neutral noun. On the website of Genootschap Onze Taal it can be read that this wrong use of female pronouns is common in Dutch and that Nicoline van der Sijs assumes that it has its origin in an old way of referring to words expressing a collective, which is definitely the case in this translation. The only error in the sixth paragraph, which stands out, is the unconjugated adjective in the second sentence. Perhaps the master student forgot to type the "e" after "slecht", because it seems unlikely that he would not know that all Dutch nouns which are male or female always get a conjugated adjective. The untrained student made more grammatical errors, some of which were quite severe. One of the severe errors was the regular conjugation of the irregular verb "prijzen" (to praise) in the second paragraph, which leads to a change in meaning: the regular form of the verb "prijzen"

34 34 means "to price". The first-year student also forgot to conjugate her adjectives in the same paragraph when she wrote" hun eerlijk en gedurfd acteren". Another error which could be said to be quite grave because it could lead to problems with understanding can be found in the fifth paragraph. The student uses a colon instead of a period at the end of the first sentence, causing the reader to believe that an explanation will follow, which is not the case since a complete new sentence seems to follow. The same paragraph also contains another punctuation problem, viz. a comma is placed at the end of the second sentence instead of a period. It is very likely that this is a simple typing error, but it should have been taken care of after the final revision. The second master student made very few grammatical errors. He typed a capital letter after a colon, which is not done in Dutch except with quotes and enumerations of sentences, as is mentioned on the "Taaladvies" page of the website of Genootschap Onze Taal. Furthermore, the participant forgot an article in the third sentence of paragraph 7 and blindly copied it to the ninth paragraph Problems with collocations The first master student experienced difficulties with collocations in four out of six paragraphs. There is a small problem with idiomaticity in the last sentence of the first paragraph. The Dutch verb which was used with the noun "klachten" (complaints) is an example of contamination: "aantekenen"(lodge) is common with "beroep" (appeal), but the collocation with "klacht"(complaint) is "indienen" (to file). The translation of the last sentence in the second paragraph, with a prototypical agent, posed another problem. The translation of "this actress raised a difficult matter" is not idiomatic, because the collocation with "vraag" (question) is not "ter sprake brengen" (to raise) but "stellen" (pose). The fifth paragraph, is not without collocation-related problems either: in the first sentence he wanted to use an idiom, but forgot a part of the expression, causing "zijn brood verdienen" (to make a living) to change into "brood verdienen", which is unidiomatic. The first-year student did not have any trouble with collocations. One combination, viz. " had vele successen gekend" seemed a little strange at first, but "successen gekend" had over

35 35 hits on Google, so it is impossible to claim that this is not used. The second master student did not have any difficulties with collocations either. Many of all previously discussed problems could probably have been solved with a double check on the internet or in a dictionary; leaving the translation to "rest" for a while can also help the translator to discover his/her own errors. However, it could also be argued that a good translator should be able to translate a non-technical text without tools. 3.3 Quality and time Besides quality, it will also be important for the translators to be able to deliver a translation as fast as possible. Because the first trained student only had to translate six paragraphs, it will not be possible to include his material in the comparison of the quality of the translations and the time spent on them. This means the only comparable participants are the first-year student and the second master student: they both had ten paragraphs, of which five contained NPAPARP structures, and made full use of the disposable hour to translate them. Although the two students each required the same amount of time to translate the paragraphs, there is an obvious difference in the quality of both translations, as would be expected after at least three years of training: the trained participant made fewer grammatical errors, had fewer and less grave shifts of content and found an acceptable or even very good translation for all sentences with NPAPARP structures. 4. CONCLUSIONS Both the trained and untrained student paused longer when translating PAPARPs than when translating NPAPARPs. However, this does not mean that the NPAPARP poses no problem: the pause location does not say anything about what the translator is thinking about. Pauses could represent planning, i.e. looking forward, but it should also not be excluded that the participant was revising. Göpferich (2008) also recognises this problem: pauses only offer indirect evidence of underlying cognitive activity. As to the nature of the cognitive activity, there is no way of assuring whether the participant is looking for a solution to a problem he/she encountered, thinking of an errand that still needs to be run or is simply daydreaming. By using experimental texts, it was at least assured that the participants would not have to waste time throughout their

36 36 translation process thinking about the target audience. To conclude, the pauses in the paragraphs containing PAPARPs, may have been spent on thinking of the previous or following NPAPARP, but keystroke logging on its own, regardless of its merits, will never be able to answer the question: "What is the translator thinking about?". The answer to this question may even never be found, but this does not stop researchers from continuing with their work. Göpferich (2008) mentions that keystroke logging has already been combined with retrospection and/or eyetracking and that this triangulation is very promising. For future research into NPAPARPs the use of eye-tracking equipment in addition to keystroke logging could be very useful, indeed. This would solve the disadvantage of keystroke logging, which was also revealed during the analysis of the results regarding pauses and deletions: the lack of information as to where the translator is looking. Future researchers would then probably have to work with the Tobii 1750 remote eye-tracker, since the EyeLink 1000, a tower-mounted system, is not very compatible with typing on a keyboard. However, a significant weakness of the Tobii 1750 for this kind of research is the real chance of data getting lost or being of poor quality due to the lack of a head and chin rest. The EyeLink 1000 has both supports and thus delivers more accurate data, which would be necessary to see where exactly, for example in the sentence, the participant is looking. The use of video recording could also be a useful addition, because it would allow the researcher to see what test subject is doing when he/she is not translating and not looking at the screen, so when there is no input from the eye-tracking equipment. During the present experiment, for example, the participants had to stop translating to blow their nose, creating a pause which does not necessarily represent cognitive activity and cannot be explained through keystroke logging or eye-tracking. As was already mentioned, eye-tracking could help with the analysis of the deletions, because almost one percent of the deletions with the trained participant and more than seven percent with the untrained participant were untraceable with the exported Excel file from Morae. However, the replay function of Morae would also be useful to solve this minor problem. The majority of the deletions took place in paragraphs with PAPARPs, which was quite unexpected. In addition, the trained student's lower amount of deletions in the paragraphs with NPAPARPs was relatively smaller than that of the untrained student, giving the impression that his higher level of

37 37 experience and knowledge caused the NPAPARP structure to pose less of a problem. The largest shares of deletions for both students were corrections of typing errors and improvements to the Dutch sentences. This means the main concern of the students was creating a fluent correct Dutch text. Despite all their efforts, however, the texts still contained errors and unidiomatic parts, as was clear from the quality assessment. The quality assesment has exposed a wide range of problems, from spellingerrors, over grammatical errors, to semantic problems. According to Krings (1986) this supports the idea that target language competence on all levels is required for a good translation, and it could consequently be said that the language competence, in this case of Dutch, should be the main priority in the training of translators. The quality assessment also showed that the NPAPARP is not equally easy to translate for all students, but also that experience does not guarantee a better solution: both the trained and untrained participants used NPAPARPs in Dutch. However, Chesterman (2000) also clearly states that prior to the product norms, which describe what is correct and what is not, comes the communication norm, which is fulfilled when the reader recognises the intention of the writer. One could, correspondingly, claim that as long as the Dutch-speaking reader understands the sentence with the NPAPARP structure in the translation, there is no problem. Moreover, Dutch is becoming more and more anglicised because of the permanent presence of English in the media. It could even be advisable to perform a new study on the acceptability of the NPAPARP translations which were created during this experiment, because they may have become more acceptable due to a possible increase in exposure to the English language since the study of Delsoir in This increase may have been caused by the developments in technology over the last three years, viz. the rise of smartphones and tablets which allow the owners to watch their favourite American or British films and series, and listen to their favourite English songs everywhere at any time, which is not possible on the Dutchspoken television and radio stations. However, it should definitely be noted that some very good translations were found for the NPAPARPs by both the trained and untrained participants. Unfortunately, only one retrospective interview was performed to discuss whether the participants recognised the potential problem and consciously applied a particular strategy to solve it. The reason for this shortcoming in the study

38 38 is a combination of a misinterpretation of the literature, which showed that vocal data can be unreliable, and the initial assumption that one could not possibly ask for more than hard evidence, viz. the logging data. Despite the fact that there was only one conversation with the second trained student and that the interview was a last minute decision to try and retrieve as much information about the translation process after Morae failed to save the data, an interesting discovery was made. The participant remarked that there were many "personalisations", as he called the NPAPARP structures, in the text and that this reminded him of his other foreign language, French, where this phenomenon is also quite common. He said he remembered that these "personalisations" are unacceptable in Dutch from the French translation courses and that the advice which was given in those courses was to use prepositions and passive voice, among others, to solve this problem. This information could inspire a new investigation into the effect of a student's language combination on his/her translation of NPAPARPs. This investigation could show whether, for example, all translation students who follow French courses and are taught these strategies are better equipped to handle NPAPARP structures, which would mean that these strategies should be adopted in the English translation courses as well.

39 39 BIBLIOGRAPHY Chesterman, A. (1996). Teaching translation theory: the significance of memes. In C. Dollerup, & V. Appel (Eds.), Teaching translation and interpreting 3 : new horizons (pp ). Amsterdam: Benjamins. Chesterman, A. (2000). Memes of translation : the spread of ideas in translation theory. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Delsoir, J. (2011). The acceptability of non-prototypical agents. Hogeschool Gent, Belgium: Master's thesis. Dollerup, C. (1996). The emergence of the teaching of translation. In C. Dollerup, & V. Appel (Eds.), Teaching translation and interpreting 3 : new horizons (pp ). Amsterdam: Benjamins. Englund Dimitrova, B. (2010). Translation process. In Y. Gambier, & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of Translation Studies 1 (pp ). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Genootschap Onze Taal. (s.d.). Retrieved May 5, 2014, from Göpferich, S. (2008). Translationsprozessforschung : Stand-Methoden-Perspektiven. Tübingen: Narr. Halverson, S. (2008). Psycholinguistics and cognitive approaches. In M. Baker, & G. Saldanha (Eds.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London: Routledge. Jakobsen, A. L. (2006). Research Methods in Tranlsation - Translog. In K. P. Sullivan, & E. Lindgren (Eds.), Computer Keystroke Logging and Writing: Methods and Applications (pp ). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Jakobsen, A. L. (2011). Tracking translators keystrokes and eye movements with Translog. In C. Alvstad, A. Hild, & E. Tiselius (Eds.), Methods and strategies of process research. Integrative approaches in Translation Studies (pp ). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Krings, H. P. (1986). Was in den Köpfen von Übersetzern vorgeht. Tübingen: Narr. Nord, C. (2005). Text analysis in translation : theory, methodology, and didactic application of a model for translation-oriented text analysis. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

40 40 Schäffner, C. (2004). Sprach- und Textnormen als Übersetzungsproblem aus sprachwissenschaftlicher Sicht. In H. Kittel, A. P. Frank, & J. House, Übersetzung : ein internationales Handbuch zur Übersetzungsforschung (pp ). Berlin: de Gruyter. Spelman Miller, K. (2006). The Pausological Study of Written Language Production. In K. P. Sullivan, & E. Lindgren (Eds.), Computer Keystroke Logging and Writing: Methods and Applications (pp ). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Spelman Miller, K., & Sullivan, K. P. (2006). Keystroke Logging: An Introduction. In K. P. Sullivan, & E. Lindgren (Eds.), Computer Keystroke Logging and Writing: Methods and Applications (pp. 1-9). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Thome, G. (2004). Typologie der Übersetzungschwierigkeiten aus sprachwissenschaftlicher Sicht. In H. Kittel, A. P. Frank, & J. House, Übersetzung : ein internationales Handbuch zur Übersetzungsforschung (pp ). Berlin: de Gruyter. Van Goethem, N. (2012). Tracking eye movement of translation students during a reading experiment: a window into the translator's brain. Hogeschool Gent, Belgium: Master's thesis. Vandepitte, S., & Hartsuiker, R. J. (2011). Metonymic language use as a student translation problem: Towards a controller psycholinguistic investigation. In C. Alvstad, A. Hild, & E. Tiselius (Eds.), Methods and Strategies of Process Reseach. Investigative approaches in Translation Studies (pp ). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Vandepitte, S., Hartsuiker, R. J., & Van Assche, E. (2013, ms). Process and text studies of a translation problem. University Ghent, Belgium: Unpublished manuscript. Wengelin, A. (2006). Examining Pauses in Writing: Theory, Methods and Empirical Data. In K. P. Sullivan, & E. Lindgren (Eds.), Computer Keystroke Logging and Writing: Methods and Applications (pp ). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

41 41 APPENDIX A. DISCUSSION OF TRANSLATION PROCESS PER PARAGRAPH Trained Paragraph 1 In the first paragraph a sentence with an NPAPARP structure was inserted. During the translation of the verb "rendered" the only significant pause was a relative short one of 0.28 s. The translation of the agent "such a nature", which followed the verb in Dutch, received more attention. The participant wrote two translations for the agent and paused in both cases before the translation. During and after the first translation of the agent pauses of respectively 3.69 s and 0.67 s can be noticed. The participant may have been thinking of a possible synonym due to dissatisfaction with the current translation, which eventually led to two translations. At the end of his translation process, when he was revising, the participant must still not have been content with his word choice, because he eventually used neither of the two agents he came up with in the beginning, viz. "natuur/karakter" and opted for a third synonym: "aard". Paragraph 2 In the second paragraph a sentence with a PAPARP structure was embedded. During the translation of the agent "This actress" a pause of 0.6 s occurred. Before translating the verb "raised", the participant paused 2.9 s and then wrote the first letter of his translation, viz. a "b". He then paused for s and chose to use another verb in Dutch instead. No hesitation can be seen before, during or after this translation of the verb. However, two words later he realised he was not content with the current translation either, causing a pause of 1.3 s. The cognitive process took 5.42 s before and 0.22 s during the third translation of the verb, which begins with the same letter of the first translation attempt. He may have originally wanted to translate the verb in this manner, but a retrospective interview would be needed to confirm that suspicion. Paragraph 3 In the third paragraph a sentence with an NPAPARP structure was again integrated. At first the participant did not pause when translating the verb and only 0.24 s during the translation of the agent. However, then he paused in the middle of his Dutch translation of the agent for 2.76 s, probably because he was reconsidering his translation. A series of backspace strokes followed,

42 42 and then a pause of 0.38 s during a new translation of the verb and 0.66 s during that of the agent. The participant then waited 0.51 s before turning the verb into a reflexive one by adding "zichzelf". In his final revision he recognized that the current reflexive pronoun suggested that the symptom performed an action of healing, which he knew was impossible and thus he changed it to "vanzelf". When added up the total amount of cognitive time, i.e. pauses, spent during the creation of the alternative translation was 1.55 s, but it may very well be possible that the participant had already come up with a part of the alternative during the 2.76 s after the first attempt or during the deletion of that first version. Paragraph 4 In the fourth paragraph a sentence with a PAPARP structure was again incorporated. In this paragraph the participant did not seem to have experienced any serious problems during the translation. He did pause 0.22 s during the agent and 0.58 s before the verb, but these pauses can be considered relatively short. Paragraph 5 In the fifth paragraph a sentence with an NPAPARP structure was incorporated for the last time. There were short pauses when the participant was translating the NPAPARP structure, 0.24 s during the agent and 0.42 s during the verb. The participant clearly did not have to put more thought into this translation than he did with the previous paragraph containing a PAPARP structure. Paragraph 6 In the sixth paragraph a sentence with a PAPARP structure was inserted for the last time. The participant paused 1.44 s before the agent, but this could be because the participant was rapidly reading the subordinate clause in the source text. During the translation of the agent he paused a total of 1.04 s, which is surprising, considering that the words in both languages are cognates. He then waited 0.57 s before the verb and 0.27 s towards the end of the translation of the verb.

43 43 Untrained Paragraph 1 In the first paragraph, a sentence with a PAPARP structure was embedded. During the translation of the agent "such a soldier" the participant paused a total of 4.26 s. This relatively long accumulation of pauses may be partially explained by the number of typing errors. The participant had to correct herself two times when writing the noun "soldaat" (soldier), which means she would have needed some time to spot the typing error and then correct it. However, over two seconds of the pause occur towards the end of the agent: 0.67 s before "zoals" (like), 0.57 s before "hij"(him) and 1.03 s during "hij". A possible explanation may be that she was already thinking of how to translate the verb, which apparently was not that easy to translate, since she paused 6.72 s before and 0.24 s during the translation of the verb "rendered". Paragraph 2 In the second paragraph, a sentence with an NPAPARP structure was incorporated. During the translation of the agent "Their advice" the participant paused 1 s. This is a relatively long pause considering that the nouns are cognates in both languages. Therefore it can be speculated that the cognitive effort may have been spent on the translation of the verb. Before translating the verb "raised", the participant paused 0.73 s and then 0.47s during the verb in Dutch. When she eventually revised her translation at the end she deleted her translation "advies" (advice) and paused for 5.15 s before choosing for the Dutch "voorstel" (suggestion). Why she felt the need to change her translation could only be answered with certainty by a retrospective interview. However, it may have something to do with the NPAPARP structure catching her eye and demanding some extra attention. Paragraph 3 In the third paragraph, a sentence with a PAPARP structure was integrated once more. The participant paused 0.33 s before and 0.7 s during the translation of the agent "the thief". Considering that the words are cognates in both languages, it is again surprising that the participant needed a total of 1s for the translation. It is not unlikely that a part of this time was spent on thinking of a possible translation for the rest of the sentence, since she seemed to have some difficulties translating the verb. She paused 0.5 s before translating the verbal phrase "took

44 44 care of himself" as "zorgde". However, after hitting the spacebar she paused for s to delete her verb and think of an alternative. Before her new translation of the verb she waited for 1.14 s and 0.98 s during the translation as "draagde". The participant then made a typing error in the word "zorg" (care). A total pause of 9.9 s followed, in which the participant discovered the error, decided to delete and rewrite the word and eventually deleted a part of the verb as well. She realised that the verb "dragen" needs an irregular conjugation and thus changed the verb to "droeg". When added up the total amount of cognitive time, i.e. pauses, spent during the creation of the alternative translation of the verb was s. This amount of time, half a minute, is very long for the translation of a simple PAPARP structure. Paragraph 4 In the fourth paragraph, a sentence with an NPAPARP structure was again embedded. In this paragraph the participant again paused for longer than a second (1.16 s) during the translation of the cognate "theorie". The cognitive time spent during this translation must have been on what comes after this word, because the word is exactly the same in Dutch and can thus simply be copied. It is however impossible to say whether the extra time was spent on the subordinate clause she decided to add "die hij in gedachten had" (which was on his mind) as a translation for "his", or whether she was already pondering on the translation of the verb. In any case, she paused 2.32 s during and 0.39 s after her translation of the finite verb. She must, however, have sensed that her translation was unidiomatic in Dutch, because a 6.7 s pause and a series of deletions followed. The participant then paused 0.22 s before and 0.47 s after the new translation of the verb. Paragraph 5 In the fifth paragraph, a sentence with a PAPARP structure was incorporated. The untrained participant seemed to have had trouble with the subordinate clause "but he also starved his boys for parental companionship". She stopped her translation of the paragraph before this clause and continued with next paragraph. In the middle of her translation of paragraph 7, she returned to paragraph 5 and changed her translation for "consistent" from "consistent" to "trouw" (loyal). The participant clearly felt insecure about the translation of this word, perhaps because she knew that "consistent" does not mean exactly the same thing in both languages, but could not think of the

45 45 right translation. When she could not find the translation she chose to use another word, changing the content. In the end, when revising the entire document, she continued her translation of paragraph 5. The problematic clause which was previously mentioned was not translated, instead she inserted a full stop. After some consideration (5.16 s) she changed the full stop to a comma, indicating that she was still hoping to find a possible translation for the clause. This would, however, not happen. Immediately following the comma was the translation of the sentence containing the PAPARP structure. Although this was a short and easy sentence, the participant still paused for a total of 4.13 s during her first translation of the agent and 3.03s before her first translation of the verb. In the middle of the verb of the PAPARP structure she then paused for a total of 2.12 s and deleted the entire sentence. She started all over again, pausing only shortly during the agent (0.25 s), before the verb (0.48 s), during the verb (0.35 s) and after the verb (0.81 s). Paragraph 6 In the sixth paragraph, a sentence with an NPAPARP structure was inserted. As a translation for that sentence the participant started writing a sentence with a prototypical agent and another verb than in the source text: "maar hij kon de" (but he could) instead of "but his address changed nothing". She may have been looking at a part from the previous sentence in the source text "could not enthuse his young audience", which is directly above the NPAPARP structure. She eventually found a translation for the NPAPARP after deleting the false translation and pausing 8.71 s. Before her translation of the agent she paused 0.75 s and respectively 1.83 s and 1.47 s during the agent and verb. Paragraph 7 In the seventh paragraph a sentence with a PAPARP structure was incorporated once more. The participant paused 0.71 s before the agent and 5.94 s before the verb of the PAPARP structure. These are long pauses considering the shortness of the sentence in the source text. It is possible that decision-making lies at the basis of these pauses; She decided to translate the English agent "guest" as "hij" (he) and the verb "developed" as "koos" (chose). As to why she did not translate the agent as "gast" (guest) and the verb as "ontwikkelde" (developed), there is no definite answer possible. Perhaps she thought that using the word "gast" could confuse the reader, because earlier

46 46 she had referred to the man as " een verantwoordelijke" (person in charge), or she believed the subject would still be fresh in the memory of the reader, enabling the use of a pronoun as a reference. As to the changing of the verb, it seems most likely that the Dutch verb "ontwikkelen" did not come to mind. Paragraph 8 In the eighth paragraph, a sentence with an NPAPARP structure was integrated again. The participant seems to have had some difficulty translating this particular sentence. She initially left the non-prototypical agent "success" out and used the copula "werden" (became) with "groter" (bigger) as a translation for the verb "raised". The proof that this was conscious problem-solving is the 9.44s-pause before the verb "werden". During this long pause she may have considered that the "success" is already implicitly present, because of the content of the previous sentence and the "Als gevolg" (consequently) at the beginning of this sentence, making it unnecessary to spent any further thought on the translation of the agent "succes". When she eventually finished translating paragraph eighth, she discovered that the last two paragraphs were each very similar to either the seventh or the eighth paragraph. She subsequently copy-pasted the already translated paragraphs and then, after three minutes, returned to the eighth paragraph. The participant must have changed her mind about the implicit presence of "success", because she eventually deleted "als gevolg" (consequently) to replace it with "het gevolg van dit succes was dat" (the consequence of this success was that) and rearranged the rest of the sentence with the copula to function as a subordinate clause. She paused 0.4 s before the agent and 1.15 s during the agent, indicating that she was still thinking of something, perhaps wondering whether her new translation would be a true improvement. Paragraph 9 In the ninth paragraph, a sentence with an NPAPARP structure was embedded for the last time. As was already mentioned, the participant recognised that the ninth paragraph was very similar to the seventh one and decided to copy the latter. She then clicked the left mouse button three times with pauses of 7.38 s, s and 5.71 s before each click and subsequently pressed "del" three times. It cannot be deduced from the Excel table what exactly in the translation of paragraph 9 was selected and deleted, but when looking at the eventual translation it seems to be the last two

47 47 sentences of paragraph seven. She did not, however, go on to translate the last two sentences of the ninth paragraph, of which one contained an NPAPARP structure. The fact that she later on makes some adjustments to the translation of paragraph 9 makes it very unlikely that she accidentally missed those last two sentences, which supports the idea that the NPAPARP structure posed a translation problem for her, so much so even that she left the sentences untranslated. Paragraph 10 In the sixth paragraph a sentence with a PAPARP structure was inserted for the last time. The participant also copied her translation of the eighth paragraph to adapt it so it could be passed on as the translation of the tenth paragraph. At first she translated the PAPARP structure as a PAPARP in Dutch: "verhoogde de acteur" (the actor raised) with a 8.23 s pause before and a 0.73 s pause after the verb. Before the prototypical agent there was a short pause of 0.21s and then a total pause of 4.08 s However, she later changed this translation to "waren de verwachtingen van de acteur". The reason why she changed the translation was probably doubt about the collocation "verwachtingen verhogen", which does sound very English. The problem, however, with the new translation is the ambiguity of "verwachtingen van de acteur". In case of the first interpretation there must have been a misinterpretation of the source sentence by the translator: The actor, who was the agent in the source sentence, is no longer raising the expectations in this interpretation. Instead his expectations were the ones that had changed because of what was said in the previous sentence. The actor thus becomes part of the modifier of the "verwachtingen" (expectations), leaving the sentence without an agent. A second possible interpretation is that other people's expectations of the actor had risen, which comes closer to the original. However, this second interpretation is not the first one which comes to mind. A verbalisation of "verwachtingen", i.e. "werd meer verwacht van de acteur" (more was expected from the actor) would have made the second interpretation the only one.

48 48 APPENDIX B. ENGLISH SOURCE MATERIAL Trained participant one Margaret s brother joined the army because he was a wild character and couldn't settle down to a stable life. But, there, too, he escaped the barracks, stayed away for several days, went to roam the woods, set traps, stole food and cared about nothing. Of course, such a nature rendered the neighbourhood unsafe, and it didn t take long before a lot of complaints were filed against him. A new theatre group from China had gained much success in spring last year and its actors were widely praised for their honest and daring acting. It had also attracted my attention and they told me to take two more semesters of classes with Gan Lulu from Beijing. This actress raised a difficult matter: would I finance another study year or did I now want to finally settle down? I considered him a criminal because he had stolen my brother s wristwatch, although I couldn t prove it. Last January he called for my professional help as a doctor. He was suffering from a terrible back ache. I advised him to stay in bed for three days. And, indeed, the symptom took care of itself. He soon returned to his daily routine but after a week he phoned me again. On 30 May 1848, a middle-aged naturalist from Great Britain came with his children to my small village on the Brazilian coast. He soon turned out to be a freethinker : he did not believe in God as his creator. Instead, he observed plant and animal life very carefully. His daughter contradicted what I suspected: until then, I had strongly believed that God had created all living beings. His dad worked hard to make a good living for his family: he demanded much discipline and obedience, but was also fair and consistent. This yielded a climate of order in the house, but, at the same time, he also starved his boys for parental companionship. Such a standard saved a lot of money. But what was money if the children weren t taught how to make a good life? A doctor from King s College Hospital and a patient of his had been invited to the secondary school to talk about diet. The doctor was a lousy speaker, though, and could not enthuse his young audience. His patient was supposed to testify and tell his personal story, but his patient changed nothing: the pupils who had taken the time to attend went home, utterly disappointed. Untrained participant Margaret s brother joined the army because he was a wild character and couldn't settle down to a stable life. But, there, too, he escaped the barracks, stayed away for several days, went to roam

49 49 the woods, set traps, stole food and cared about nothing. Of course, such a soldier rendered the neighbourhood unsafe, and it didn t take long before a lot of complaints were filed against him. A new theatre group from China had gained much success in spring last year and its actors were widely praised for their honest and daring acting. It had also attracted my attention and they told me to take two more semesters of classes with Gan Lulu from Beijing. Their advice raised a difficult matter: would I finance another study year or did I now want to finally settle down? I considered him a criminal because he had stolen my brother s wristwatch, although I couldn t prove it. Last January he called for my professional help as a doctor. He was suffering from a terrible back ache. I advised him to stay in bed for three days. And, indeed, the thief took care of himself. He soon returned to his daily routine but after a week he phoned me again. On 30 May 1848, a middle-aged naturalist from Great Britain came with his children to my small village on the Brazilian coast. He soon turned out to be a freethinker : he did not believe in God as his creator. Instead, he observed plant and animal life very carefully. His theory contradicted what I suspected: until then, I had strongly believed that God had created all living beings. His dad worked hard to make a good living for his family: he demanded much discipline and obedience, but was also fair and consistent. This yielded a climate of order in the house, but, at the same time, he also starved his boys for parental companionship. Such a father saved a lot of money. But what was money if the children weren t taught how to make a good life? A doctor from King s College Hospital and a patient of his had been invited to the secondary school to talk about diet. The doctor was a lousy speaker, though, and could not enthuse his young audience. His patient was supposed to testify and tell his personal story, but his address changed nothing: the pupils who had taken the time to attend went home, utterly disappointed. The conference took place at a hotel in the city centre. One of the hotel residents was a representative from a Japanese company. He was sent abroad to attract, build and retain longterm partnerships with American customers. But the journey had not yet been very successful. So, the guest developed a new strategy. He now focused on the creation of a series of solutions for his customers. With his latest play Coming home, the shy young man suddenly won three regional drama awards in a row. Everyone agreed that he was superb, imaginative and funny, even though the play also covered serious issues that affect our everyday lives. As a result, this success raised

50 50 expectations for the new performance, and the drama critics no longer wrote about the end of his short career. The conference took place at a hotel in the city centre. One of the hotel residents was a representative from a Japanese company. He was sent abroad to attract, build and retain longterm partnerships with American customers. But the journey had not yet been very successful. So, the mission developed a new strategy. It now focused on the creation of a series of solutions for its customers. With his latest play Coming home, the shy young man suddenly won three regional drama awards in a row. Everyone agreed that he was superb, imaginative and funny, even though the play also covered serious issues that affect our everyday lives. As a result, this actor raised expectations for the new performance, and the drama critics no longer wrote about the end of his short career. Trained participant two Margaret s brother joined the army because he was a wild character and couldn't settle down to a stable life. But, there, too, he escaped the barracks, stayed away for several days, went to roam the woods, set traps, stole food and cared about nothing. Of course, such a nature rendered the neighbourhood unsafe, and it didn t take long before a lot of complaints were filed against him. A new theatre group from China had gained much success in spring last year and its actors were widely praised for their honest and daring acting. It had also attracted my attention and they told me to take two more semesters of classes with Gan Lulu from Beijing. This actress raised a difficult matter: would I finance another study year or did I now want to finally settle down? I considered him a criminal because he had stolen my brother s wristwatch, although I couldn t prove it. Last January he called for my professional help as a doctor. He was suffering from a terrible back ache. I advised him to stay in bed for three days. And, indeed, the symptom took care of itself. He soon returned to his daily routine but after a week he phoned me again. On 30 May 1848, a middle-aged naturalist from Great Britain came with his children to my small village on the Brazilian coast. He soon turned out to be a freethinker : he did not believe in God as his creator. Instead, he observed plant and animal life very carefully. His daughter contradicted what I suspected: until then, I had strongly believed that God had created all living beings.

51 51 His dad worked hard to make a good living for his family: he demanded much discipline and obedience, but was also fair and consistent. This yielded a climate of order in the house, but, at the same time, he also starved his boys for parental companionship. Such a standard saved a lot of money. But what was money if the children weren t taught how to make a good life? A doctor from King s College Hospital and a patient of his had been invited to the secondary school to talk about diet. The doctor was a lousy speaker, though, and could not enthuse his young audience. His patient was supposed to testify and tell his personal story, but his patient changed nothing: the pupils who had taken the time to attend went home, utterly disappointed. The conference took place at a hotel in the city centre. One of the hotel residents was a representative from a Japanese company. He was sent abroad to attract, build and retain longterm partnerships with American customers. But the journey had not yet been very successful. So, the guest developed a new strategy. He now focused on the creation of a series of solutions for his customers. With his latest play Coming home, the shy young man suddenly won three regional drama awards in a row. Everyone agreed that he was superb, imaginative and funny, even though the play also covered serious issues that affect our everyday lives. As a result, this success raised expectations for the new performance, and the drama critics no longer wrote about the end of his short career. The conference took place at a hotel in the city centre. One of the hotel residents was a representative from a Japanese company. He was sent abroad to attract, build and retain longterm partnerships with American customers. But the journey had not yet been very successful. So, the mission developed a new strategy. It now focused on the creation of a series of solutions for its customers. With his latest play Coming home, the shy young man suddenly won three regional drama awards in a row. Everyone agreed that he was superb, imaginative and funny, even though the play also covered serious issues that affect our everyday lives. As a result, this actor raised expectations for the new performance, and the drama critics no longer wrote about the end of his short career.

52 52 APPENDIX C. DUTCH TRANSLATIONS Trained participant one Margarets broer ging bij het leger omdat hij een wild karakter had en zich niet kon schikken in een stabiel leven. Maar ook daar ontsnapte hij uit de barakken, bleef hij enkele dagen weg, zwierf rond in de wouden, maakte vallen, stal eten en gaf nergens om. Natuurlijk betekende zo n aard een gevaar voor de omgeving en het duurde niet lang voor er veel klachten werden aangetekend tegen hem. Een nieuw theatergezelschap uit China had in de lente van vorig jaar veel succes verworven en haar acteurs werden alom geprezen om hun eerlijke en gedurfde acteren. Het had ook mijn interesse gewekt en ze zeiden dat ik nog twee semesters les moest volgen bij Gan Lulu uit Beijing. Die actrice bracht een moeilijke vraag ter sprake: zou ik betalen voor nog een jaar studeren of wilde ik nu eindelijk settelen? Ik beschouwde hem als een crimineel omdat hij mijn broers polshorloge had gestolen, hoewel ik het niet kon bewijzen. In januari vroeg hij mijn professionele hulp als dokter. Hij had last van een erge rugpijn. Ik ried hem aan om drie dagen in bed te blijven. En inderdaad genas het symptoom vanzelf. Hij nam gauw zijn gewoonlijke routine weer op maar belde mij na een week opnieuw op. Op 30 mei 1848 kwam een naturalist van middelbare leeftijd uit Groot-Brittannië met zijn kinderen naar mijn dorpje aan de Braziliaanse kust. Weldra bleek dat hij een vrijdenker was: hij geloofde niet in God als zijn schepper. In de plaats daarvan observeerde hij de fauna en flora met veel zorg. Zijn dochter sprak mijn vermoeden tegen: tot dan had ik met veel overtuiging geloofd dat God alle levende wezens had geschapen. Zijn vader werkte hard om goed brood te verdienen voor zijn gezin: hij eiste veel discipline en gehoorzaamheid, maar was ook eerlijk en rechtlijnig. Dit veroorzaakte een gestructureerd klimaat in het huishouden, maar terzelfdertijd verlangden zijn zonen erdoor ook naar ouderlijk gezelschap. Zo n standaard bespaarde veel geld. Maar wat betekende geld als de kinderen niet hadden geleerd hoe ze een goed leven moesten leiden? Een arts van King s College Hospital en een van zijn patiënten waren op een middelbare school uitgenodigd om over diëten te praten. De dokter was echter een slecht spreker en kon zijn jonge publiek niet boeien. Zijn patiënt moest getuigen en zijn persoonlijke verhaal vertellen, maar de

53 53 patiënt veranderde niks: de leerlingen die tijd hadden vrijgemaakt om te komen, gingen zwaar teleurgesteld naar huis. Untrained participant De broer van Margaret ging bij het leger omdat hij een wild persoon was en omdat hij niet kon gewend raken aan een normaal leven. Maar ook daar ontsnapte hij uit de kazernes en bleef weg voor een aantal dagen. Ook ging hij de bossen verkennen, stal hij eten en maakte hij zich om niks druk. Een soldaat zoals hij, zorgde ervoor dat het dorp onveilig was en het duurde daarom ook niet lang vooraleer er klachten kwamen tegen hem. Een nieuwe toneelgroep uit China had vele successen gekend in de lente van vorig jaar. De acteurs werden geprijsd voor hun eerlijk en gedurfd acteren. Ook ik was erdoor aangesproken en ze zeiden dat ik nog twee semesters les moest volgen met Gan Lulu uit Peking. Hun voorstel bracht mij aan het twijfelen: zou ik nog een jaar studeren of wou ik me nu eindelijk settelen? Ik beschouwde hem als een crimineel omdat hij de enkelhorloge van mijn broer had gestolen, al kon ik dat wel niet bewijzen. In januari vroeg hij mij om professionele hulp als dokter. Hij had last van enorme rugpijn. Ik raadde hem aan om drie dagen platte rust te nemen. En inderdaad, de dief verzorgde zichzelf. Maar al vlug begon hij weer te werken en een week later belde hij me opnieuw. Op 30 mei 1848 kwam een middeleeuwse naturalist van Groot-Brittannië samen met zijn kinderen naar het kleine dorp waar ik woon aan de kust van Brazilië. Al snel bleek dat hij een open geest had: hij geloofde niet dat God zijn schepper was. Hij bestudeerde heel aandachtig alle planten en dieren. De theorie die hij in gedachten had, was helemaal anders dan de mijne: tot dat moment had ik altijd geloofd dat God de schepper was van alle levende wezens op aarde. Zijn vader werkte hard om voor zijn gezin te kunnen zorgen: hij eiste wel veel discipline en gehoorzaamheid, maar hij was ook eerlijk en trouw. Hierdoor ontstond er een soort van hiërarchie in huis, Zo n vader spaarde genoeg geld. Maar wat ben je met geld als die kinderen niet geleerd werden hoe je een goed leven moet leiden? Een dokter van het King s College ziekenhuis was samen met een patiënt van hem uitgenodigd op een middelbare school om over dieet te komen praten. De dokter was een saaie spreker en kon zijn jonge publiek daardoor niet enthousiast krijgen. De patiënt vertelde zijn persoonlijke verhaal,

54 54 maar zijn speech veranderde niets aan de situatie: de studenten die aanwezig waren keerden teleurgesteld naar huis. De vergadering vond plaats in een hotel in het centrum van de stad. Eén van de gasten van het hotel was een verantwoordelijke van een Japans bedrijf. Hij werd naar het buitenland gestuurd om lange-termijn partnership met Amerikaanse klanten aan te trekken, op te bouwen en te behouden. De reis was tot nu toe niet zo geslaagd. Dus hij koos voor een nieuwe strategie. Hij probeerde een aantal oplossingen te zoeken voor zijn klanten. De verlegen man won onverwacht drie regionale drama awards met zijn laatste stuk Coming home. Iedereen was het erover eens dat hij fantastisch, creatief en grappig was, al ging zijn stuk ook over alledaagse, serieuze onderwerpen. Het gevolg van dit succes was dat de verwachtingen voor zijn volgende stuk alleen maar groter werden, en de toneel critics hadden het niet langer over het einde van zijn korte carrière. De vergadering vond plaats in een hotel in het centrum van de stad. Eén van de gasten van het hotel was een verantwoordelijke van een Japans bedrijf. Hij werd naar het buitenland gestuurd om lange-termijn partnership met Amerikaanse klanten aan te trekken, op te bouwen en te behouden. De reis was tot nu toe niet zo geslaagd. De verlegen man won onverwacht drie regionale drama awards met zijn laatste stuk Coming home. Iedereen was het erover eens dat hij fantastisch, creatief en grappig was, al ging zijn stuk ook over alledaagse, serieuze onderwerpen. Als gevolg hiervan waren de verwachtingen van de acteur voor het volgende stuk groter. De toneel critics hadden het niet langer over het einde van zijn korte carrière. Trained participant two De broer van Margaret was in het leger gegaan omdat hij een onbezonnen karakter had en geen stabiel leven kon leiden. Maar zelfs daar vluchtte hij voor enkele dagen weg uit de barakken, ging hij in het bos dwalen, plaatste vallen, stal eten en trok zich van niks aan. Natuurlijk, zijn gedrag maakte de buurt onveilig, en het duurde niet lang voor er veel klachten tegen hem werden neergelegd. Een nieuw theatergezelschap uit China had vorig jaar tijdens de lente veel succes gekend, en de acteurs werden toegejuicht voor hun gedurfde en eerlijke acteerprestaties. Ik had het gezelschap ook opgemerkt en ze hadden me aangeraden om nog twee semesters lessen te volgen bij Gan

55 55 Lulu uit Beijing. Die actrice deed een vraag rijzen: Zou ik nog een jaar studies financieren of eindelijk m n leven beginnen? Ik beschouwde hem als een crimineel omdat hij het polshorloge van mijn broer gestolen had, hoewel ik dat niet kon bewijzen. Hij had me in januari opgebeld voor mijn professioneel advies als dokter. Hij had ongelofelijk veel pijn aan zijn rug. Ik raadde hem aan om drie dagen in bed te blijven. En jawel, het symptoom verdween vanzelf. Hij begon al snel opnieuw aan zijn dagelijkse routine, maar na een week belde hij me opnieuw. Op 30 mei 1848 kwam een Britse naturalist van middelbare leeftijd met zijn kinderen naar mijn kleine dorpje aan de Braziliaanse kust. Hij bleek al snel een vrijdenker te zijn: Hij geloofde niet dat God hem gemaakt had. In plaats daarvan besteedde hij veel aandacht aan fauna en flora. Zijn dochter sprak mijn vermoedens tegen: Tot dan was ik er altijd van overtuigd geweest dat God alle levende wezens gemaakt had. Zijn vader werkte hard om zijn gezin een goed leven te laten leiden: Hij eiste veel discipline en gehoorzaamheid, maar was ook eerlijk en consistent. Het resultaat was dat er orde heerste in huis, maar op hetzelfde moment gaf hij zijn zoontjes ook erg weinig aandacht. Met zo n levensstijl werd er veel geld gespaard. Maar wat is geld waard als de kinderen niet leren hoe ze een goed leven kunnen leiden? Een arts van het King s College ziekenhuis en een van zijn patiënten waren op de middelbare school uitgenodigd om te komen praten over diëten. De arts was echter geen goede spreker en kon het jonge publiek niet bekoren. Zijn patiënt had zijn persoonlijke verhaal moeten vertellen, maar veranderde niets: de leerlingen die de tijd hadden genomen om de voorstelling bij te wonen gingen teleurgesteld naar huis. De conferentie vond plaats in een hotel in het centrum van de stad. Een van de mensen die daar verbleven, was een vertegenwoordiger van een Japans bedrijf. Hij was naar buitenland gegaan om Amerikaanse klanten te vinden en met hen een langdurige samenwerking op te bouwen en te behouden. Maar de reis was nog geen succes geweest. Bijgevolg had hij een nieuwe strategie ontwikkeld. Hij legde zich nu toe op het creëren van een reeks oplossingen voor zijn klanten. Met zijn laatste toneelstuk Coming home had de schuchtere jongeman plotseling drie regionale dramaprijzen gewonnen. Iedereen was het erover eens dat hij uitstekend en grappig was en veel verbeelding had, hoewel het stuk ook ernstige alledaagse problemen aankaartte. Het gevolg was

56 56 dat het succes hoge verwachtingen creëerde voor het nieuwe toneelstuk, en de toneelrecensenten schreven niet meer over het einde van zijn korte loopbaan. De conferentie vond plaats in een hotel in het centrum van de stad. Een van de mensen die daar verbleven, was een vertegenwoordiger van een Japans bedrijf. Hij was naar buitenland gegaan om Amerikaanse klanten te vinden en met hen een langdurige samenwerking op te bouwen en te behouden. Maar de reis was nog geen succes geweest. Bijgevolg moest er voor de missie een nieuwe strategie worden ontwikkeld. De focus lag nu op het creëren van een reeks oplossingen voor de klanten. Met zijn laatste toneelstuk Coming home had de schuchtere jongeman plotseling drie regionale dramaprijzen gewonnen. Iedereen was het erover eens dat hij uitstekend en grappig was en veel verbeelding had, hoewel het stuk ook ernstige alledaagse problemen aankaartte. Het gevolg was dat de acteur hoge verwachtingen creëerde voor het nieuwe toneelstuk, en de toneelrecensenten schreven niet meer over het einde van zijn korte loopbaan.