ENERGY FROM SUGARCANE COGENERATION IN EL SALVADOR

R e p o r t N o. 9 4-0 3 A Report of the Office of Energy, Environment, and Technology Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support, and Research United States Agency for International Development ENERGY FROM SUGARCANE COGENERATION IN EL SALVADOR Prepared bywinrock International Institute for Agricultural Development 1 6 1 1 N o r t h K e n t S t r e e t, S u i t e 6 0 0 A r l i n g t o n, V A 2 2 2 0 9-2 1 3 4 Biomass Energy Systems and Technology Project D H R - 5 7 3 7 - A - 0 0-9 0 5 8-0 0 N o v e m b e r, 1 9 9 4

This publication was made possible through support provided by the Office of Energy, Environment, and Technology; Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support, and Research; United States Agency for International Development. The opinions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development. 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report results from the efforts of a team organized by Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development and funded by the Office of Energy, Environment, and Technology of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). The project manager was Mr. Bradford Hollomon of Winrock's Renewable Energy and the Environment Program, and the team included Mr. Felix Ah-Kee, who analyzed sugar mill operations and d e s i g n e d c o n c e p t u a l c o g e n e r a t i o n s y s t e m s, a n d M r. H. M i k e J o n e s, w h o h a n d l e d u t i l i t y economics and planning aspects of the study. Ms. Fay Ellis assisted with administrative arrangements and with preparation of the report. The team is indebted to the management and staff of the Comisión Ejecutiva Hidroeléctrica del Río Lempa (CEL) for their assistance and insight. The project would not have been possible without the encouragement of Ing. Carlos Hayem, the utility's Executive Director, and our analysis of the national electric power system and avoided costs owes much to the Department of Conservation and Energy Development under the leadership of Ing. Reynaldo Iván Cruz Villalta and to the Natural Resources and Environment Unit under Ing. José Antonio Lazo Paz. Ing. Francisco Rivera and his planning staff at the Compañia de Alumbrado Eléctrico de San Salvador performed the load flow simulation that is summarized at the end of Chapter 3. Of particular importance was the contribution of Ing. Ana María Gonzalez Trabanino, CEL's chief of Cogeneration Studies. Her initiative was instrumental in setting the study in motion, and her knowledge of sugar industry cogeneration technology and her tireless support in organizing meetings with key people greatly facilitated our work in El Salvador. T h e p r o j e c t a l s o c o u l d n o t h a v e g o n e f o r w a r d w i t h o u t t h e a c t i v e s u p p o r t o f t h e Salvadoran sugar industry. Although space does not allow us to acknowledge all of the s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l s, a s s i s t a n c e a n d i n s i g h t f r o m t h e A s o c i a c i ó n A z u c a r e r a d e E l S a l v a d o r, t h e I n s t i t u t o N a c i o n a l d e A z u c a r, a n d t h e C o r p o r a c i ó n S a l v a d o r e ñ a d e I n v e r s i o n e s w e r e critical, as was the cooperation we received from the managers and superintendents at each of the country's ten sugar mills. Thanks are also due to Ing. Peter Walte, the grand old man o f S a l v a d o r a n s u g a r p r o d u c t i o n, f o r h i s h e l p a n d c o n s t r u c t i v e c r i t i q u e. O t h e r i n d i s p e n s a b l e c o n t r i b u t o r s i n c l u d e M r. M y k M a n o n a n d h i s s t a f f i n t h e N a t i o n a l R u r a l E l e c t r i c C o o p e r a t i v e A s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c e i n S a n S a l v a d o r a n d t h e C e n t r o Salvadoreño de Eficiencia de Energía. Finally, we acknowledge the essential support of Ing. Raúl Gonzalez, the USAID Energy Officer in San Salvador. 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................. 3 SUMMARY.............................................................. 7 1.0 INTRODUCTION.................................................... 1 1 2.0 THE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EL SALVADOR............................ 1 3 2.1 BACKGROUND13 2.2 CASE ANALYSIS OF COGENERATION POTENTIAL15 2.2.1 Central Izalco........................................... 1 9 2.2.2 El Angel............................................... 2 2 2. 2. 3 I n g e n i o J i b o a........................................... 2 5 2.2.4 La Cabaña............................................. 2 8 2. 2. 5 S a n F r a n c i s c o........................................... 3 1 2.2.6 Ingenio Chaparrastique................................... 3 4 2.2.7 El Carmen.............................................. 3 7 2.2.8 La Magdalena........................................... 4 0 2. 2. 9 C h a n m i c o.............................................. 4 3 2. 2. 1 0 A h u a c h a p á n............................................ 4 6 2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS49 3.0 EL SALVADOR'S ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM AND AVOIDED COST..... 5 1 3.1 OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC SECTOR51 3.2 INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL BASIS FOR COGENERATION AND PRIVATE POWER53 3. 2. 1 I n s t i t u t i o n a l S t r u c t u r e f o r P r i v a t e P o w e r a n d Power Sector Regulation53 3.3 ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN EL SALVADOR55 3.3.1 Current CEL and Distribution Company G r o w t h P r o j e c t i o n s 5 5 3.3.2 El Salvador's Generation System and Its O p e r a t i o n.............................................. 5 7 3. 3. 3 N a t i o n a l T r a n s m i s s i o n a n d D i s t r i b u t i o n System................................................ 5 8 3.3.4 CEL Actions Regarding Private Power Supply................. 6 2 3.4 AVOIDED COST PRICING FOR PRIVATE POWER63 3. 4. 1 A v o i d e d C o s t........................................... 6 4 3. 4. 2 A p p l i c a t i o n o f A v o i d e d C o s t P r i n c i p l e s i n.............................................. E l S a l v a d o r 6 5 3.5 GENERATION EXPANSION PLAN AND ESTIMATION OF AVOIDED AND LONG-RUN MARGINAL COST69 4

3.5.1 Marginal Energy Costs.................................... 7 0 3.5.2 Marginal Capacity Cost................................... 7 3 3. 5. 3 A v o i d e d C o s t........................................... 7 5 3.6 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IMPACTS77 4.0. ECONOMIC COSTS AND BENEFITS.................................. 7 9 4.1 ASSUMPTIONS79 4.2 RESULTS80 4.3 DISCUSSION81 4.4 CONSIDERATIONS IN THE BUYING AND SELLING OF COGENERATED ELECTRICITY82 4.4.1 Seller - Cogenerator...................................... 8 2 4.4.2 Buyer - CEL............................................ 8 2 4. 4. 3 P o w e r P u r c h a s e / S a l e s C o n t r a c t............................. 8 3 APPENDIX A - System Design Parameters APPENDIX B - CEL Least-Cost Expansion Plans APPENDIX C - Economic Evaluation 5

ENERGY FROM SUGARCANE COGENERATION IN EL SALVADOR SUMMARY In 1992-1993, El Salvador produced 346,503 tons of sugar from sugarcane in ten factories, ranging in capacity from 50 to 240 tons of cane per hour. Four of the factories are p r i v a t e l y o w n e d, a n d t h e r e s t a r e o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d w i t h i n t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r. P r i v a t i z a t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c m i l l s i s u n d e r a c t i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t. Using bagasse as a fuel in high-pressure boilers, the Salvadoran sugar industry s h o u l d b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o e x p o r t e c o n o m i c a l l y 5 5 m e g a w a t t s o f p o w e r f o r t h e n a t i o n d u r i n g the four month cane crushing season from December to March, and over 75 megawatts during the remainder of the year if the generators continue to operate with supplemental fuel. These amounts represent, respectively, 6.7 percent and 9.2 percent of the country's installed generating capacity. In addition, the mills located to the north of San Salvador may be a d v a n t a g e o u s l y s i t u a t e d t o h e l p l i m i t p o w e r t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d with serving nearby communities. T h e o b j e c t i v e o f t h e s t u d y i s t w o f o l d : t o e s t a b l i s h f r o m a t e c h n i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e h o w m u c h p o w e r e a c h o f t h e m i l l s c o u l d e x p o r t a n d a t w h a t c o s t, a n d t o e s t i m a t e w h a t t h e p o w e r would be worth to the national electric system in the context of CEL's expansion plans, given t h e s p e c i f i c t i m i n g a n d l o c a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n a t t h e m i l l s. T o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s, " a v o i d e d c o s t " c r i t e r i a, b a s e d o n C E L p l a n n i n g d a t a, h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d i n a n e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s o f m i l l c o g e n e r a t i o n o p t i o n s t o y i e l d p r o j e c t i o n s o f t h e p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l a n d t o s c r e e n c a n d i d a t e i n s t a l l a t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t. S p e c i f i c f i n d i n g s a p p e a r below: 1. If the mills were to generate power throughout the year, using Bunker C as a supplemental fuel, the industry could profitably export 565,000 megawatt hours per year at a price at or below US$0.058 per kwh, as shown in Chapter 4 (Figure 4.1). T h i s r e p r e s e n t s 2 3 % o f t h e n a t i o n ' s p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n i n 1 9 9 2. A c h i e v i n g t h i s l e v e l w o u l d e n t a i l i n s t a l l a t i o n o f h i g h - p r e s s u r e ( 9 0 0 l b. p e r s q u a r e i n c h ) b o i l e r s a n d extraction turbines. 2. The industry also could produce power for sale economically using a lower steam p r e s s u r e ( 6 0 0 l b. p e r s q u a r e i n c h ), b u t i n l o w e r v o l u m e s a n d a t h i g h e r c o s t. U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h e p o t e n t i a l w o u l d b e 4 7 3, 0 0 0 m e g a w a t t h o u r s, o r 1 9 % o f 1 9 9 2 n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n, a t o r b e l o w a c o s t o f U S $ 0. 0 6 2 p e r k W h. T h e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e less efficient technology would be lessened need to train mill workers and s u p e r v i s o r s i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f w a t e r t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s a n d a u t o m a t e d c o n t r o l s required for higher pressures. 3. The cost of cogenerating power could be reduced in a number of circumstances. C e n t r a l I z a l c o, f o r e x a m p l e, i s i n s t a l l i n g a n e w b o i l e r i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a p l a n n e d expansion, and specifying a higher pressure rating to permit cogeneration will add only marginally to the cost. Purchasing used equipment may also reduce initial c a p i t a l r e q u i r e m e n t s, b u t p o s s i b l y a t a n a d d e d c o s t i n t e r m s o f m a i n t e n a n c e, 6

efficiency and useful life. Finally, old equipment that is replaced while it is still useful may still have a signficant salvage value. Purchasing available equipment t h a t i s n o t m a t c h e d t o t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s y s t e m a l s o w i l l r e s u l t i n s u b - o p t i m a l performance. 4. T h e p o w e r o u t p u t l e v e l s e s t i m a t e d i n t h i s r e p o r t a s s u m e t h a t t h e m i l l s ' i n t e r n a l s t e a m requirements remain the same as they are currently. With a market for surplus electricity, mill owners have an incentive to conserve steam and thereby to increase p o w e r s a l e s b e y o n d t h e l e v e l s p r e s e n t e d h e r e. T h e v o l u m e o f p o w e r e x p o r t e d c o u l d theoretically be increased in this way by a factor of two or three. 5. The value of cogenerated power to the national grid, based on CEL's estimated fiveyear average avoided generation costs, is now between approximately US$0.0685 and US$0.0745 per kwh. The value is dependent on time of year because of seasonal fluctuations in rainfall influencing CEL's ability to produce hydropower, and it varies by time of day as well because of cycles in demand. 6. In the case of the La Cabaña and San Francisco mills, cogenerated power may be w o r t h m o r e t h a n t h e a v o i d e d g e n e r a t i o n c o s t, b e c a u s e C A E S S, t h e l o c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n c o m p a n y, w o u l d p r o b a b l y b e a b l e t o s c a l e b a c k o r p o s t p o n e n e e d e d t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d distribution system improvements along a nearby power line extending to the north from San Salvador. If the utility could obtain 6 MW from these mills, it would be able to restore minimum voltages (now around 90 V) to more acceptable levels and t o r e d u c e l i n e l o s s e s b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 0 k W, w i t h o u t a d d i n g s u b s t a t i o n o r conductor capacity beyond 8 kilometers of new line to connect the mills. 7. With the exceptions of Ahuachapán, Chanmico, La Magdalena and El Carmen, all of t h e m i l l s a p p e a r t o r e p r e s e n t p r o m i s i n g i n v e s t m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s. T h e d e c i s i o n s a s t o w h e t h e r t o i n v e s t t h e n e e d e d r e s o u r c e s a t e a c h s i t e w i l l d e p e n d o n t h e s t r a t e g i c interest of each company in diversifying into the electric power market and on the outcome of power sales contract negotiations with CEL. 8. One of the principal barriers to cogeneration investments in the eyes of several sugar industry managers is the absence of clear long-term pricing and contract terms for power sales to CEL. To justify an investment of of several millions of dollars at a s i n g l e i n s t a l l a t i o n w i l l r e q u i r e a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e p r o j e c t r e v e n u e s w i l l c o n t i n u e f a r e n o u g h i n t o t h e f u t u r e t o a m o r t i z e t h e e x p e n d i t u r e. S i n c e C E L i s t h e o n l y p r o s p e c t i v e p u r c h a s e r, t h e u t i l i t y w i l l n e e d t o p r o v i d e t h a t a s s u r a n c e. O n a n o t h e r level, the sugar mill managers will need a clear indication of their rights and obligations concerning interconnection, metering, personnel safety, protection of electrical system integrity, supply reliability, and conflict resolution. 9. In-season cogeneration will not result in any incremental environmental degradation, s i n c e n o a d d i t i o n a l f u e l w i l l b e b u r n e d, a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y w i l l b e n e f i t f r o m corresponding reduced combustion emissions at CEL oil-fired powerplants. Use of oil as a supplemental fuel for year round operation will r e s u l t i n l o c a l e m i s s i o n s o f a c i d g a s e s, a s h, a n d u n c o m b u s t e d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s, b u t these will be at least partially offset by corresponding reductions in thermal power 7

production by CEL. 8

1.0 INTRODUCTION This study arises out of the need for economical new supplies of electric energy to s u p p p o r t f u t u r e g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n E l S a l v a d o r. T h e n a t i o n a l u t i l i t y, t h e C o m i s i ó n Ejecutiva Hidroeléctrica del Río Lempa (CEL), depends on a mixture of hydropower and thermal generation to supply its customers, but increasing demand will requires new sources of power in the future to meet the requirements for economic growth and social well-being. In other parts of the world, notably the islands of Hawaii, Mauritius and Cuba, the sugar industry contributes substantially to local electric supply. In other locations, like El Salvador, the industry burns waste bagasse to generate electricity and steam for its own needs but not for export to the surrounding community. With no incentive in the form of an opportunity to sell power, mill managers generally configure their installations in such a way as to burn all of the bagasse produced, while providing energy only for self sufficiency. Against this background, CEL is evaluating alternative new generation options and is studying legislative proposals to legalize purchases of power from the private sector. In a l e t t e r t o t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y i n J u l y, 1 9 9 3, C E L i n d i c a t e d t h a t i t w a s d i s p o s e d t o a c q u i r e 8 0 megawatts of power, or 599,960 megawatt-hours of energy per year, beginning in January, 1 9 9 5. T h e l e t t e r a n t i c i p a t e d a n a d d i t i o n a l 4 0 m e g a w a t t s o f r e q u i r e m e n t s i n 1 9 9 8 a n d suggested a range of between US$0.06 and US$0.07 as a basis for price projections, and it i n v i t e d t h e i n d u s t r y t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n d r a f t i n g p r i v a t e p o w e r e n a b l i n g l e g i s l a t i o n a n d regulatory frameworks to be proposed to the government. Where the managers have the opportunity to sell power at a price comparable to the c o s t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l g e n e r a t i o n, i n v e s t m e n t s i n p l a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o p r o d u c e s u r p l u s p o w e r can be attractive. This generally involves replacing existing low pressure boilers, rated typically at around 20 atmospheres, with higher pressure ones capable of generating steam in t h e v i c i n i t y o f 6 0 a t m o s p h e r e s ; i n s t a l l i n g e x t r a c t i o n c o n d e n s i n g t u r b i n e s t o e x p a n d t h e s t e a m on its way to the existing sugar milling process or condenser; and tightening up the design and operation of the mills to minimize process steam requirements. S i n c e s u g a r p r o d u c t i o n i s s e a s o n a l, t h e p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f c o g e n e r a t i o n i n v e s t m e n t s c a n often be enhanced by instituting year-round power production through the use of s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l s. W h i l e n o n - b a g a s s e f u e l s m u s t b e p u r c h a s e d, t h e i r c o s t i s l i k e l y t o b e more than offset by added revenues from power sales, and the required additional capital expenditure for larger condensers and fuel storage and handling equipment is minimal. While oil and coal are more typical supplemental fuels, other forms of biomass like sawmill w a s t e o r c a n e f i e l d t r a s h a r e p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s a s w e l l. F r o m a n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e, p r i v a t e s u g a r m i l l c o g e n e r a t i o n c o u l d r e p r e s e n t a n e a r - t e r m o p p o r t u n i t y t o a c q u i r e e l e c t r i c p o w e r a t a c o s t e q u a l t o o r l e s s t h a n t h a t o f a l t e r n a t i v e sources. Using an indigenous waste resource instead of imported fossil fuel, at least for part of the year, will save foreign exchange and reduce exposure to world oil price fluctuations. Cogeneration could also enhance the productivity of the Salvadoran sugar industry, by both providing an additional revenue stream and intensifying the economic incentive for improved plant efficiency and reliability. Finally, the experience of successful cogeneration in the sugar mills may facilitate similar projects in other energy intensive industries. Because of interest expressed by CEL's management, the US Agency for 9

I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t h a s s p o n s o r e d t h i s a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r s u g a r i n d u s t r y c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e n a t i o n s e l e c t r i c s u p p l i e s. T h e p u r p o s e i s t o e s t i m a t e h o w m u c h p o w e r t h e sugar industry could produce at what cost and to suggest the value of the power to the national grid, given the location and timing of its availability. The pages that follow report the results of analyses performed after a visit to El Salvador in December of 1993. At that time the project team visited with CEL staff and c o n s u l t a n t s, s u g a r i n d u s t r y a s s o c i a t i o n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s, a n d m a n a g e r s o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a t each of the country's ten mills. The body of the report is organized in three chapters. C h a p t e r 2 p r o v i d e s t e c h n i c a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o n t h e p r e s e n t d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n of each individual mill, and it presents alternative cogeneration system configurations and a s s o c i a t e d c o s t s f o r o p e r a t i o n a t t w o d i f f e r e n t s t e a m p r e s s u r e s. C h a p t e r 3 d i s c u s s e s a t l e n g t h t h e v a l u e, i n t h e c o n t e x t o f C E L ' s a n t i c i p a t e d c o s t s, o f t h e p o w e r t h a t t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y might make available to the national grid. Finally, Chapter 4 integrates the material in the preceding chapters in an overall analysis of economic costs and benefits. 1 0

2.0 THE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EL SALVADOR 2.1 BACKGROUND In 1992-1993, El Salvador produced 346,503 tons of sugar from sugarcane processed in ten factories, which range in capacity from 50 to 240 tons of cane per hour. Last year's production was comparable to that of the year before, which for the first time s i n c e t h e d e c a d e o f a r m e d c o n f l i c t e x c e e d e d t h e e a r l i e r r e c o r d o f 3 1 8, 0 0 0 t o n s s e t i n 1 9 7 7. 1 Four of the factories are privately owned, and the rest are owned and operated by INAZUCAR and CORSAIN, two public entities. Privatization of the public sector mills is currently under consideration by the national government. The following table summarizes t h e p r o d u c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e t e n f a c t o r i e s, a n d F i g u r e 2. 1 i n d i c a t e s t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c locations. TABLE 2.1: PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS OF SUGAR FACTORIES Annual sugar Central Izalco Private 78,177 El Angel Private 53,119 Ingenio Jiboa CORSAIN 57,804 La Cabaña INAZUCAR 44,560 San Francisco Private 35,298 Chaparrastique INAZUCAR 25,768 El Carmen INAZUCAR 15,466 La Magdalena INAZUCAR 15,032 Chanmico INAZUCAR 14,610 Ahuachapán Private 6,669 Total 346,503 The sugar factories generate all or most of their steam and electricity requirements by burning bagasse in furnaces to generate steam at pressures that range from 200 to 300 p s i. P a r t o f t h e s t e a m i s e x p a n d e d t h r o u g h t u r b o g e n e r a t o r s i n o r d e r t o p r o d u c e e l e c t r i c i t y. 1 Albert Viton, "El Salvador on the March," Sugar y Azucar, September, 1993, pp. 21-26. 1 1

The rest of the steam is generally used in turbine drives to provide mechanical power directly, and exhaust steam from the turbines is used for heating purposes in the factories. In some instances, a portion of the steam for heating comes directly from the boilers via a pressure reduction valve. FIGURE 2.1 LOCATION OF EL SALVADOR SUGAR FACTORIES (MAP) A number of factories are finding it necessary to purchase up to 25% of their electrical power requirements from CEL even during the harvest season. Others, such as Central Izalco, Jiboa and San Francisco, either do not require any purchased electricity or have kept such purchases at low levels, having successfully implemented measures to reduce t h e i r c o n s u m p t i o n o f p r o c e s s s t e a m a n d m e c h a n i c a l p o w e r. J i b o a i s a l s o r e d u c i n g i t s percentage of lost time, during which the factory is not producing any bagasse and is consuming steam and electricity. At the beginning of the 1993-1994 crop, San Francisco began exporting 500 kw of power to the local community during the season as part of an experiment in conjunction with CEL and is contemplating a cogeneration project in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h f u t u r e p l a n t e x p a n s i o n. C e n t r a l I z a l c o h a s i n s t a l l e d a n e w 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r and plans to export 5 MW of power to CEL during the crop season. An objective of this study is to determine the potential for cogeneration by the ten f a c t o r i e s i f t h e e x i s t i n g b o i l e r s w e r e r e p l a c e d w i t h h i g h p r e s s u r e u n i t s i n o r d e r t o p r o d u c e more electricity for sale to the public utility company. Features that make mills attractive c a n d i d a t e s f o r t h i s k i n d o f i n v e s t m e n t i n c l u d e l a r g e s c a l e, l o n g g r i n d i n g s e a s o n s, f u l l u s e o f milling capacity with minimum downtime, and low process steam requirements. 2.2 CASE ANALYSIS OF COGENERATION POTENTIAL Sugar factories in El Salvador generally produce steam at between 200 and 300 psig 1 2

by the combustion of bagasse. Part of the steam is used to run steam turbines, which drive the mills that crush the incoming cane. The rest of the steam passes through one or more turbogenerators to produce enough electricity for use by the factory. Exhaust steam from the m i l l t u r b i n e s a n d t h e t u r b o g e n e r a t o r, a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 p s i g p r e s s u r e, s u p p l i e s t h e h e a t requirements of the evaporators and vacuum pans. The figure below depicts a typical existing installation. S i n c e t h e v o l u m e o f s t e a m r e q u i r e d a t t h e h i g h e r p r e s s u r e f o r t h e m i l l t u r b i n e s i s n o t u s u a l l y m e a s u r e d i n p r a c t i c e, t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e s t e a m t o b e e x t r a c t e d a t t h e l o w e r pressure was assumed to equal the volume currently exiting the back pressure turbogenerator in the existing system. In most cases this was derived from the generator's power output and its specific steam consumption per kwh. Flows estimated in this way are inexact, especially if confounded by significant present use of the expansion valve to by-pass t h e t u r b o g e n e r a t o r. A n o t h e r w a y t o d e r i v e t h e s e f l o w s w o u l d b e t o p o s t u l a t e a h o r s e p o w e r requirement per ton of cane and a specific steam consumption per horsepower-hour for the m i l l d r i v e s i n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t h e h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s t e a m f l o w. T h i s t o o w o u l d b e i n e x a c t a n d w o u l d n o t r e f l e c t t h e f a c t o r i e s ' i n d i v i d u a l s t e a m c o n s u m p t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. Appropriate instrumentation would help to improve the reliability of any future analysis. FIGURE 2.2: EXISTING CONFIGURATION I n t h e p r o p o s e d s y s t e m s, s t e a m i s p r o d u c e d a t e i t h e r 6 0 0 o r 9 0 0 p s i g a n d p i p e d through a double extraction turbine generator. The first extraction, occuring at 200 psig, p r o v i d e s s t e a m t o t u r n t h e m i l l t u r b i n e s. T h e s e c o n d e x t r a c t i o n, o c c u r r i n g a t 1 5 p s i g, t o g e t h e r w i t h e x h a u s t s t e a m f r o m t h e m i l l t u r b i n e s, p r o v i d e s t h e s t e a m n e e d e d t o r u n t h e e v a p o r a t o r s a n d v a c u u m p a n s. T h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n a p p e a r s i n F i g u r e 2. 3. 1 3

FIGURE 2.3: PROPOSED IN-SEASON CONFIGURATION For more economical operation, the generator continues running during the offs e a s o n, a n d a l l o f t h e s t e a m c o n d e n s e s a f t e r p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e h i g h - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e, a s illustrated in Figure 2.4. Since the system is sized to consume all of the available bagasse during the grinding season, bunker oil, supplemented perhaps by other sources of waste biomass, would be used as a secondary fuel when the remainder of the mill is not in operation. FIGURE 2.4: PROPOSED OFF-SEASON CONFIGURATION For each of the ten sugar factories in El Salvador, we have developed two cases for t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r c o g e n e r a t i o n. 1 4

CASE 1 Installation of a boiler producing steam at 900 psia and 850 degrees F, together with a double extraction condensing turbogenerator. CASE 2 Installation of a boiler producing steam at 600 psia and 750 degrees F, together with a double extraction condensing turbogenerator. F o r p u r p o s e s o f e v a l u a t i n g t h e s e t w o c a s e s, t h e B a s e C a s e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o d e s c r i b e the existing configuration, with in-season factory operations and no power sales to CEL. Net exportable power and energy are calculated separately for in-season and for off-season operations. T h e s i z e s o f t h e b o i l e r s a n d t u r b o g e n e r a t o r s u s e d i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e c a p i t a l c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n d e s i g n i n g t h e b o i l e r s t o b u r n a l l t h e b a g a s s e t h a t i s p r o d u c e d e a c h h o u r. S m a l l e r boilers would require adding storage capacity for bagasse, whereas larger units would require the in-season burning of supplementary fuels. Storing bagasse, a labor-intensive and energy-consuming operation, adds to its cost as a fuel without any increase in energy availability. Oversizing a sugar factory boiler to burn oil in-season would not be financially beneficial to the sugar company as its dual fuel boilers cannot be as efficient as CEL's boilers, which are specifically designed to burn fuel oil. I n p r a c t i c e, m o s t o f t h e m i l l s i n E l S a l v a d o r n e e d l i t t l e o r n o a d d i t i o n a l f u e l n o w t o supplement bagasse in the boilers, while at the same time, they do not generally have surplus b a g a s s e a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n. T h i s a l l o w s o n e t o d e r i v e t h e s t e a m n e e d e d f o r t h e m i l l drives and factory heat requirements from the present volume of bagasse produced by the m i l l a n d b u r n e d i n t h e e x i s t i n g b o i l e r s. T h e v o l u m e o f s t e a m t h a t c a n b e g e n e r a t e d w i t h t h e same fuel at higher pressure will be somewhat less, but the assumption is that a replacement boiler will be more efficient, and that other simple economy measures will enable the mill to accommodate the reduction. E x p e r i e n c e i n H a w a i i, M a u r i t i u s a n d e l s e w h e r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t w h e n a m a r k e t e x i s t s for exported power, steam savings measures, like improved evaporators and electric mill drives, become financially attractive. When these measures are implemented, a portion of the steam can pass through the turbogenerator to a condenser, generating considerable additional power for sale. In this study, however, we have assumed that no steam will be available for condensing, since the the arrays of economy measures will require additional investments to finance them and will vary among the individual mills. Even if the sugar factory does not enjoy a comparative fuel cost advantage when bagasse is not available, burning oil during the off-season may be desirable for more efficient c a p i t a l u t i l i z a t i o n. M o s t o f t h e i n e f f i c i e n c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b u r n i n g o i l i n a b a g a s s e b o i l e r can be eliminated at the start of the off-season. For example, the grates may be covered with b r i c k s t o r e d u c e h e a t l o s s e s, a n d t h e b o i l e r c o n t r o l s c a n b e r e s e t f o r o i l. D u r i n g t h e o f f - season gross power generation remains the same as during the season, but net power sales to CEL will be higher because no power is needed for the sugar factory operation. A p p e n d i x A c o n t a i n s d e s i g n d e t a i l s f o r a l l o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r i e s a n d p r e s e n t s p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n a n d f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r b o t h o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e c a s e s outlined above. C a p i t a l c o s t s f o r b o i l e r s a n d t u r b o g e n e r a t o r s a r e e s t i m a t e d u s i n g a c t u a l q u o t a t i o n s 1 5

from major international manufacturers, and adjusted for size at the various factories. For C a s e 1, t h e b o i l e r s a r e h i g h - p r e s s u r e u n i t s, o p e r a t i n g a t 9 0 0 p s i g a n d 8 5 0 d e g r e e s F. F o r C a s e 2, t h e b o i l e r s o p e r a t e a t 6 0 0 p s i g a n d 7 5 0 d e g r e e s F. T h e t u r b o g e n e r a t o r s a r e d o u b l e extraction units providing steam for the existing factory requirements. The cost of piping, civil, electrical foundation works, buildings, water cooling, p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l, i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n, e t c. a r e b a s e d o n a c t u a l p r o j e c t s i m p l e m e n t e d e l s e w h e r e. Utility interconnection is included as an electrical cost, assuming transformers, switchgear, m e t e r s, e t c. n e c e s s a r y t o d e l i v e r p o w e r a t u p t o 1 5 k V w i l l b e c h a r g e d t o t h e p r o j e c t. U t i l i t y i m p r o v e m e n t s ( o r r e d u c e d n e e d f o r t h e m ) b e y o n d t h e m i l l s u b s t a t i o n a r e n o t i n c l u d e d h e r e b u t a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 3. 6 b e l o w. C o s t s a t i n d i v i d u a l l o c a t i o n s w i l l v a r y b a s e d o n t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f e x i s t i n g infrastructure. For example, some locations with plentiful supplies of cooling water may not require any investment in a cooling tower. In other instances, the existing building or foundations may be used. Furthermore, competition among contractors may further reduce costs, especially for engineering and erection, as may the participation of local labor, d e p e n d i n g o n i t s p r o d u c t i v i t y. T h e t o t a l e s t i m a t e d c a p i t a l c o s t s i n c l u d e 2 0 % f o r miscellaneous items and for contingency. T h e c o s t e s t i m a t e s u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y a s s u m e t h a t n o u s e f u l c o g e n e r a t i o n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a l r e a d y e x i s t s. F o r a c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n, s o m e o f a n e w i n s t a l l a t i o n ' s c o s t m a y b e j u s t i f i e d b y m o r e e f f i c i e n t o r e x p a n d e d s u g a r p r o d u c t i o n, a n d o l d e q u i p m e n t t h a t i s replaced may have a salvage value. This consideration would argue for building cogeneration systems gradually in concert with other plant improvements. The cost of a boiler capable of burning bagasse during the season and oil during the off season is almost the same as one that burns bagasse only during the season. The a d d i t i o n a l i n s t a l l a t i o n f o r b u r n i n g o i l c o n s i s t s o f a n o i l p u m p, p i p i n g a n d o i l b u r n e r s a t a c o s t t h a t i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o t h a t o f t h e t o t a l p r o j e c t. T h e p r i c e o f B u n k e r C f u e l p r i c e s i s a s s u m e d t o b e $ 1 4 p e r b a r r e l f o r o i l. O p e r a t i n g and maintenance costs are assumed to be $21.73 per kw per year for fixed costs on a yearr o u n d b a s i s, a n d U S $ 2. 5 0 f o r v a r i a b l e c o s t s f o r e v e r y M W h t h a t i s e x p o r t e d. O n e e c o n o m i c advantage of power cogeneration in a sugar factory is that the fixed costs of power generation have already been met in the existing sugar operations. However, management and engineering personnel costs will increase if year-round operations are contemplated. Assuming that fixed costs are already paid for during the season, the additional fixed cost for year-round operation will be a fraction of 205/365 (where 205 is the number of off-season days per year), i.e. 0.5616, times the fixed costs of $21.73 per kw per year. Thus the a d d i t i o n a l f i x e d c o s t w h e n b u r n i n g o i l d u r i n g t h e o f f - s e a s o n w i l l b e 0. 5 6 1 6 x U S $ 2 1. 7 3, i. e. $12.20 per kw per year. For off-season operations, an availability factor of 90% is assumed. During the season, each factory is assumed to operate at its current grinding time efficiency. 2.2.1 Central Izalco Central Izalco, a privately owned sugar factory, is the largest in El Salvador, with a 1 6

designed capacity of 6,500 metric tons cane per day. During the 1992-1993 crop, the factory processed an average of 5,274 tons of cane per day and produced a total of 78,177 t o n s o f s u g a r, o f w h i c h 6 1, 2 0 0 t o n s w e r e e i t h e r p l a n t a t i o n w h i t e o r r e f i n e d. The cane harvest season lasts about 160 days a year. The factory is nearly selfs u f f i c i e n t i n e l e c t r i c i t y ; o f t h e 1 3, 1 3 1 M W h c o n s u m e d i n t h e 1 9 9 1-1 9 9 2 s e a s o n, o n l y a b o u t 5 MWh were purchased from CEL. The consumption of bunker oil is also low (1,200 g a l l o n s i n 1 9 9 1-1 9 9 2 a n d n o n e i n 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3 ). T a b l e 2. 2 s h o w s s o m e o f t h e r e l e v a n t p r o d u c t i o n s t a t i s t i c s. TABLE 2.2: PRODUCTION STATISTICS -- CENTRAL IZALCO 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 Crop days 148 158 164 160 % Lost time 7.38 6.41 4.68 4.28 Tons cane/year 728,956 842,987 870,171 838,565 Tons cane/hr 223.1 238.7 234.5 230.5 Tons sugar/year 61,389 70,189 84,114 78,177 Gallons bunker 0 0 1,200 0 Gallons diesel 0 0 0 0 Pol % cane 11.79 11.61 12.99 12.51 Pol % bagasse 3.28 3.6 3.69 3.83 Fiber % cane 12.84 12.65 12.60 12.86 Fiber % bagasse 47.70 47.67 44.70 45.57 Moisture % bagasse 47.78 47.34 50.24 49.44 kwh generated 10,228,000 11,684,500 13,125,900 13,034,100 kwh purchased (season) 0 0 4,800 24,000 kwh purchased (off-season) 681,120 678,865 184,090 575,983 1 7

T h e m i l l i n g t a n d e m c o n s i s t s o f a s h r e d d e r a n d f o u r m i l l s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l t u r b i n e drives. Three boilers supply steam at 250 psig pressure to the factory and to two Worthington turbines coupled to Electrical Machinery generators for power generation. The t u r b i n e - g e n e r a t o r s a r e r a t e d a t 2, 5 0 0 a n d 3, 5 0 0 k W r e s p e c t i v e l y. T h e b o i l e r s, m a d e b y B a b c o c k a n d W i l c o x, w e r e i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 6 4. T w o h a v e a c a p a c i t y o f 6 5, 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r o f s t e a m e a c h, a n d t h e t h i r d c a n p r o d u c e 9 5, 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r o f s t e a m. T h e f i r s t t w o b o i l e r s a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h e c o n o m i z e r s, a n d t h e t h i r d h a s a n a i r p r e h e a t e r. Central Izalco presently produces an excess of bagasse in spite of a refinery operation a n n e x e d t o t h e r a w s u g a r f a c t o r y, a n d a 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r i s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n t o g e n e r a t e a n estimated 5 MW of power for export to CEL. The company plans to expand sugar cane p r o c e s s i n g t o 1 2, 0 0 0 t o n s c a n e p e r d a y i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n e n o u g h b a g a s s e f o r u s e a s f u e l i n t h e n e w b o i l e r. T a b l e 2. 3 s h o w s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t o f c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r b a s e d o n b u r n i n g t h e b a g a s s e t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e s t e a m i n 6 0 0 p s i o r 9 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s TABLE 2.3: POTENTIAL FOR EXPORT OF COGENERATED POWER CASE 1 CASE 2 Pounds steam per hour 265,000 276,000 Gross generation capacity, MW 17 14 Net exportable power( season), MW 11 8 Net exportable power (off-season), MW 17 14 Net exportable MWh (season) 41,952 32,790 Net exportable MWh (off-season) 73,622 63,288 Net exportable MWh per year 115,574 96,078 1 8

T a b l e 2. 4 s h o w s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g n e w 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s a n d turbogenerators at Central Izalco. TABLE 2.4: CAPITAL COST OF INSTALLING NEW BOILERS AND TURBOGENERATORS CASE 1 CASE 2 Boiler $5,185,000 $4,714,000 Turbogenerator $3,238,000 $2,944,000 Piping, civil, electrical, foundation $8,424,000 $7,658,000 Erection $1,791,000 $1,628,000 Engineering $932,000 $847,000 Miscellaneous $1,957,000 $1,779,000 Contingency $2,153,000 $1,957,000 TOTAL $23,680,000 $21,527,000 $ million per gross MW 1.41 1.49 Table 2.5 shows the estimated annual operating cost of power generation. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t o n l y b a g a s s e i s b u r n e d d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, and only bunker C fuel is burned during the off-season. TABLE 2.5: ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST OF POWER GENERATION CASE 1 CASE 2 Fuel cost (season) 0 0 Fuel cost (off-season) $2,197,308 $2,005,825 Variable operating and maintenance costs $104,881 $81,974 Variable operating and maintenance costs $184,054 $158,220 Fixed operating and maintenance costs 0 0 Fixed operating and maintenance costs $202,917 $174,436 2.2.2 El Angel El Angel sugar factory is a also privately owned and is the second largest in El Salvador with a designed capacity of 4,800 metric tons cane per day. During the 1992-1993 crop the factory processed 625,468 tons of cane. The hourly grinding rate adjusted for lost t i m e i s a b o u t 2 1 0 t o n s o f c a n e. T h e f a c t o r y p r o d u c e d 5 9, 0 6 1 t o n s i n 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3, o f w h i c h 4 2, 7 2 8 t o n s w e r e p l a n t a t i o n w h i t e s u g a r a n d 1 6, 3 3 3 t o n s w e r e r e f i n e d. The cane harvest season lasts about 120-130 days a year. The factory is nearly self- 1 9

s u f f i c i e n t i n e l e c t r i c i t y a n d f u e l. O f t h e 5, 7 2 0 M W h c o n s u m e d i n t h e 1 9 9 1-1 9 9 2 s e a s o n, only 110 MWh were purchased from CEL, and the plant consumed no bunker oil. T a b l e 2. 6 s h o w s s o m e r e l e v a n t p r o d u c t i o n s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e 1 9 8 9-1 9 9 0 c r o p t h r o u g h t h e 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3 c r o p. TABLE 2.6: PRODUCTION STATISTICS -- EL ANGEL 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 Crop days 102 122 128 128 % Lost time 11.25 9.7 9.7 11.08 Tons cane/year 431,383 533,689 593,986 625,468 Tons cane/hr 200 202 214 229 Tons sugar/year 34,908 55,049 53,119 59,061 Gallons bunker 1,100 0 Gallons diesel 0 0 Pol % cane 11.51 11.44 11.99 11.3 Pol % bagasse 3.03 3.97 2.98 Fiber % cane 15.13 15.09 13.4 14.4 Fiber % bagasse 46.66 44.77 46.79 Moisture % bagasse kwh generated 4,500,000 5,500,000 5,610,000 kwh purchased (season) 30,720 79,440 110,400 kwh purchased (off-season) 297,360 260,400 99,181 The milling tandem consists of five mills driven by three turbines rated at 400 HP, 900 HP and 900 HP respectively. Cane is prepared in a shredder driven by a Dresser Rand t u r b i n e r a t e d a t 8 0 0 H P. T h e t u r b i n e s t a k e i n s t e a m a t 3 0 0 p s i a n d e x h a u s t a t 1 8 p s i. S t e a m i s s u p p l i e d b y t w o D e d i n i b o i l e r s o p e r a t i n g a t 3 0 0 p s i a n d 2 8 0 d e g r e e s C. T h e D e d i n i b o i l e r s h a v e c a p a c i t i e s o f 6 0, 0 0 0 k g / h r a n d 4 0, 0 0 0 k g / h r r e s p e c t i v e l y. Electricity is generated by three Dresser Rand turbines and Marathon generators rated at 1, 5 0 0 k W e a c h. El Angel produces a mix of plantation white sugar and refined sugar. Although it d o e s n o t r e q u i r e s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l s i n t h e f o r m o f d i e s e l o r b u n k e r C, E l A n g e l p u r c h a s e d over 110,000 kwh from CEL in 1991-1992. One reason given for this electricity purchase was mechanical problems with a turbogenerator. 2 0

T a b l e 2. 7 s h o w s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t o f c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r b a s e d o n b u r n i n g t h e b a g a s s e t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e s t e a m i n 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s TABLE 2.7: POTENTIAL FOR EXPORT OF COGENERATED POWER CASE 1 CASE 2 Pounds steam per hour 245,000 254,000 Gross generation capacity, MW 14 12 Net exportable power( season), MW 10 8 Net exportable power (off-season), MW 14 12 Net exportable MWh (season) 29,871 23,410 Net exportable MWh (off-season) 74,956 63,780 Net exportable MWh per year 104,834 87,190 T a b l e 2. 8 s h o w s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g n e w 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s a n d turbogenerators at El Angel. TABLE 2.8: CAPITAL COST OF INSTALLING BOILERS AND TURBOGENERATORS CASE 1 CASE 2 Boiler $5,023,000 $4,566,000 Turbogenerator $2,972,000 $2,702,000 Piping, civil, electrical, foundation $7,995,000 $7,268,000 Erection $1,735,000 $1,577,000 Engineering $886,000 $806,000 Miscellaneous $1,861,000 $1,692,000 Contingency $2,047,000 $1,861,000 TOTAL $22,519,000 $20,472,000 $ million per gross MW 1.56 1.66 2 1

Table 2.9 shows the estimated annual operating cost of power generation. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t o n l y b a g a s s e i s b u r n e d d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, and only bunker C fuel is burned during the off-season. 2.2.3 Ingenio Jiboa TABLE 2.9: ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST OF POWER GENERATION CASE 1 CASE 2 Fuel cost (season) 0 0 Fuel cost (off-season) $2,237,138 $2,021,408 Variable operating and maintenance $74,693 $58,524 Variable operating and maintenance $187,390 $159,449 Fixed operating and maintenance costs 0 0 Fixed operating and maintenance costs $206,595 $175,791 The Jiboa factory is publicly owned, and is the third largest in El Salvador. It has a designed capacity of 4,800 metric tons of cane per day and in 1992-1993 processed 713,586 t o n s o f c a n e. T h e h a r v e s t s e a s o n l a s t s a b o u t 1 8 0 d a y s. I n 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3, 4, 8 0 0 t o n s o f c a n e w e r e processed per day of crop on average. After adjustments for lost time, the mills grind on average 211 tons of cane per hour. The Jiboa factory produces a mix of raw sugar, white sugar and refined sugar. In 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3 t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n a m o u n t e d t o 5 7, 8 0 4 t o n s, o f w h i c h 2 4, 7 9 9 t o n s w e r e r a w s u g a r, 3 2, 4 4 2 t o n s w h i t e s u g a r a n d 5 6 3 t o n s r e f i n e d s u g a r. Jiboa factory's milling tandem consists of four mills driven by individual Peter B r o t h e r h o o d t u r b i n e s r a t e d a t 4 0 0 H P e a c h. C a n e i s p r e p a r e d b y t w o s e t s o f c a n e k n i v e s, and a fiberizer. 2 2

T a b l e 2. 1 0 s h o w s s o m e r e l e v a n t p r o d u c t i o n s t a t i s t i c s f o r J i b o a. TABLE 2.10: PRODUCTION STATISTICS -- JIBOA 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 Crop days 111 153 184 173 % Lost time 10.0 13.7 16.3 18.6 Tons cane/year 403,931 591,702 777,814 713,586 Tons cane/hr 171 188 212 211 Tons sugar/year 15,485 25,268 32,558 57,804 Gallons bunker 10,880 54,5720 104,220 102,549 Gallons diesel 1,014 1,438 1,147 1,802 Pol % cane 12.11 12.06 11.87 11.54 Pol % bagasse 3.55 3.56 3.86 4.19 Fiber % cane 13.47 13.12 13.59 13.41 Fiber % bagasse 43.29 44.46 43.50 43.79 Moisture % bagasse 51.66 50.43 50.92 50.03 kwh generated 5,739,100 7,961,000 10,410,000 9,779,000 kwh purchased (season) 188,400 0 0 kwh purchased (off-season) 650,000 415,800 656,000 Electricity is generated by means of two Peter Brotherhood turbogenerators installed i n 1 9 7 5 a n d r a t e d a t 1, 7 5 0 K V A e a c h. T h e t u r b i n e s t a k e i n s t e a m a t 3 0 0 p s i a n d e x h a u s t a t 1 8 p s i. S t e a m i s s u p p l i e d b y t w o C l a r k e C h a p m a n b o i l e r s w h i c h w e r e f i r s t i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 7 6. E a c h b o i l e r h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 1 0 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r o f s t e a m a t 3 0 0 p s i p r e s s u r e a n d a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 3 5 0 d e g r e e s C. T h e b o i l e r s a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h a i r p r e h e a t e r s b u t d o n o t h a v e economizers. The steam supply is a bottleneck which limits the capacity of the entire factory to its present rate of 4,800 tons cane per day. The factory could potentially process up to 6,500 tons cane per day with adequate boiler capacity. The factory has two batteries of quadruple effect evaporators which can operate as a q u i n t u p l e e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r. T a b l e 2. 1 1 s h o w s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t o f c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r b a s e d o n b u r n i n g t h e b a g a s s e t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e s t e a m i n 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s. 2 3

TABLE 2.11: POTENTIAL FOR EXPORT OF COGENERATED POWER CASE 1 CASE 2 Pounds steam per hour 214,000 222,00 Gross generation capacity, MW 12 10 Net exportable power( season), MW 8.4 6.6 Net exportable power (off-season), MW 11.9 10.0 Net exportable MWh (season) 36,424 28,301 Net exportable MWh (off-season) 47,678 40,162 Net exportable MWh per year 84,102 68,465 T a b l e 2. 1 2 s h o w s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g n e w 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s a n d turbogenerators at Injiboa. TABLE 2.12: CAPITAL COST OF INSTALLING BOILERS AND TURBOGENERATORS CASE 1 CASE 2 Boiler $4,600,000 $4,182,000 Turbogenerator $2,689,000 $2,444,000 Piping, civil, electrical, foundation $7,288,000 $6,626,000 Erection $1,589,000 $1,445,000 Engineering $808,000 $735,000 Miscellaneous $1,697,000 $1,543,000 Contingency $1,867,000 $1,697,000 TOTAL $20,538,000 $18,672,000 $ million per gross MW 1.72 1.86 2 4

T a b l e 2. 1 3 s h o w s t h e e s t i m a t e d a n n u a l o p e r a t i n g c o s t o f p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t o n l y b a g a s s e i s b u r n e d d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, and only bunker C fuel is burned during the off-season. TABLE 2.13: ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST CASE 1 CASE 2 Fuel cost (season) 0 0 Fuel cost (off-season) $1,423,006 $1,272,955 Variable operating and maintenance costs $91,060 $70,753 Variable operating and maintenance costs $119,196 $100,411 Fixed operating and maintenance costs 0 0 Fixed operating and maintenance costs $131,412 $110,702 2.2.4 La Cabaña La Cabaña is government-owned and is the fourth largest sugar factory in El Salvador. It has a designed capacity of 4,800 metric tons of cane per day. In 1992-1993, La Cabaña processed 505,963 tons of cane. T h e h a r v e s t s e a s o n l a s t s a b o u t 1 2 6 d a y s. I n 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3, 4, 0 1 6 t o n s o f c a n e w a s processed per day of crop on average. After adjustments for lost time, the mills grind on average 193 tons of cane per hour. La Cabaña produces a mix of raw, white and refined sugar. In 1992-1993 total s u g a r p r o d u c t i o n a m o u n t e d t o 4 4, 5 6 0 t o n s, o f w h i c h 2 5, 0 2 6 t o n s w e r e w h i t e s u g a r, 1 7, 2 1 4 tons were raw sugar and 2,320 tons were brown sugar. The milling tandem consists of five mills driven by three Elliott turbines rated at 750 HP, 1,000 HP and 1,000 HP respectively. Cane is prepared by a set of cane knives and a fiberizer. 2 5

T a b l e 2. 1 4 s h o w s s o m e r e l e v a n t p r o d u c t i o n s t a t i s t i c s f o r L a C a b a ñ a. TABLE 2.14: PRODUCTION STATISTICS -- LA CABAÑA 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 Crop days 106 115 119 126 % Lost time 11.2 15.3 10.2 13.2 Tons cane/year 415,736 454,025 530,751 505,963 Tons cane/hr 184 194 206 193 Tons sugar/year 30,206 34,628 44,032 44,560 Gallons bunker 26,635 27,069 23,266 29,203 Gallons diesel 0 0 0 Pol % cane 10.61 11.06 11.93 12.64 Pol % bagasse 4.06 4.61 5.2 5.34 Fiber % cane 14.25 13.38 13.4 13.56 Fiber % bagasse 44.52 43.84 42.69 43.00 Moisture % bagasse 49.5 49.38 49.68 49.38 kwh generated 4,896,000 5,184,000 4,896,000 5,282,000 kwh purchased (season) 531,123 804,960 554,880 624,585 kwh purchased (off-season) 649,248 583,866 196,800 560,354 Steam is generated in four boilers producing a total of 290,000 pounds of steam per h o u r a t 2 0 0 p s i a n d 4 8 8 d e g r e e s F. B o i l e r 1 i s a B a b c o c k a n d W i l c o x u n i t i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 4 7 a n d w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f 9 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f s t e a m p e r h o u r. B o i l e r s 2 a n d 3 a r e H e i n e u n i t s i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 4 8 a n d w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f 7 5, 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r e a c h. B o i l e r 4 i s a C o m b u s t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g u n i t i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 6 9 w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f 5 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f s t e a m p e r h o u r. T h e B a b c o c k a n d W i l c o x u n i t h a s a n e c o n o m i z e r, a n d t h e H e i n e u n i t s a n d t h e C o m b u s t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g b o i l e r a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h a i r p r e h e a t e r s b u t d o n o t h a v e economizers. La Cabaña's electrical power demand is 3,000-3,200 kw, and power is generated by 2 t u r b o g e n e r a t o r s, a S i e m e n s u n i t i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 6 9 a n d r a t e d a t 1, 5 0 0 k W, a n d a n I d e a l E l e c t r i c u n i t i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 7 5 a n d r a t e d a t 2, 0 0 0 k W. T h u s, t h e t u r b o g e n e r a t o r s h a v e adequate capacity, but shortages have resulted from the requirement of the factory to supply both steam and electricity to an adjoining distillery, which produces ethanol from molasses. T h e s h o r t f a l l a m o u n t s t o a s m u c h a s 1, 2 0 0-1, 4 0 0 k W, w h i c h i s m a d e u p b y e l e c t r i c i t y purchases from CEL. During the 1991-1992 season, the energy purchased from CEL a m o u n t e d t o 1 0 % o f t h e t o t a l c o n s u m p t i o n d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n. 2 6

T h e e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n a t L a C a b a ñ a c o n s i s t s o f o n e p r e e v a p o r a t o r a n d a q u a d r u p l e effect evaporator. T a b l e 2. 1 5 s h o w s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t o f c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r b a s e d o n b u r n i n g t h e b a g a s s e t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e s t e a m i n 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s TABLE 2.15: POTENTIAL FOR EXPORT OF COGENERATED POWER CASE 1 CASE 2 Pounds steam per hour 228,000 237,000 Gross generation capacity, MW 16 14 Net exportable power( season), MW 12.3 10.3 Net exportable power (off-season), MW 15.8 13.8 Net exportable MWh (season) 34,505 28,858 Net exportable MWh (off-season) 84,569 73,801 Net exportable MWh per year 119,072 102,659 T a b l e 2. 1 6 s h o w s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g n e w 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s a n d turbogenerators at La Cabaña. TABLE 2.16: CAPITAL COST OF INSTALLING BOILERS AND TURBOGENERATORS CASE 1 CASE 2 Boiler $4,744,000 $4,312,000 Turbogenerator $3,238,000 $2,944,000 Piping, civil, electrical, foundation $7,982,000 $7,256,000 Erection $1,639,000 $1,490,000 Engineering $880,000 $800,000 Miscellaneous $1,848,000 $1,680,000 Contingency $2,033,000 $1,848,000 TOTAL $22,364,000 $20,330,000 $ million per gross MW 1.42 1.48 2 7

T a b l e 2. 1 7 s h o w s t h e e s t i m a t e d a n n u a l o p e r a t i n g c o s t o f p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t o n l y b a g a s s e i s b u r n e d d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, and only bunker C fuel is burned during the off-season. 2.2.5 San Francisco TABLE 2.17: ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST OF POWER GENERATION CASE 1 CASE 2 Fuel cost (season) 0 0 Fuel cost (off-season) $2,524,054 $2,339,021 Variable operating and $86,257 $72,145 Variable operating and $211,423 $184,503 Fixed operating and maintenance 0 0 Fixed operating and maintenance $233,091 $203,412 San Francisco is a privately-owned sugar factory and the fifth largest in El Salvador. It has a designed capacity of 3,800 metric tons of cane per day. In 1992-1993, San F r a n c i s c o p r o c e s s e d 3 6 7, 8 4 6 t o n s o f c a n e. T h e h a r v e s t s e a s o n l a s t s a b o u t 1 2 7 d a y s. I n 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3, 2, 8 9 6 t o n s o f c a n e w e r e processed per day of crop on average. After adjustments for lost time, the mills grind on average 193 tons of cane per hour. San Francisco factory produces a mix of raw sugar and white sugar. In 1992-1993 t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n a m o u n t e d t o 3 5, 2 9 7 t o n s, o f w h i c h 2 6, 9 6 4 t o n s w e r e w h i t e s u g a r, a n d 8,333 tons were raw sugar. T h e m i l l i n g t a n d e m c o n s i s t s o f f i v e m i l l s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l B u c k a u - W o l f t u r b i n e d r i v e s, o n e o f w h i c h i s r a t e d a t 5 3 0 H P, a n d t h e f o u r o t h e r s a r e r a t e d a t 3 3 0 H P e a c h. C a n e i s p r e p a r e d w i t h a a s e t o f c a n e k n i v e s a n d a s h r e d d e r. 2 8

T a b l e 2. 1 8 s h o w s s o m e r e l e v a n t p r o d u c t i o n s t a t i s t i c s f o r S a n F r a n c i s c o. TABLE 2.18: PRODUCTION STATISTICS - SAN FRANCISCO 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 Crop days 110 124 130 127 % Lost time 10.7 11.7 11.2 10.2 Tons cane/year 338,579 407,269 422,610 367,846 Tons cane/hr 146 157 155 138 Tons sugar/year 26,593 34,100 36,064 35,298 Gallons bunker 150 2,464 2,032 1,233 Gallons diesel 0 0 0 0 Pol % cane 11.45 11.33 11.93 15.60 Pol % bagasse 3.92 3.92 4.44 4.35 Fiber % cane 15.55 14.81 14.00 14.28 Fiber % bagasse 44.52 43.84 42.69 46.28 Moisture % bagasse 49.5 49.38 49.68 47.65 kwh generated 3,864,509 4,077,120 4,583,634 kwh purchased (season) 34,464 9,024 18,528 kwh purchased (off-season) 308,448 308,736 322,368 S t e a m i s g e n e r a t e d i n t h r e e b o i l e r s p r o d u c i n g a t o t a l o f 1 6 7, 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f s t e a m p e r h o u r a t 3 0 0 p s i a n d 2 8 5 d e g r e e s F. B o i l e r s 1 a n d 2 a r e B u c k a u - W o l f u n i t s i n s t a l l e d 2 6 a n d 19 years ago respectively. They each have a capacity of 40,000 pounds of steam per hour. Boiler 3 is an EVT unit installed thirteen years ago with a capacity of 88,000 pounds steam p e r h o u r. B o i l e r s 1 a n d 2 a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h e c o n o m i z e r s, a n d B o i l e r 3 h a s a n a i r p r e h e a t e r. About 3,300 kw of power is generated by 3 turbogenerators: a Worthington unit i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 6 5 a n d r a t e d a t 8 0 0 k W, a S i e m e n s u n i t i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 7 1 a n d r a t e d a t 1, 0 0 0 k W, a s e c o n d W o r t h i n g t o n u n i t i n s t a l l e d r e c e n t l y a n d r a t e d f o r 1, 5 0 0 k W. The San Francisco factory had to purchase only 9,024 and 18,528 kwh from CEL d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 0-1 9 9 1 a n d 1 9 9 1-1 9 9 2 s e a s o n s, o r 0. 2 % a n d 0. 4 % r e s p e c t i v e l y o f t o t a l consumption. The management of San Francisco plans to be self-sufficient in electricity and t o s e l l 5 0 0 k W t o C E L b e g i n n i n g a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e 1 9 9 3-1 9 9 4 s e a s o n. T h e e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n a t S a n F r a n c i s c o c o n s i s t s o f a q u a d r u p l e e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r a n d a preevaporator. 2 9

T a b l e 2. 1 9 s h o w s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t o f c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r b a s e d o n b u r n i n g t h e b a g a s s e t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e s t e a m i n 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s. T h e mill's management is planning a major expansion of the mill and anticipates installing c o g e n e r a t i o n c a p a c i t y a s p a r t o f t h e o v e r a l l p r o j e c t. T h e i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n w i l l e n a b l e t h e m i l l t o e x p o r t p o w e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n e x c e s s o f t h e 8 t o 1 0 M W i l l u s t r a t e d h e r e. TABLE 2.19: POTENTIAL FOR EXPORT OF COGENERATED POWER CASE 1 CASE 2 Pounds steam per hour 187,000 194,000 Gross generation capacity, MW 11 9 Net exportable power( season), MW 7.7 6.0 Net exportable power (off-season), MW 11.0 9.3 Net exportable MWh (season) 23,405 18,392 Net exportable MWh (off-season) 56,440 47,985 Net exportable MWh per year 79,846 66,377 T a b l e 2. 2 0 s h o w s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g n e w 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s and turbogenerators at San Francisco sugar factory. If installed in conjunction with plant capacity expansion, these items will not need to be justified solely in terms of power sales. TABLE 2.20: CAPITAL COST OF INSTALLING BOILERS AND TURBOGENERATORS CASE 1 CASE 2 Boiler $4,226,000 $3,842,000 Turbogenerator $2,539,000 $2,308,000 Piping, civil, electrical, foundation $6,766,000 $6,151,000 Erection $1,460,000 $1,327,000 Engineering $750,000 $681,000 Miscellaneous $1,574,000 $1,431,000 Contingency $1,731,000 $1,574,000 TOTAL $19,046,000 $17,314,000 $ million per gross MW 1.73 1.86 T a b l e 2. 2 1 s h o w s t h e e s t i m a t e d a n n u a l o p e r a t i n g c o s t o f p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t o n l y b a g a s s e i s b u r n e d d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, and only bunker C fuel is burned during the off-season. TABLE 2.21: ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST OF POWER GENERATION 3 0

CASE 1 CASE 2 Fuel cost (season) 0 0 Fuel cost (off-season) $1,684,521 $1,520,813 Variable operating and $58,513 $45,980 Variable operating and $141,101 $119,962 Fixed operating and maintenance 0 0 Fixed operating and maintenance $155,562 $132,257 2.2.6 Ingenio Chaparrastique Ingenio Chaparrastique, a government-owned sugar factory, is the sixth largest in the country. With a designed capacity of 3,800 metric tons of cane per day, Chaparrastique p r o c e s s e d 2 7 6, 3 5 9 t o n s o f c a n e i n 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3. T h e h a r v e s t s e a s o n l a s t e d 1 0 4 d a y s i n 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3, a n d h a s v a r i e d b e t w e e n 8 2 d a y s i n 1 9 8 9-1 9 9 0 a n d 1 3 6 d a y s i n 1 9 9 1-1 9 9 2. I n 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3, 2, 6 5 8 t o n s o f c a n e w e r e p r o c e s s e d per day of crop on average. After adjustments for lost time, the mills grind on average 129 t o n s o f c a n e p e r h o u r. Chaparrastique factory produces only white sugar. In 1992-1993 total sugar p r o d u c t i o n a m o u n t e d t o 2 5, 7 6 8 t o n s. T h e m i l l i n g t a n d e m c o n s i s t s o f f o u r m i l l s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l t u r b i n e d r i v e s, e a c h r a t e d at 700 HP. Mills 1 and 2 are driven by Worthington-Turbodyne turbines and Mills 3 and 4 a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h E l l i o t t t u r b i n e d r i v e s. A s h r e d d e r i s u s e d t o p r e p a r e c a n e b e f o r e m i l l i n g. 3 1

Table 2.22 shows some relevant production statistics for Chaparrastique factory. TABLE 2.22: PRODUCTION STATISTICS -- CHAPARRASTIQUE 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 Crop days 82 113 136 104 % Lost time 5.7 18.6 11.9 14.0 Tons cane/year 159,602 222,156 352,5370 276,359 Tons cane/hr 67 102 124 129 Tons sugar/year 12,0583 17,172 30,889 25,768 Gallons bunker 3,812 8,747 3,812 1,416 Gallons diesel 0 0 0 Pol % cane 10.84 11.64 12.34 Pol % bagasse 3.36 3.21 3.05 Fiber % cane 13.05 13.46 12.14 Fiber % bagasse 45.89 47.21 45.18 Moisture % bagasse kwh generated 3,752,405 4,888,493 kwh purchased (season) 570,384 193,392 kwh purchased (off-season) 353,328 S t e a m i s g e n e r a t e d i n t w o b o i l e r s p r o d u c i n g a t o t a l o f 1 9 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f s t e a m p e r h o u r. B o t h b o i l e r s w e r e i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 8 8. B o i l e r 1 i s a D i s t r a l u n i t w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f 1 0 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r o f s t e a m a t 2 4 0 p s i a n d 3 0 0 d e g r e e s C. B o i l e r 2 i s a B a b c o c k a n d W i l c o x u n i t w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f 1 0 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r o f s t e a m a t 2 4 0 p s i a n d 3 0 0 d e g r e e s C. B o i l e r 2 d o e s n o t h a v e a n e c o n o m i z e r o r a p r e h e a t e r. B o i l e r 1 i s e q u i p p e d w i t h a n e c o n o m i z e r b u t n o t a p r e h e a t e r. D u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 0-1 9 9 1 a n d 1 9 9 1-1 9 9 2 c r o p s, t h e C h a p a r r a s t i q u e f a c t o r y h a d t o p u r c h a s e 5 7 0, 3 8 4 a n d 1 9 3, 3 9 2 k W h f r o m C E L d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, o r 1 3 % a n d 4 % respectively of total consumption in those years. Power is generated by an Ideal Electric turbogenerator rated at 2,000 kw. The management of Chaparrastique plans to replace an e x i s t i n g 6 0 0 k W u n i t i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 6 7 w i t h a n e w 1 3 0 0 k V A o n e w h i c h w o u l d a l l o w t h e m to eliminate power purchases from CEL and to export 500 kw to the grid during the season. They also plan to increase the cane grinding rate from 3,000 tons per day to 4,000 tons per day, as the existing factory capacity allows. The evaporator station, which presently consists of two sets of quadruple effect e v a p o r a t o r s, w i l l b e m o d i f i e d. T h r e e v e s s e l s w i l l b e r e m o v e d a n d t h e s t a t i o n w i l l o p e r a t e a s a single quintuple effect evaporator. T a b l e 2. 2 3 s h o w s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t o f c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r b a s e d o n b u r n i n g t h e 3 2

b a g a s s e t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e s t e a m i n 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s TABLE 2.23: POTENTIAL FOR EXPORT OF COGENERATED POWER CASE 1 CASE 2 Pounds steam per hour 127,000 132,000 Gross generation capacity, MW 8 7 Net exportable power( season), MW 6.3 5.2 Net exportable power (off-season), MW 8.3 7.2 Net exportable MWh (season) 18,075 14,851 Net exportable MWh (off-season) 43,797 37,873 Net exportable MWh per year 61,873 52,724 T a b l e 2. 2 4 s h o w s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g n e w 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s a n d turbogenerators at Ingenio Chaparrastique. TABLE 2.24: CAPITAL COST OF INSTALLING BOILERS AND TURBOGENERATORS CASE 1 CASE 2 Boiler $3,491,000 $3,174,000 Turbogenerator $2,221,000 $2,019,000 Piping, civil, electrical, foundation $5,712,000 $5,193,000 Erection $1,206,000 $1,096,000 Engineering $632,000 $574,000 Miscellaneous $1,326,000 $1,206,000 Contingency $1,459,000 $1,326,000 TOTAL $16,047,000 $14,588,000 $ million per gross MW 1.94 2.04 T a b l e 2. 2 5 s h o w s t h e e s t i m a t e d a n n u a l o p e r a t i n g c o s t o f p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t o n l y b a g a s s e i s b u r n e d d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, and only bunker C fuel is burned during the off-season. 3 3

2.2.7 El Carmen TABLE 2.25: ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST OF POWER GENERATION CASE 1 CASE 2 Fuel cost (season) 0 0 Fuel cost (off-season) $1,307,178 $1,200,320 Variable operating and maintenance costs $45,188 $37,127 Variable operating and maintenance costs $109,494 $94,682 Fixed operating and maintenance costs 0 0 Fixed operating and maintenance costs $120,7153 $104,385 Ingenio El Carmen is a government-owned sugar factory and is among the four smallest in El Salvador, with a designed capacity of 2,000 tons of cane per day. In 1992-1 9 9 3, E l C a r m e n p r o c e s s e d 1 8 2, 5 3 4 t o n s o f c a n e d u r i n g t h e c r o p s e a s o n, w h i c h l a s t e d 1 1 0 calendar days. The daily cane processing rate averaged 1,659 tons. After adjustments for lost time, the mills grind on average 91 tons of cane per hour. The factory produces only raw sugar. In 1992-1993 total sugar production amounted to 1 5, 4 6 6 t o n s. The milling tandem consists of four mills driven by three turbines. Mill 1 is driven b y a t u r b i n e r a t e d a t 3 5 0 H P, M i l l 2 h a s a 5 0 0 H P t u r b i n e d r i v e, a n d M i l l s 3 a n d 4 a r e driven by a single 750 HP turbine. A shredder is used to prepare cane before milling. 3 4

Table 2.26 shows some relevant production statistics for El Carmen factory. TABLE 2.26: PRODUCTION STATISTICS -- EL CARMEN 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 Crop days 110 144 124 110 %Lost time 20.8 35.7 20.2 24.0 Tons cane/year 187,342 187,282 219,843 182,534 Tons cane/hr 67 84 98 91 Tons sugar/year 12,802 14,253 19,531 15,466 Gallons bunker 4,000 8,000 6,000 9,982 Gallons diesel 0 0 0 0 Pol % cane 12.75 Pol % bagasse 4.38 4.99 4.21 4.32 Fiber % cane 12.99 13.93 13.98 11.56 Fiber % bagasse 42.38 42.26 43.92 43.45 Moisture % bagasse 50.9 kwh generated 40,944 kwh purchased (season) 13,649 kwh purchased (off-season) S t e a m i s g e n e r a t e d i n t h r e e b o i l e r s p r o d u c i n g a t o t a l o f 1 2 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f s t e a m p e r h o u r a t 2 0 0 p s i a n d 2 5 0 d e g r e e s C. B o i l e r 1 g e n e r a t e s 4 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f s t e a m p e r h o u r. B o i l e r s 2 a n d 3 g e n e r a t e 3 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r a n d 5 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r o f s t e a m r e s p e c t i v e l y. B o i l e r 2 i s e q u i p p e d w i t h a n a i r p r e h e a t e r, b u t B o i l e r s 1 a n d 3 a r e n o t. T w o o f t h e b o i l e r s a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h e c o n o m i z e r s. U s i n g s t e a m a t 2 0 0 p s i a n d e x h a u s t i n g a t 1 0 p s i, t w o t u r b o g e n e r a t o r s g e n e r a t e 7 5 0 kw and 500 kw of electricity respectively. The evaporator station consists of one quadruple effect system. T a b l e 2. 2 7 s h o w s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t o f c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r b a s e d o n b u r n i n g t h e b a g a s s e t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e s t e a m i n 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s 3 5

TABLE 2.27: POTENTIAL FOR EXPORT OF COGENERATED POWER CASE 1 CASE 2 Pounds steam per hour 82,000 85,092 Gross generation capacity, MW 4.3 3.6 Net exportable power( season), MW 3.1 2.4 Net exportable power (off-season), MW 4.3 3.6 Net exportable MWh (season) 9,938 7,620 Net exportable MWh (off-season) 21,656 18,059 Net exportable MWh per year 31,595 25,679 T a b l e 2. 2 8 s h o w s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g n e w 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s a n d turbogenerators at El Carmen. TABLE 2.28: CAPITAL COST OF INSTALLING BOILERS AND TURBOGENERATORS CASE 1 CASE 2 Boiler $2,570,000 $2,336,000 Turbogenerator $1,465,000 $1,332,000 Piping, civil, electrical, foundation $4,035,000 $3,668,000 Erection $888,000 $807,000 Engineering $448,000 $407,000 Miscellaneous $941,000 $855,000 Contingency $1,035,000 $941,000 TOTAL $11,382,000 $10,346,000 $ million per gross MW 2.62 2.86 T a b l e 2. 2 9 s h o w s t h e e s t i m a t e d a n n u a l o p e r a t i n g c o s t o f p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t o n l y b a g a s s e i s b u r n e d d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, and only bunker C fuel is burned during the off-season. 3 6

TABLE 2.29: ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST OF POWER GENERATION CASE 1 CASE 2 Fuel cost (season) 0 0 Fuel cost (off-season) $646,351 $572.368 Variable operating and maintenance costs $24,846 $19,050 Variable operating and maintenance costs $54,141 $45,149 Fixed operating and maintenance costs 0 0 Fixed operating and maintenance costs (off- $59,689 $49,776 2.2.8 La Magdalena The government-owned La Magdalena sugar factory and is also among the four smallest in El Salvador. It has a designed capacity of 2,000 tons of cane per day but processes about 1,700 tons cane per day on average. In 1992-1993, La Magdalena p r o c e s s e d 1 5 1, 7 6 0 t o n s o f c a n e d u r i n g a c r o p s e a s o n, w h i c h l a s t e d 9 4 c a l e n d a r d a y s. A f t e r adjustments for lost time, the mills grind on average 74 tons of cane per hour. La Magdelena factory produces only plantation white sugar, and in 1992-1993, total s u g a r p r o d u c t i o n a m o u n t e d t o 1 8, 5 6 8 t o n s. The milling tandem consists of six mills driven by four turbines. Mills 1 and 2 are d r i v e n b y a t u r b i n e r a t e d a t 4 0 0 H P. M i l l s 3 a n d 4 h a v e a n o t h e r 4 0 0 H P t u r b i n e. M i l l s 5 a n d 6 a r e i n d i v i d u a l l y d r i v e n b y 2 0 0 H P t u r b i n e s. T h e r e i s n o c a n e p r e p a r a t i o n p r i o r t o milling. Table 2.30 shows some relevant production statistics for La Magdalena. 3 7

TABLE 2.30: PRODUCTION STATISTICS -- LA MAGDALENA 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992- Crop days 77 106 108 94 % Lost time 11.2 22.9 15.0 11.7 Tons cane/year 108,116 136,491 175,908 151,760 Tons cane/hr 71 70 80 76 Tons sugar/year 10,858 13,535 18,568 15,032 Gallons bunker 47,384 21,064 26,508 Gallons diesel 0 0 0 Pol % cane 13.19 Pol % bagasse 4.16 4.08 3.35 Fiber % cane 12.41 12.69 13.00 Fiber % bagasse 44.19 44.87 45.44 Moisture % bagasse kwh generated 564,102 67,162 45,334 kwh purchased (season) 256,641 328,812 13,876 kwh purchased (off-season) 487,872 67,162 68,429 S t e a m i s g e n e r a t e d i n t w o b o i l e r s p r o d u c i n g a t o t a l o f 8 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f s t e a m p e r h o u r a t 2 5 0 p s i a n d 4 8 0 d e g r e e s F. B o i l e r 1, a B a b c o c k a n d W i l c o x u n i t, g e n e r a t e s 4 5, 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f s t e a m p e r h o u r, a n d B o i l e r 2, a n E R T E u n i t, p r o d u c e s 3 5, 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r o f s t e a m. N e i t h e r b o i l e r i s e q u i p p e d w i t h a n e c o n o m i z e r o r a p r e h e a t e r. Electrical power is generated by a single turbogenerator. An Elliot turbine coupled with an Allis-Chalmers generator generate 1,000 kw of power using steam at 200 psi and e x h a u s t i n g a t 1 0 p s i. Due to inadequate amounts of bagasse, the factory burns Bunker C fuel during the season to maintain steam flow. The factory also experiences a shortage of electricity which is made up by means of electricity purchases from CEL. T a b l e 2. 3 1 s h o w s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t o f c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r b a s e d o n b u r n i n g t h e b a g a s s e t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e s t e a m i n 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s 3 8

TABLE 2.31: POTENTIAL FOR EXPORT OF COGENERATED POWER CASE 1 CASE 2 Pounds steam per hour 72,000 75,000 Gross generation capacity, MW 4.1 3.5 Net exportable power( season), MW 3.1 2.5 Net exportable power (off-season), MW 4.1 3.5 Net exportable MWh (season) 7,983 6,350 Net exportable MWh (off-season) 22,896 19,352 Net exportable MWh per year 30,879 25,702 T a b l e 2. 3 2 s h o w s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g n e w 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s a n d turbogenerators at La Magdalena. TABLE 2.32: CAPITAL COST OF INSTALLING BOILERS AND TURBOGENERATORS CASE 1 CASE 2 Boiler $2,417,000 $2,197,000 Turbogenerator $1,465,000 $1,332,000 Piping, civil, electrical, foundation $3,882,000 $3,529,000 Erection $835,000 $758,000 Engineering $430,000 $391,000 Miscellaneous $903,000 $821,000 Contingency $993,000 $903,000 TOTAL $10,925,000 $9,931,000 $ million per gross MW 2.66 2.86 T a b l e 2. 3 3 s h o w s t h e e s t i m a t e d a n n u a l o p e r a t i n g c o s t o f p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t o n l y b a g a s s e i s b u r n e d d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, and only bunker C fuel is burned during the off-season. 3 9

TABLE 2.33: ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST OF POWER GENERATION CASE 1 CASE 2 Fuel cost (season) 0 0 Fuel cost (off-season) $683,351 $613,347 Variable operating and maintenance $19,957 $15,874 Variable operating and maintenance $57,240 $48,381 Fixed operating and maintenance costs 0 0 Fixed operating and maintenance costs $63,106 $53,339 2.2.9 Chanmico Chanmico is government-owned and is the second smallest sugar factory in El Salvador in terms of annual sugar production. It has a designed capacity of 2,000 tons of cane per day, but processes about 1,800 tons cane per day on average. In 1992-1993, Chanmico processed 164,454 tons of cane. The crop lasted 93 calendar days. After adjustments for lost time, the mills grind on average 84 tons of cane per hour. Chanmico factory produces a mix of plantation white sugar and raw sugar. In 1992-1 9 9 3 t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n a m o u n t e d t o 1 4, 6 0 9 t o n s, o f w h i c h 4, 9 7 3 t o n s w e r e p l a n t a t i o n w h i t e sugar and 9,636 tons were raw sugar. The milling tandem consists of five mills driven by two KKK turbines rated at 375 HP each. A shredder driven by a 500 HP Elliott turbine and an electrically driven set of knives prepare cane prior to milling. Table 2.34 shows some relevant production statistics for Chanmico factory. 4 0

TABLE 2.34: PRODUCTION STATISTICS -- CHANMICO 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992- Crop days 103 103 113 93 % Lost time 30.3 25.4 24.1 14.3 Tons cane/year 120,300 139,289 202,190 164,454 Tons cane/hr 71 78 99 86 Tons sugar/year 7,759 11,447 17,041 14,610 Gallons bunker 110,563 27,360 25,195 750 Gallons diesel 0 0 0 0 Pol% cane 12.11 12.15 12.16 12.00 Pol% bagasse 3.6 4.2 3.83 3.67 Fiber % cane 13.26 12.88 12.84 13.5 Fiber % bagasse 46.8 45.32 45.35 42.65 Moisture % bagasse 47.5 49.5 49.4 48.0 kwh generated 2,086,112 1,846,560 2,061,120 1,892,256 kwh purchased (season) 688,704 369,312 412,224 378,432 kwh purchased (off-season) 1,056,960 628,800 604,800 655,200 Steam is generated in a Fives Cail Babcock (FCB) unit installed thirteen years ago, w h i c h g e n e r a t e s a b o u t 8 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f s t e a m p e r h o u r a t 3 0 0 p s i a n d 3 3 0 d e g r e e s C. T h e b o i l e r i s n o t e q u i p p e d w i t h a n e c o n o m i z e r o r a p r e h e a t e r. Electric power is generated by a single turbogenerator. The Terry turbine and Scholch generator generate 1,000 kw of power. T a b l e 2. 3 5 s h o w s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t o f c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r b a s e d o n b u r n i n g t h e b a g a s s e t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e s t e a m i n 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s. 4 1

TABLE 2.35: POTENTIAL FOR EXPORT OF COGENERATED POWER CASE 1 CASE 2 Pounds steam per hour 85,000 88,000 Gross generation capacity, MW 4.7 4.0 Net exportable power( season), MW 3.8 3.1 Net exportable power (off-season), MW 4.7 4.0 Net exportable MWh (season) 9,515 7,662 Net exportable MWh (off-season) 26,877 22,635 Net exportable MWh per year 36,392 30,297 T a b l e 2. 3 6 s h o w s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g n e w 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s a n d turbogenerators at Chanmico. TABLE 2.36: CAPITAL COST OF INSTALLING BOILERS AND TURBOGENERATORS CASE 1 CASE 2 Boiler $2,633,000 $2,394,000 Turbogenerator $1,465,000 $1,332,000 Piping, civil, electrical, foundation $4,099,000 $3,726,000 Erection $910,000 $827,000 Engineering $455,000 $414,000 Miscellaneous $956,000 $869,000 Contingency $1,052,000 $956,000 TOTAL $11,570,000 $10,518,00 $ million per gross MW 2.44 2.63 T a b l e 2. 3 7 s h o w s t h e e s t i m a t e d a n n u a l o p e r a t i n g c o s t o f p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t o n l y b a g a s s e i s b u r n e d d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, and only bunker C fuel is burned during the off-season. 4 2

TABLE 2.37: ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST OF POWER GENERATION CASE 1 CASE 2 Fuel cost (season) 0 0 Fuel cost (off-season) $802,157 $717,368 Variable operating and maintenance $23,788 $19,155 Variable operating and maintenance $67,191 $56,586 Fixed operating and maintenance costs 0 0 Fixed operating and maintenance costs $74 078 $62,388 2.2.10 Ahuachapán Ahuachapán is privately-owned and is the smallest sugar factory in El Salvador in terms of annual sugar production. It has a designed capacity of 1,200 tons of cane per day, b u t p r o c e s s e s a b o u t 6 5 0 t o n s c a n e p e r d a y o n a v e r a g e. I n 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3, A h u a c h a p á n p r o c e s s e d 7 3, 4 3 8 t o n s o f c a n e d u r i n g a c r o p s e a s o n t h a t l a s t e d 1 1 3 c a l e n d a r d a y s. A f t e r adjustments for lost time, the mills grind on average 50 tons of cane per hour. Ahuachapán factory produces a mix of plantation white sugar and raw sugar. In 1 9 9 2-1 9 9 3 t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n a m o u n t e d t o 6, 6 6 9 t o n s, o f w h i c h 3, 7 0 9 t o n s w e r e p l a n t a t i o n white sugar and 2,960 tons were raw sugar. The milling tandem consists of three mills driven by a single Worthington turbine rated at 750 HP. There is no cane preparation prior to milling. Table 2.38 shows some relevant production statistics for Ahuachapán factory. 4 3

TABLE 2.38: PRODUCTION STATISTICS -- AHUACHAPÁN 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992- Crop days 54 90 135 113 % Lost time 33.4 33.6 46.1 45.9 Tons cane/year 45,327 67,620 83,838 73,438 Tons cane/hr 52 47 48 50 Tons sugar/year 4,348 5,861 7,017 6,669 Gallons bunker 0 0 0 0 Gallons diesel 0 0 0 0 Pol % cane 14.5 14.6 14.6 Pol % bagasse Fiber % cane 13.37 13.7 13.8 Fiber % bagasse 41.4 40.0 38.8 Moisture % bagasse kwh generated 728 831 kwh purchased (season) 243 277 kwh purchased (off-season) 78 40 A B a b c o c k a n d W i l c o x b o i l e r g e n e r a t e s a b o u t 6 0, 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f s t e a m p e r h o u r a t 2 9 0 p s i a n d 2 6 3 d e g r e e s C. T h e b o i l e r i s n o t e q u i p p e d w i t h a n e c o n o m i z e r o r a p r e h e a t e r. Electrical power is generated by a single turbogenerator. The KKK turbine and NEBB generator generate 800 kw of power. This amount of power is insufficient to meet the needs of both the factory and an adjoining distillery, requiring the purchase of 300 kw from CEL. T a b l e 2. 3 9 s h o w s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p o r t o f c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r b a s e d o n b u r n i n g t h e b a g a s s e t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e s t e a m i n 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s. 4 4

TABLE 2.39: POTENTIAL FOR EXPORT OF COGENERATED POWER CASE 1 CASE 2 Pounds steam per hour 42,000 43,000 Gross generation capacity, MW 1.9 1.5 Net exportable power( season), MW 0 0 Net exportable power (off-season), MW 1.9 1.5 Net exportable MWh (season) 0 0 Net exportable MWh (off-season) 10,200 8,189 Net exportable MWh per year 10,200 8,189 T a b l e 2. 4 0 s h o w s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g n e w 9 0 0 p s i o r 6 0 0 p s i b o i l e r s a n d turbogenerators at Ahuachapán. The high capital cost of US$4 million or more per MW, o w i n g t o t h e s m a l l s i z e o f t h e m i l l, c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e e x t e n s i v e l o s t t i m e, a p p e a r t o m a k e c o g e n e r a t i o n a t t h i s m i l l a n u n a t t r a c t i v e i n v e s t m e n t. TABLE 2.40: CAPITAL COST OF INSTALLING BOILERS AND TURBOGENERATORS CASE 1 CASE 2 Boiler $1,806,000 $1,642,000 Turbogenerator $813,000 $740,000 Piping, civil, electrical, foundation $2,619,000 $2,381,000 Erection $624,000 $567,000 Engineering $293,000 $266,000 Miscellaneous $616,000 $560,000 Contingency $677,000 $616,000 TOTAL $7,448,000 $6,772,000 $ million per gross MW 3.98 4.51 T a b l e 2. 4 1 s h o w s t h e e s t i m a t e d a n n u a l o p e r a t i n g c o s t o f p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n. P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t o n l y b a g a s s e i s b u r n e d d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n, and only bunker C fuel is burned during the off-season. 4 5

TABLE 2.41: ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST OF POWER GENERATION CASE 1 CASE 2 Fuel cost (season) 0 0 Fuel cost (off-season) $304,416 $259,539 Variable operating and maintenance costs $0 $0 Variable operating and maintenance costs $25,499 $20,473 Fixed operating and maintenance costs 0 0 Fixed operating and maintenance costs $28,112 $22,571 4 6

2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e f i n a n c i a l c o s t s, s o m e o f t h e o p t i o n s w i l l h a v e i n c r e m e n t a l environmental impacts associated with them as well. In the case of in-season cogeneration with bagasse fuel only, the same material will be burned in the same quantities and in the same ways as before, and the impacts on air, land and water quality should remain unchanged. For year-round generation, however, additional fuel will be consumed, and the impacts will depend largely on the type of secondary fuel selected. In each case, a favorable effect of independent cogeneration will be to offset generation by CEL to meet the same level of demand for power. W h i l e o t h e r w a s t e b i o m a s s r e s o u r c e s m a y b e a v a i l a b l e i n s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n s, b u n k e r oil is the most likely supplemental fuels for off-season operation. Sugar mills in El Salvador now employ no flue gas emission controls. Oil combustion, depending on specific fuel c o n t e n t, w o u l d e v o l v e o x i d e s o f s u l f u r a n d n i t r o g e n, u n b u r n e d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l, a n d a s m a l l amount of ash. Finally, while the off-season is rainy, operation with any fuel while the r e m a i n d e r o f t h e m i l l i s n o t o p e r a t i n g w i l l r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l c o o l i n g w a t e r t o c o n d e n s e steam. Since the mills are small, the incremental environmental effects may be minor, e s p e c i a l l y a t i s o l a t e d r u r a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s. H o w e v e r, t h e i r c u m u l a t i v e i m p a c t i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o t h e r n e a r b y p o l l u t i n g a c t i v i t i e s s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d o n a c a s e b y c a s e b a s i s. CEL has an energy cost incentive to use geothermal and hydropower in preference to fossil fuel-fired generation, and capacity additions for the remainder of the decade are likely t o b e e i t h e r g e o t h e r m a l o r o i l - f i r e d p o w e r p l a n t s. ( S e e T a b l e 3. 5 b e l o w. ) F o r t h i s r e a s o n, t h e p r o b a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t a l b e n e f i t s d u e t o c o g e n e r a t i o n a t s u g a r m i l l s w i l l l i e i n r e d u c e d f o s s i l fuel (oil) combustion at CEL facilities. These benefits would result, in different amounts, from both in-season and all-year operation. Since much of CEL's oil-fired capacity involves diesels or gas turbines, which burn a c l e a n e r d i s t i l l a t e o i l a n d h a v e h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c i e s t h a n b u n k e r f u e l e d s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s, t h e n e t impact of generation by sugar mills during the off-season will probably be adverse. The p o l l u t a n t s w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t, h o w e v e r, i n t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l c o m b u s t i o n e n g i n e s a r e l i k e l y t o e v o l v e m o r e N O x a n d l e s s S O x a n d p a r t i c u l a t e s t h a n b u n k e r - f i r e d b o i l e r s. 4 7

3.0 EL SALVADOR'S ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM AND AVOIDED COST 3.1 OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC SECTOR La Comision Ejecutiva Hidroelectrica del Rio Lempa (CEL), is the state-owned national power generation authority in El Salvador. CEL has been primarily responsible for all new power generation and transmission in El Salvador since 1948. DISCEL, a unit of C E L, i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d s a l e o f p o w e r t o t h e f i n a l c o n s u m e r i n r u r a l a r e a s i n E l S a l v a d o r. D i s t r i b u t i o n t o t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e c o u n t r y i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f f o u r s t a t e o w n e d d i s t r i b u t i o n c o m p a n i e s. U n t i l 1 9 8 6, w h e n c o n c e s s i o n s expired, these were private companies under the administration of CEL. The four formerly private companies are: CAESS-Compañía de Alumbrado Electrico de San Salvador, CLES- Compañía de Luz Electrica de Sonsanate, CLEA- Compañía de Luz Electrica de Ahuachapán and CLESA-Compañía de Luz Electrica de Santa Ana. A number of important factors are adversely affecting both the supply system of CEL and planning for future generation resources. The majority of current generation equipment is 20 years old or greater, reducing reliability and raising costs of maintenance. Expansion of the system in recent years has not been adequate to meet loads, and the drought which occurred in 1991 made it necessary to add emergency capacity with two new gas turbines of 37.5 MW. Subsequently with the failure of the Soyapango oil-fired plant in 1992, an a d d i t i o n a l g a s t u r b i n e o f 8 2. 1 M W h a d t o b e a d d e d. A s d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r b e l o w, t h e e l e c t r i c power system in El Salvador has experienced much more rapid growth in demand (9.7% versus 7.2%) than had been previously forecast for planning purposes. This growth rate even if later moderated, will require significantly greater additions to the CEL system than had been programmed only as recently as last year. While electricity is clearly a critical input to most economic activity in El Salvador, i t a l s o c o n s t i t u t e s o n e o f t h e l a r g e s t e x p e n d i t u r e o b l i g a t i o n s f o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t. E x p e n d i t u r e s f o r t h e e l e c t r i c p o w e r s e c t o r d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s c o n s t i t u t e d 2 5 % o f t o t a l p u b l i c investment and 8% of total national investment. CEL's investments reached 16.9% of total public investment in 1990. The indebtedness of the power sector, of which CEL is a major 2 p a r t, a t t h e e n d o f S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 3, t o t a l e d 2, 6 1 3 m i l l i o n c o l o n e s ( U S $ 2 9 6. 9 m i l l i o n ). As a condition of recent financing by IDB, CEL has agreed to adhere to strict financial management and indebtedness guidelines over the next 10 years. These will limit CEL borrowing and affect tariff policy. The most important accords provide that CEL will: 2 CEL, Informe Gerencial, October 1993, pp. 21-23. 4 8

1. M a i n t a i n a c u r r e n t r a t i o o f n o t l e s s t h a n 1. 5 ( c u r r e n t a s s e t s / c u r r e n t l i a b i l i t i e s ). 2. Not assume, without prior agreement with IDB, new financial obligations greater than one year duration which would: a. c a u s e i n d e b t e d n e s s t o r i s e a b o v e a r a t i o o f 0. 7 5 ( t o t a l liabilities/total assets), b. cause debt coverage for long-term obligations to fall below 1. 5, e x c e p t f o r 1 9 9 3-9 4 w h e r e a r a t i o o f n o t l e s s t h a n 1. 0 i s agreed. (ratio of actual cash flow to maximum projected debt service), and c. not incur new investments without prior agreement if these exceed 2% of the average of fixed assets. Recent tariff studies by CEL consultants have provided detailed analysis of both price levels and tariff structures. In general, these show CEL revenues at the bulk tariff l e v e l, u s i n g 1 9 9 2 f i n a n c i a l r e s u l t s, w e r e o n l y 0. 4 0 5 4 c o l o n e s / k W h ( U S $ 0. 0 4 6 ) v e r s u s s t r i c t l o n g r u n m a r g i n a l c o s t s o f 0. 8 6 9 8 c o l o n e s / k W h ( U S $ 0. 0 9 9 ). A t t h e r e t a i l l e v e l, c u r r e n t r e v e n u e s a r e 0. 5 4 1 5 c o l o n e s / k W h ( U S $ 0. 0 6 1 5 ) v e r s u s c o s t s f o r C A E S S, w h i c h 3 w e r e 1. 0 2 2 c o l o n e s / k W h ( U S $ 0. 1 1 6 ), a t 8. 8 c o l o n e s / U S d o l l a r. T h e p r o j e c t e d h e a v y f i n a n c i a l b u r d e n o f e l e c t r i c s e c t o r e x p a n s i o n, a s w e l l a s p o o r past financial performance, have led to a number of important reforms affecting the market for, and economics of private power generation. The Government of El Salvador (GOES) i n t e n d s t o r e d u c e t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n e l e c t r i c s e c t o r, i n c l u d i n g consideration of private generation, new regulatory mechanisms and reprivatized electricity distribution. Accords with the Interamerican Development Bank (IDB) and other donors commit the GOES to substantial additional tariff increases to bring electricity prices to the level of long-run marginal cost by 1996, and to maintain prices at these levels thereafter. It will become increasingly difficult politically to expand the power system in the future due to the very large tariff increases, financing restrictions and the heavy financing b u r d e n t h a t w i l l b e r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s e x p a n s i o n. A s t h e d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h f o l l o w s e x p l a i n s, the GOES is now considering a variety of means to mitigate the financial burden of power s e c t o r e x p a n s i o n, a m o n g w h i c h i s p a r t i a l r e l i a n c e o n p r i v a t e p o w e r. 3 RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc. "Estudio del Sistema Tarifario del Subsector Electrico-Informe Final," Julio 1993, Cuadro 5-15 and Cuadro 5-16. 4 9

3.2 INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL BASIS FOR COGENERATION AND PRIVATE POWER 3.2.1 Institutional Structure for Private Power and Power Sector Regulation The Government of El Salvador (GOES) is proceeding rapidly to establish a legal framework for power sector restructuring in El Salvador. The Unidad de Estudios Sectoriales (UES) is the GOES interagency body responsible for overseeing the preparation of legal and institutional reform proposals. Various draft reform laws are currently being prepared for consideration, including a new electricity sector law (Anteproyecto de Ley General de Electricidad), a law to create a new energy regulatory agency or CREH (Anteproyecto de Ley de Creación de la Comisión Reguladora de Electricidad e H i d r o c a r b u r o s ) t o d e a l w i t h t h e e l e c t r i c i t y a n d p e t r o l e u m s e c t o r s, a n d a l a w t o e s t a b l i s h a new national energy commission or CNE (Anteproyecto de la Ley de Creación del Consejo Nacional de Energía). The CNE would be the highest energy policy making body in government and would be made up of the Ministry of Planning, Ministry of the Economy, Ministry of Housing, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock and President of the Central Bank. The CNE would be responsible for such matters as development of national energy strategy and associated l e g i s l a t i o n, i n c l u d i n g p r o m o t i o n o f p r i v a t e i n v e s t m e n t, a p p r o v e q u a l i t y o f s e r v i c e s t a n d a r d s for energy supply, and establish policy for exploration and exploitation of national energy resources. The regulatory agency, CREH, would be responsible for the actual regulatory activities having to do with the development and supply of energy resources within the country, including monitoring of adherence to technical and environmental norms and to both the laws dealing with hydrocarbons and electricity. This agency would be responsible for fixing tariffs for generation, transmission and distribution of electricity, and guaranteeing that quality of service standards are met. The new Ley General de Electricidad (LGE) would provide a comprehensive framework for management of the electricity sector, and in so-doing provide a number of i n n o v a t i o n s w h i c h w i l l b e i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e electricity sector and for private power investment. For example, among the objectives of the LGE is the promotion of free competition in the generation of electricity and free access o f g e n e r a t o r s t o t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n, a s w e l l a s t h e g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e p r i c e s o f e l e c t r i c i t y r e f l e c t c o s t s o f g e n e r a t i o n, t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n. C o n c e s s i o n s f o r p r i v a t e generation would generally be required by the law, except that thermal and non-conventional electricity generators below levels to be prescribed under the law would be exempt. P u b l i s h e d n a t i o n a l g e n e r a t i o n a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n e x p a n s i o n p l a n s w o u l d f o r m t h e b a s i s u p o n w h i c h i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s w o u l d b e a b l e t o b i d f o r g e n e r a t i o n a n d / o r t r a n s m i s s i o n c o n c e s s i o n s, e i t h e r o n t h e i r o w n m o t i o n o r i n r e s p o n s e t o p u b l i c s o l i c i t a t i o n s, a n d p r o p o s e r s w o u l d p r e s e n t 5 0

brief feasibility studies along with schedule, budget and sources of funds. 4 The new law provides eminent domain procedures for use of private property for electricity generation, transmission or distribution, and provides for use of hydrologic, g e o t h e r m a l, w i n d a n d s o l a r n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l p a y m e n t t o t h e s t a t e b y electricity generators. The responsibility of developers will be primarily for facilities 5 necessary to exploit these resources. D i s t r i b u t i o n c o n c e s s i o n s a r e d e s c r i b e d a n d r u l e s f o r operation given, and the Ministry of Economy would have one year formally to grant the c o n c e s s i o n s. I n a d d i t i o n, t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g p r i c e s o f w h o l e s a l e p o w e r s a l e s t o distributors is specified, generally making these prices equal to the prospective 5 year average of short-term marginal costs of generation plus a cost for use of transmission. There i s a l s o a u t h o r i t y, b u t f e w d e t a i l s a r e s p e c i f i e d, f o r e v e n t u a l c o m p l e t e l i b e r a l i z a t i o n o f w h o l e s a l e p o w e r s a l e s p r i c e s, t h a t i s, a u t h o r i t y f o r c o m p e t i t i v e p u r c h a s e u n d e r r e g u l a t o r y 6 supervision. Criteria for transmission access or use and appropriate payments are also 7 described. Criteria for determining final tariffs to consumers are provided, generally c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o c o s t o f p u r c h a s e d p o w e r, p l u s v a l u e - a d d e d b y t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c o m p a n y assuming "efficient" (defined) operation. Tariffs for classes of customers are to be costb a s e d, t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t l o s s e s a n d a s s o c i a t e d e n e r g y a n d c a p a c i t y c o s t s. S t u d i e s b y distributors are to be prepared proposing tariff levels by class of customer. These are then reviewed by the CREH to determine the internal rate of return on investment (from revenues l e s s c o s t s o f o p e r a t i o n ), u s i n g a n h i s t o r i c t e s t y e a r. T h e a l l o w e d r a t e o f r e t u r n w i l l b e t h e discount rate defined for calculation of tariffs (opportunity cost of capital fixed by CNE) plus a maximum of 4 percent. 8 4 U.E.S, "Anteproyecto de Ley General de Electricidad," pp. 6-14. 5 U.E.S, "Anteproyecto de Ley General de Electricidad," pg. 18. 6 U.E.S, "Anteproyecto de Ley General de Electricidad," pp. 44-46. 7 U.E.S, "Anteproyecto de Ley General de Electricidad," pp. 47-48. 8 U.E.S, "Anteproyecto de Ley General de Electricidad," pp. 53-54. 5 1

3.3 ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN EL SALVADOR 3.3.1 Current CEL and Distribution Company Growth Projections 3.3.1.1 CEL Projections The forecast of sales and power demand prepared by CEL is the basis for investment planning in El Salvador. The methodology for preparing this forecast involves analysis of d e m a n d p a t t e r n s a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l u s i n g a n e c o n o m e t r i c m o d e l o f h i s t o r i c p o w e r s a l e s b y e c o n o m i c s e c t o r v e r s u s v a r i o u s e c o n o m i c v a r i a b l e s. T h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e s e e c o n o m i c v a r i a b l e s a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l b y e c o n o m i c o f f i c i a l s a n d / o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s, a r e used as the basis for CEL's forecast of the corresponding future electrical consumption up to 2010. In addition, the staff of CEL separately take into consideration plans for additional l a r g e p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c p r o j e c t s. The future growth of El Salvador's electricity sector as well as the economy has recently been very robust due to the end of the conflict of the 1980's. Unfortunately, this has also added substantially to the uncertainty of forecasts and corresponding supply plans. As an example, the consumption of electricity grew at an average of 3.8% during the period 1 9 8 0 t o 1 9 8 9, v e r s u s 1 0. 3 % f r o m 1 9 7 0-7 9, a n d i n 1 9 9 3 a p p e a r s t o h a v e g r o w n a t a r a t e o f 9 a b o u t 9. 7 %. Potentially damping the need for new capacity will be a number of other new factors. During the next 5-10 years El Salvador's electricity sector will be subject to a large number of important policy interventions, including more concerted effort to reduce large t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n l o s s e s ( w h i c h l o w e r n e e d f o r n e w c a p a c i t y ), a s w e l l a s p r i c e reform leading to large increases in electricity rates, and introduction of load management and energy conservation programs. T h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e s p r e s e n t b o t h p r e v i o u s a n d c u r r e n t e l e c t r i c i t y s a l e s a n d d e m a n d forecasts for comparison. The recent but no longer accepted forecast growth rates used by CEL to prepare the 1992 CEL-IDB supply plan, as well as recent revisions used for the current plans, are shown in Table 3.1 below. The most recent forecast projects average demand growth over the period 1994 to 2010 at 8.8% per year. 9 CEL, op. cit., pg. 12; and CEL, Plan Complementario del Sistema de Generacion 1993-2010 26/10/93, pg. 22. 5 2

TABLE 3.1: PAST AND CURRENT FORECAST NATIONAL 10 ELECTRICITY GROWTH RATES (1992-2010) Year Scenario Intermedio Scenario Optimista Scenario Pesimista Previous Forecast 1992/1995 6.6% 7.5% 4.9% 1996/2000 7.7% 9.5% 5.8% 2001/2005 7.2% 8.8% 5.3% 2006/2010 7.0% 8.0% 4.9% Total 7.2% 8.4% 5.2% Current Forecast 8.8% - - An important element of the forecast process used for generation planning purposes i s t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f l o s s e s i n e n e r g y a n d c a p a c i t y i n t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n f r o m b o t h t e c h n i c a l a n d n o n - t e c h n i c a l ( e. g., t h e f t ) s o u r c e s, s h o w n b e l o w. T h e s e a r e c o m b i n e d w i t h forecast consumption and maximum demand to determine generation capacity requirements. TABLE 3.2: TOTAL SYSTEM LOSSES - CEL ESTIMATE Year Transmission Losses Distribution Losses Total Losses (%) (%) (%) 1992/94 6.5% 9.5% 16.0% 1995/97 6.0% 9.0% 16.0% 1998/2000 5.5% 8.5% 14.0% 2001/2010 5.0% 8.0% 13.0% 10 Misión del BID-Revision, "Proyecciones de la Demanda de Energia Electrica," 26/08/92. 5 3

TABLE 3.3: PREVIOUS AND CURRENT CEL GENERATION AND MAXIMUM DEMAND FORECAST Year Net Generation Maximum Load (GWh) Demand (MW) Factor 1992 Previous/ 2,434.6/ 455.6/ 0.61 Current 2,503.4 476.0 1995 Previous/ 2,929.7/ 539.4/ 0.61 Current 3,307.0 625.0 2000 Previous/ 4,225.6/ 765.7/ 0.61 Current 5,203.5 974.0 2005 Previous/ 5,957.5/ 1,062.5/ 0.62 Current 7,851.5 1,446.0 2010 Previous/ 8,366.9/ 1,492.4/ 0.63 Current 11,421.0 2,069.0 Source: CEL, Plan Complementario del Sistema de Generacion 1993-2010, 5 4

PLANICEL/SPDE/26/10/93 3.3.2 El Salvador's Generation System and Its Operation 3.3.2.1 National Supply System (CEL) The total installed capacity in El Salvador as of September 1993 was 817.5 MW, of which 47.5% was hydroelectric, 12.8% geothermal and 39.7% oil-fired. The generation system of El Salvador is heavily dependent on hydroelectric generation which provided some 52% (1,066 GWh) of total energy produced from national resources in 1993 (2,055 GWh) through September. Hydroelectric generation is made-up of four major units, with installed and available capacity (September 1993) as follows: 11 Hydroelectric Capacity Available Installed Guajoyo 1 5. 0 M W 15 MW Cerron Grande 1 3 5. 0 M W 1 3 5 M W 5 de Noviembre 7 2. 0 M W 8 1. 4 M W 15 de Septiembre 1 5 6. 6 MW 1 5 6. 6 M W Subtotal 3 7 8. 6 M W 3 8 8. 0 M W 12 G e o t h e r m a l r e s o u r c e s i n E l S a l v a d o r a r e s u b s t a n t i a l, w i t h 2 s i t e s o p e r a t i o n a l i n t h e Ahuachapán field and one in the Berlin field. In 1993, geothermal generation made-up 14% (290 GWh) of internally generated energy through September 1993. Average plant factor was 39%. Geothermal Capacity Available Installed Ahuachapán 58 MW 95 MW Berlin 5 MW 10 MW S u b t o t a l 6 3. 0 M W 1 0 5 M W Thermal generation is next in importance after hydroelectric generation with 5 major stations providing 34% (699 GWh) of internal energy production through September 1993, with an average plant factor of 52%. 11 Comision Ejecutive Hidroelectrica del Rio Lempa, "Reporte Mensual de Operacion del Sistema CEL, Septiembre 1993, page 14. 12 CEL, Plan Complementario del Sistema de Generacion 1993-2010, Resumen Ejecutivo, SPDE/26/10/93, PLANICEL; page 13. 5 5

Thermal (Oil-fired) Capacity Available Installed Acajutla (Steam) 58 MW 63 MW Acajutla (Gas) 1 3 8 M W 1 5 7. 1 M W Miravalle 12 MW 1 8. 6 M W Soyapango 0 MW 5 3. 9 M W San Miguel 2 3 MW 3 1. 9 M W Subtotal 1 1 2. 6 M W 1 6 7. 4 M W Of the total CEL generation system,with an installed capacity of 817.5 MW, 672.6 MW was available capacity as of September 1993. 3.3.3 National Transmission and Distribution System D e c e n t r a l i z e d g e n e r a t i o n s o u r c e s, s u c h a s t h e s u g a r s e c t o r, w i l l n o t o n l y p o t e n t i a l l y impact the generation system of CEL, but also will have an impact on transmission and distribution to varying degrees. Although smaller size cogeneration and/or seasonable capacity, may not impact required transmission investment to serve national loads, decentralized generation would reduce transmission losses and possibly substation power requirements and investments. By improving the quality of power supply at intermediate points in the distribution system, decentralized generation may have significant benefits for q u a l i t y o f s e r v i c e, r e d u c e d d i s t r i b u t i o n l o s s e s a n d p o s s i b l y l o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n v e s t m e n t requirements. Distribution power quality in many rural areas is now substandard and r e q u i r e s c h a n g e s s u c h a s s u b s t a t i o n r e l o c a t i o n o r i m p r o v e m e n t, c h a n g i n g v o l t a g e, a n d l i n e reconductoring. The principal transmission system in El Salvador operates at 115 kv system with the e x c e p t i o n o f t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G u a t e m a l a w h i c h i s 2 3 0 k V. T h e s y s t e m c o n s i s t s o f some 29 lines of 848 kms interconnecting generating stations with CEL's main substations. CEL's Operations Center controls the transmission and distribution of electricity, through the s i x m a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n c o m p a n i e s, t o 7 d i r e c t c l i e n t s o f C E L a n d 1 3 r u r a l e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n z o n e s (distributed by DISCEL). Figure 3.1 below contains a line diagram of the national interconnected system. The distribution system in El Salvador consists of some 16,672 kms of primary and secondary distribution lines. While no exact figure is available it is normally assumed that t h e r u r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m c o n s i s t s o f a t l e a s t 7, 8 4 2 k m s, w h i c h i s t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m o f DISCEL. Most rural primary distribution is at 13.2 KV, while the majority of urban primary distribution (CAESS) is at 23 KV. Long line lengths, along with inadequate conductor s i z e s, a r e m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r s t o l a r g e l o s s e s a n d l o w v o l t a g e l e v e l s e x p e r i e n c e d i n r u r a l E l Salvador. DISCEL reports average distribution losses of 22.8% in 1992 for example. These unfavorable characteristics substantially influence (increase) the potential distribution benefits of decentralized generation. 13 13 NRECA, "Valuo de Inventarios de Lineas y Transformadores de Distribution...," San Salvador, February 1993. 5 6

FIGURE 3.1 (FULL PAGE CEL MAP) 5 7

3.3.3.1 Planned Expansion of the National Interconnected System Until very recently CEL had planned to accommodate annual demand growth of 7. 2 %, c o n s i s t e n t w i t h r e c e n t p r o j e c t i o n s o f g r o w t h i n n a t i o n a l i n c o m e o f 4. 0 % ( 1 9 9 3 ) t o 4.6% (1996 and thereafter). The plan contemplated financing by the IDB of 4 projects d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 9 9 3-1 9 9 6. T h e s e w e r e : t h e t h i r d w e l l - h e a d u n i t o f t h e B e r l i n g e o t h e r m a l field, the steam-turbine to be added to the existing combined-cycle unit, a feasibility study of the San Vicente geothermal field and rehabilitation of the steam units of Acajutla. The A c a j u t l a r e h a b i l i t a t i o n w i l l b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h f u n d s f r o m t h e O v e r s e a s E c o n o m i c C o o p e r a t i o n F u n d o f J a p a n. In order to respond to the accelerated rate of demand growth, CEL has performed a d d i t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n a l a n d p l a n n i n g s t u d i e s t o a s c e r t a i n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n a n d p l a n n e d n e w g e n e r a t i o n. G i v e n t h e c r i t i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n, C E L h a s a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d p r i v a t e p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n i t s official generation planning. In order to understand the worst-case implications of not expanding their system adequately, CEL performed several operational studies, assuming no additional short-term generation is added ( d u e t o d e l a y s i n p l a n n e d p r o j e c t s, e t c. ) w i t h t h e following results: C U n d e r a v e r a g e h y d r o c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 9 9 3-1 9 9 6, t h e r e w o u l d be a deficit in energy of 183.2 GWh and 508.7 GWh in the years 1995 and 1996 respectively. C Under dry hydro conditions during this same period, an energy deficit of 530 G W h a n d 5 7 5 G W h i n 1 9 9 5 a n d 1 9 9 6, r e s p e c t i v e l y, w o u l d o c c u r C Assuming only rehabilitation of Soyapango by 1995, the system would have a deficit of 25 GWh in 1995 under dry hydro conditions. T a b l e s 3. 4-3. 5 d e s c r i b e C E L p l a n n i n g a s s u m p t i o n s a n d r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n p l a n d o n e a s i n p u t t o I D B l o a n e v a l u a t i o n s. TABLE 3.4: AVERAGE CAPITAL AND O&M COSTS OF THE INVESTMENT PLAN Energy Average Costs Resources Capital O&M US $/kw US $/kwh Hydro Projects 1528.12 0.0265 Geothermal Projects 2148.40 0.0413 Thermal Projects 1064.7 0.0807 Source: Summary of the Electricity Generation and Transmission Plan 1992-2010, PLANICEL/SPDE/10-01-92/36/92. 5 8

TABLE 3.5: ORIGINAL CEL-IDB INVESTMENT PLAN Year Number of Units Project Capacity (MW) 1993 2 Gas Turbine 37.5 1 Gas Turbine 80 1994 1 Chipilapa Well-Head Geothermal 5 1995 1 Berlin Well-Head Geothermal 5 1996 1 Steam Turbine/for Combined Cycle 32 1 Rehab Acajutla 58 1997 1 Berlin Geothermal 23.7 1 Ahuachapán Stabilization 21 1998 1 Berlin Geothermal 23.7 1 Chipilapa Geothermal 23.7 1999 1 C.H. 5 de Noviembre 120 2000 1 Oil-fired Steam 69 2001 2 C.H. San Marcos Lempa 80 2002 1 Oil-fired Steam 69 2003 1 San Vicente Geothermal 23.7 C E L h a s n o w r e f o r m u l a t e d t h e i r l e a s t - c o s t e x p a n s i o n p l a n t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t a number of other adverse factors in addition to the higher demand growth they are experiencing These factors include delays in expansion of the 5 de Noviembre Hydro facility, delay of 8 months in the third Berlin well-head unit, delay of the steam turbine for the existing combined cycle unit, and finally, failure of Chipilapa field studies to indicate adequate geothermal steam for that development. The two tables in Appendix B below are reproduced from CEL's revised plan and p r e s e n t s t w o v e r s i o n s. T h e f i r s t t a b l e, " c o n r e c u r s o s C E L, " s h o w s t h e r e v i s e d p l a n u t i l i z i n g only CEL resources. This plan would produce an effective addition of 299.7 MW of capacity net of retirements by the year 2010, at a net present value of costs of $1,505.8 million. In the second case, "con generación privada," private power generation is allowed t o e n t e r t h e p l a n, w i t h a m o u n t s o f 8 0 M W i n 1 9 9 5, a n d 1 1 5 M W i n 1 9 9 8. T h e s a m e t o t a l effective capacity of 299.7 MW would be added, with the net present value of CEL's investment costs dropping to $1,164.6. In most future years adequate reserve margin are maintained with only CEL generation, however 1996-7, 2002 and 2006 reserve margins are b e l o w 1 0 %. R e s e r v e m a r g i n s u n d e r t h e p l a n w i t h p r i v a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o n l y f a l l b e l o w 1 0 % in 1996, and thereafter generally exceed 15%. Both plans show that short-term energy needs can be satisfactorily met. 3.3.4 CEL Actions Regarding Private Power Supply CEL is currently attempting to determine the potential for private generation through a p u b l i c s o l i c i t a t i o n t o p r o v i d e a n 8 0 M W u n i t f o r o p e r a t i o n b y J a n u a r y 1 9 9 5. T h i s a p p e a r s to be the most attractive option for CEL, as it would offer an alternative to acquiring 3 gas t u r b i n e s 1 9 9 5 ( 2 x 3 7. 5 M W ) a n d 1 9 9 7 ( 1 x 3 7. 5 M W ). T h e b r e a k - d o w n o f n e a r - t e r m requirement assuming private generation is as follows: 5 9

Rehabilitation of Soyapango Units 1 and 3 A p r i l 1 9 9 5 U n i t 2 J u l y 1 9 9 5 Rehabilitation of Acajulta 58 MW Dec 1995/May 1996 Steam turbine Combined-Cycle 32 MW January 1996 Berlin Geothermal 5 MW 1 9 9 6 2 3. 7 M W 1 9 9 7 Private Generation Unit of 80 MW January 1995 Unit of 115 MW January 1998 T h e l a t e s t C E L g e n e r a t i o n p l a n ( S P D E / 2 6 / 1 0 / 9 3 ) i n d i c a t e d t h a t a d e c i s i o n w o u l d b e reached on whether or not to pursue private generation for the above 80 MW facility by N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 3. T h i s s c h e d u l e a p p e a r s t o n o w h a v e s l i p p e d. T h e p l a n d o e s n o t g o i n t o d e t a i l c o n c e r n i n g w h a t t e r m s a n d c o n d i t i o n s w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d, n o r c r i t e r i a f o r p r i c i n g. H o w e v e r, i t i s n o t e d i n t h e r e p o r t t h a t C E L w i l l r e q u i r e a n 8 0 % a v a i l a b i l i t y r a t e, a n d t h a t t h e c o s t m u s t n o t e x c e e d t h e o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n o f t h e l e a s t - c o s t p l a n ( a s s u m e d h e r e t o m e a n equal to or lower than long-run marginal cost). The failure of the private generation approach would require CEL to proceed immediately to acquire two 37.5 MW gas turbines f o r 1 9 9 5, a n d a n o t h e r 3 7. 5 M W i n 1 9 9 7, p l u s a 7 5 M W o i l - s t e a m p l a n t i n 1 9 9 8. W i t h o r w i t h o u t p r i v a t e g e n e r a t i o n, C E L w o u l d c o n t i n u e w i t h r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e o i l - f i r e d s t e a m units at Acajutla for December 1995 and May 1996, and acquire a steam turbine for its 14 combined cycle plant by January 1996. 3.4 AVOIDED COST PRICING FOR PRIVATE POWER A preliminary analysis of marginal costs, and adjustments to them to establish a p p r o p r i a t e a v o i d e d c o s t s f o r v a l u i n g p r i v a t e p o w e r s u p p l y, i s p r e s e n t e d b e l o w. T h e c u r r e n t supply plan and forecast considered most likely by CEL and described above is used for this analysis, with the avoided cost estimate derived form marginal cost analyses done for CEL in 15 its recent tariff study. 3.4.1 Avoided Cost T h e m a i n a l t e r n a t i v e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n u s e d i n t h e p a s t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r 14 CEL, Plan Complementario del Sistema de Generacion 1993-2010, Resumen Ejecutivo, SPDE/26/10/93, PLANICEL; pp. 46-47. 15 CEL-Hagler-Bailly. 6 0

estimating the price for private power purchases from cogenerators or others are discussed below. In principle, the method for determining the price to be paid for privately generated p o w e r s h o u l d b e s i m p l e t o u s e a n d p e r m i t a d j u s t m e n t s o v e r t i m e f o r c o n t i n g e n c i e s w h i c h might arise such as changing exchange rates, taxes, inflation, etc. In tariff design, the principle that rates should reflect marginal cost of supply has been generally accepted as e c o n o m i c a l l y e f f i c i e n t. T h i s b a s i s s h o u l d e n s u r e t h a t n a t i o n a l e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s a r e allocated efficiently within the power sector and when applied to tariffs and combined with n o n - d i s t o r t i n g a d j u s t m e n t f o r a c h i e v i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e r e t u r n o n r a t e b a s e, s h o u l d r e s u l t i n a fair allocation of costs among customers according to the costs they impose on the system. Applying the marginal cost principle to purchases from cogenerators leads to a similar result, that is, power supplied is essentially worth the cost "avoided" by the utility. A v o i d e d c o s t s c o n s i s t o f t w o p a r t s, a n e n e r g y c o m p o n e n t, w h i c h i s b a s e d o n t h e s h o r t - r u n i n c r e m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n c o s t o f t h e u t i l i t y, a d j u s t e d f o r l o s s e s ; a n d a c a p a c i t y component, which is based on the marginal cost of new capacity, also adjusted for losses. The basic objective of avoided cost pricing is to find a fair and readily implementable means f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v a l u e t o t h e u t i l i t y f o r a d d i t i o n a l p r i v a t e g e n e r a t i o n. W h i l e s h o r t - r u n costs are recognized as the correct economic basis for pricing, they can fluctuate widely from year to year. Other bases, such as average short-run costs or long-run marginal cost are often used to approximate this cost, since they offer a more stable basis. I n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h e l e a s t - c o s t f o r p u r c h a s e d p o w e r, c o m p e t i t i v e b i d d i n g i s a l s o being introduced in many countries for acquisition of large blocks of power. In this case, avoided costs may be considered a ceiling, with the utility attempting to purchase each successive block of power needed at the lowest prices and presumably from the most efficient producer. S e v e r a l f a c t o r s e n t e r i n t o t h e v a l u a t i o n o f p r i v a t e p o w e r a n d c o m p u t a t i o n o f p r i c e s t o be paid for it. The most prominent factors are: C Reliability--to what extent will the power generated be available when n e e d e d a n d i n t h e a m o u n t n e e d e d? C Energy and capacity value of power--how are the values for kwh's and kw's s u p p l i e d t o b e d e t e r m i n e d? W h a t u t i l i t y c o s t s a r e d i s p l a c e d b y p r i v a t e p o w e r sources? Are these merely short-run operating costs (e.g. for cogenerators of small amounts of non-firm power), or do they offset new capital investment by the utility? C B a l a n c e b e t w e e n i n c e n t i v e s t o c o g e n e r a t o r s a n d c o n s u m e r c o s t s. C T r a n s m i s s i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n i m p a c t s a n d l i n e l o s s d i f f e r e n c e s t o b e a c h i e v e d d u e t o t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e c o g e n e r a t i o n c a p a c i t y i n r e l a t i o n t o l o a d s, as compared to location of utility capacity. A variety of approaches have been applied to estimating of avoided costs and establishing private power prices, including the "Peaker Method", "Average Incremental Cost", "Generation Expansion", "Competitive Bidding" and "Standard Offers". These approaches are briefly discussed in the box below: 6 1

3.4.2 Application of Avoided Cost Principles in El Salvador A n u m b e r o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p e c i f i c t o t h e c a s e o f E l S a l v a d o r m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d i n estimating avoided costs. These are apart from prospective new electricity policy and law in E l S a l v a d o r w h i c h t h e G o v e r n m e n t i s n o w c o n s i d e r i n g. 3.4.2.1 Investment Funds Shortage and Loan Subsidies. T h e e x i s t e n c e o f l o a n s u b s i d i e s t o C E L f r o m i n t e r n a t i o n a l d o n o r s w a r r a n t s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n. F i n a n c i a l s u b s i d i e s i n t e r m s o f g r a n t s o r b e l o w - m a r k e t i n t e r e s t l o a n s r e c e i v e d b y CEL tend to lower actual CEL cost. Subsidized sources of finance provide a distorted signal r e l a t i v e t o t h e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p r i v a t e g e n e r a t i o n, a n d i f u s e d a s a b a s i s o f c o m p a r i s o n, w o u l d p u t p r i v a t e g e n e r a t o r s a t a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e d i s a d v a n t a g e. C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t s u b s i d i z e d f i n a n c i n g i s a l w a y s r a t i o n e d a n d c a n b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o o t h e r p u b l i c p u r p o s e s w i t h n o l o s s t o t h e c o u n t r y, i t w o u l d a p p e a r i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o u t i l i z e s u b s i d i z e d f i n a n c i n g t e r m s i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r e l a t i v e b e n e f i t o f p r i v a t e v e r s u s p u b l i c p o w e r s u p p l i e s. The current terms of CEL's long-term debt, and in some cases joint debt with CAESS a n d / o r t h e G O E S, i s p r e s e n t e d b e l o w. T o t a l l o n g - t e r m d e b t a m o u n t e d t o $ 2 7 8. 7 m i l l i o n i n major loans as of November 1993. These consist of loans from the Inter-American Development Bank for $125.9 million, Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF) $72.9 million and CITIBANK and Eximbank $43.2 million, as well as the World Bank $11.0 million, among others. Terms from major lenders are shown in Table 3.6 below. Costs in the case of OECF funds are clearly heavily subsidized. 6 2

Avoided Cost Options 1. Peaker Method: In this method short-run marginal operating costs of the utility system are used for valuing energy supplied, and capital costs avoided are assumed to be equal to the annualized costs of a new combustion turbine or other peaking facility (including O&M, fuel inventory costs). Adjustments for reliability (e.g. required additions to reserve margin) and forced outage adjustment are also normally made. Comment: This approach is convenient and relatively easy to calculate. However, the approach may also underestimate actual avoided cost, as the long-run costs of new baseload generation would normally be higher than a peaking unit. 2. Average Incremental Cost Approach This approach is similar to the peaker method and also utilizes the capital and operation cost of an "avoided" unit in the generation mix. However, rather than only use a peaking unit, it would normally use the next expected generation unit in the optimal generation expansion plan, as the basis for estimated avoided cost payments for the private generator. Differences in reliability of the private generation versus utility power production may be incorporated. Comment: While this method is simple like the peaker method, it is likely to be more accurate, although still only a rough estimate of avoided cost, in that it does not consider other system effects or costs based on the planned dispatching of the "avoided" unit, or exact project timing.. 3. Generation Expansion Plan - Differential Revenue Requirements Method This approach requires the modeling of the system over a substantial period of time, e.g. 25 years, with the development of a leastcost expansion plan for the period. Addition of the private power project into the plan or deletion (or delay) of a planned additions is used to generate a revised least-cost plan, together with revised fund requirements each year. Differences in the present worth of required revenues due to the private project are the amounts which could be paid the private generator. Comment: The cost, data intensiveness and time consuming nature of this approach are the principal disadvantage. Small increments of capacity such as cogenerated power generation would not normally justify such an analysis. 4. Competitive Bidding This approach is meant to approximate the results of a free-market for power supply. It is based on the utility requesting offers which may differentiate based on type and size of capacity, timing, reliability, and baseload-intermediate-peaking needs. The utility would compute its avoided cost, for example, utilizing the generation expansion method above, to establish a baseline for evaluating proposals. Other factors than price would affect the evaluation, including the utilities judgement of the capability of the bidder, fuel type and future cost of fuels proposed, type of generation and perceived reliability and performance, etc. Comment: This method would only work with a substantial number of willing bidders, with the utility committed to purchase and facilitate arrangements once bids are accepted. 5. Standard Offers. Where the size of individual projects is likely to be small, for example, in systems with sugar industry cogeneration of electricity and steam, or with initial small private projects, another option is the "standard offer". After calculating its avoided cost, the utility prepares a standard offer similar to a power sales tariff. Comment:: This approach avoids costly negotiation and analysis by the private generator, and is likely to be conducive to sales from small-generators. The offer will normally differentiate respectively, between only energy purchases, firm capacity supplied, dispatchable capacity, etc. 6 3

TABLE 3.6: FINANCIAL TERMS OF PAST AND PROSPECTIVE CEL BORROWING Financing Terms Inter-American Overseas Economic CITIBANK & World Development Bank Cooperation Fund Eximbank Bank Amortization 20 years 20 years 5-7 years 15 years Period 5 years 10 years 6 months 3-5 years Grace Period 7.29% 3.0% LIBOR + 7.8% Interest Rate 0.375%-0.55% 1.0% Inspection & Review Fund 0.75% 1.0% 0.125-0.1875% plus 0.75% Credit 5.06%-6.33% (Flat) Commission or Guarantee 3.4.2.2 Short-term Capacity and Energy Shortages Another factor affecting the value of cogenerated electricity during the next 3-5 years in El Salvador is the general shortage of energy and capacity. Under ordinary circumstances, it would be appropriate to determine avoided cost, including seasonality, time of day, and "firmness" and then to set avoided cost payments accordingly. However, due to a current shortage of energy and capacity, CEL is able to utilize any additional capacity regardless of the time of year to avoid unserved energy and more fully achieve reserve criteria. Thus, even if sugar sector cogeneration were seasonal, and therefore did not provide "firm capacity" all year, the value of this capacity to CEL in the near-term is still equal at a maximum to seasonal and daily peak avoided cost during each period, and at a minimum to the value of unserved energy. Furthermore, from a review of the seasonality of hydroelectric energy and capacity available in El Salvador, it is clear that the dry season where hydroelectricity is least available, is also the harvest period during which the majority of sugar cogeneration would be available. For example, available hydro capacity using 1993 data on reservoir levels for the two main storage reservoirs in El Salvador, Guajoyo (Guija) and Cerron Grande, showed that decrease or outflows due to dry conditions were in December - April, while maximum inflows were in May to October-November, that is, outside the cane harvest season. 16 In the short-term however, particularly given the relatively small amount of cogeneration from industrial sources such as the sugar industry, explicit GOES and CEL incentives, such as payment of full-peak season avoided cost for all cogeneration in order to stimulate development of this resource, would appear to be a reasonable option. In the future, when and if the CEL system can again operate without unserved energy, and with adequate reserves during all seasons, etc., then seasonality and hourly availability characteristics would become relevant for determining avoided 16 CEL, "Reporte Mensual de Operacion del Sistema CEL," Septiembre 1993, pg. 25. 6 4

cost payments. 6 5

3.4.2.3 High-Cost of Marginal Energy Supply A review of CEL marginal costs showed the high cost of current energy and capacity shortages. During the period January 1993 to September 1993 for example, CEL suffered from unusual overhaul, unavailability or failure of some or all units of the Ahuachapán, Acajutla, Miravalle, and Soyapango facilities. Partly as a consequence, it was necessary to utilize higher cost diesel at Acajutla and San Miguel throughout the period, except for September. Costs per kwh for fuel alone averaged 0.68 colones/kwh (US $0.077/kWh) for San Miguel and 0.58 colones/kwh (US $0.066/kWh) for Acajutla. As a result, the average cost of fuel for all thermal generation was a very high 0.516 colones/kwh (US $ 0.059/kWh). As can be seen as well in Figure 3.2 and Table 3.7, "Diesel Requirement", the prospective operation for 1994 shows that the available capacity from lower cost generation capacity, that is, hydroelectric, geothermal and bunker oil-fired capacity, will be substantially below requirements to meet peak demand. Therefore, high cost peaking capacity using diesel (Acajutla and San Miguel) will be called upon to meet from a low of 42 MW (8%) of annual seasonal peak demand to a high of 148 MW (28%) when demand is projected at 523 MW demand. Implied in these figures is a substantial requirement from high cost diesel burning facilities. 17 TABLE 3.7: CEL PLAN OF OPERATION - NET AVAILABLE CAPACITY 1994 Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Hydroelectric 369.6 285.3 277.3 266.3 347 302 312 378 378 378 378.6 378. 6 Geothermal 38.1 41.8 46.6 40.9 41.2 40.1 37.3 38.2 45.9 45.6 46.9 52.4 Acajutla Bunker 63 63 63 63 63 63 34 34 34 34 63 63 Miravalle Bunker 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Acajutla Diesel 136 136 136 136 136 103 136 136 136 136 136 136 S. Miguel/Soyapango 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 73 73 73 Total 634.7 554.1 550.9 534.2 615.2 536.1 547.3 614.2 621.9 671.6 702.5 708 D e m a n d 518 503 526 523 535 524 515 514 516 540 545 575 Reserve 116.7 51.1 24.9 11.2 80.2 12.1 32.3 100.2 105.9 131.6 157.5 133 Diesel Requirement 42.3 107.9 134.1 147.8 78.8 113.9 126.7 58.8 53.1 77.4 51.5 76 17 CEL, "Informe Mensual...," pp. 11-18. 6 6

FIGURE 3.2: CEL NET AVAILABLE CAPACITY 6 7

3.5 GENERATION EXPANSION PLAN AND ESTIMATION OF AVOIDED AND LONG-RUN MARGINAL COST C E L m a i n t a i n s b o t h s h o r t a n d l o n g - t e r m i n v e s t m e n t p l a n s a n d h a s j u s t c o m p l e t e d a major study of marginal costs and tariffs, which is the primary basis for avoided cost 18 c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h i s s e c t i o n. The analysis provides estimated long-run marginal cost on a basis similar to what is normally termed "short-run marginal cost" in other avoided cost analyses. The essential differences are that short-run cost, strictly speaking, refers to r e s p o n s e s w h i c h t a k e p l a c e s o l e l y w i t h e x i s t i n g e q u i p m e n t, s o t h e y i n c l u d e n o c a p i t a l c o s t c o m p o n e n t. " S h o r t - r u n m a r g i n a l " c o s t s r e f e r t o t h o s e i n c u r r e d i n r e s p o n s e t o a n i n c r e a s e i n d e m a n d w h i c h i s s u s t a i n e d i n d e f i n i t e l y i n t o t h e f u t u r e, a n d t o c o r r e s p o n d i n g c a p i t a l investment for peaking facilities to maintain system reliability given this increased 19 demand. "Short-run marginal costs" as defined here for avoided cost analysis purposes therefore reflect the optimization of the system not just for a given hour, but for an increase s u s t a i n e d i n t h e f u t u r e i n c l u d i n g c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s. T h e s e c o s t s, c o n v e r t e d t o an amount per kwh, reflect the "life-cycle" concept utilizing the annualized cost for a specific increment in demand.. 3.5.1 Marginal Energy Costs An analysis of energy costs was undertaken for the entire year, with classification i n t o d r y a n d w e t s e a s o n s r e s p e c t i v e l y, a n d p e a k, m i d - p e a k a n d o u t s i d e p e a k p e r i o d s. T h i s i s the necessary approach both to calculate the average marginal energy cost properly, as well as to permit seasonal and/or time of day rate making. In the case of analysis of the avoided cost for small amounts of cogenerated power, to undertake so comprehensive an analysis would normally not be necessary. However, the availability of this information does permit a more refined analysis and allows clarification of an important issue, that is, the relative marginal cost during the dry and wet seasons. Marginal energy costs are the cost to supply a marginal or incremental kwh during each hour of the year. The generating system is dispatched (additional kwh's generated by a d d i t i o n a l p l a n t s w h i c h a r e b r o u g h t i n t o s e r v i c e ) i n a s o - c a l l e d " m e r i t o r d e r ", t h a t i s, i n t h e manner that always uses the lowest cost source of energy given reliability, maintenance and other constraints. Since the level of demand varies by hour of the day, day of the week and time of year, the type of plant generating this incremental kwh will also vary. Normally low o p e r a t i n g c o s t p l a n t s s u c h a s h y d r o, g e o t h e r m a l, a n d b u n k e r o i l f i r e d p l a n t s a r e l o a d e d f i r s t, w i t h h i g h e r o p e r a t i n g c o s t p l a n t s s u c h a s g a s t u r b i n e s a n d d i e s e l s u n i t s u s e d l a s t. M a r g i n a l energy cost analysis requires an estimate of which plants generate the marginal energy during each hour of the year, the type, and fuel and variable O&M costs. 18 CEL-RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc. "Estudio del Sistema Tarifario del Subsector Electrico, Informe Final", Julio 1993. 19 In certain instances generation is added which not only meets peak demand, but also reduces operating costs. This is normally the case when one uses the incremental plant or system planning method for avoided cost analysis. 6 8

Table 3.8 a-d provides basic assumptions used for determining marginal energy costs, and calculations of seasonal and time of day costs for three hydrological conditions (with associated probabilities): normal, low water and high water. The estimate of marginal energy cost normally involves use of a generation dispatch model of the marginal plants for each of the three daily periods, and for each season. For simplification, the analysis for CEL used two plants, which were found to be the most likely peaking units selected for each period, and based on their estimated percentage of use, calculated the marginal weighted energy cost (Table 3.8 b-d). Data for representative generation plans and utilization for the year 1997 is used as a proxy for plant selection. In the table under the normal hydrologic condition (Table 3.8 b), one can see that peak energy is provided 35% by a large gas turbine and 65% by combined cycle generation. Their respective variable costs, US$0.0722 and US$0.054 are averaged on a weighted basis using percentages of use, and an average of US$0.0604 is calculated. Following the calculation for each of the three hydrological conditions, a probability weighted average marginal energy cost by period and season is calculated below Table 3.8 d. This hydrological probability weighted average is used for 20 a v o i d e d c o s t a n a l y s i s i n T a b l e 3. 1 0. T h e c o s t s s h o w n i n T a b l e 3. 8 f o r v a r i o u s g e n e r a t i o n o p t i o n s d e m o n s t r a t e t h e differences between the base, intermediate and peaking plants. Baseload hydro plant costs are not shown, as these are nearly zero and not used for meeting peak demand. Peaking hydro also has nearly zero variable costs and is not considered for meeting incremental demand as it is always already fully used given the system requirements, and therefore is not o n e o f t h e o p t i o n s f o r m e e t i n g i n c r e a s e s i n l o a d. A n n u a l h o u r s o f u t i l i z a t i o n i n d i c a t e t h e duty each type is expected to provide. These utilization rates are determined by relative v a r i a b l e c o s t s ( a n d r e l i a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a ) a s s h o w n i n t h e 5 t h a n d n e x t - t o - l a s t c o l u m n s, v a r y i n g from US$ 0.0979 (fuel costs alone) for the small gas turbine to US$ 0.0024 for geothermal generation. The three remaining parts of the table c-d, show the calculation of seasonal and daily demand period costs. Using the dry season peak period and low water conditions for c o m p a r i s o n, w e c a n s e e t h a t v a r i a b l e c o s t s r e a c h a h i g h o f U S $ 0. 0 7 3 5. T h e l o w e s t v a r i a b l e costs of US$ 0.0258 are for wet season off-peak and high water condition. This range, US$ 0. 0 7 3 5-0. 0 2 5 8 r e f l e c t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f u s i n g s e a s o n a l a n d d a i l y c o s t b a s e s t o s e t p r i c e s for private power. 20 It should be noted that for tariff purposes these marginal economic costs are converted into estimated local costs by dividing by the standard conversion factor, and are adjusted for unrecovered revenues. 6 9

Source: CEL-RCB/Hagler, Bailly Inc. Cuadro 5-3. 7 0

7 1

3.5.2 Marginal Capacity Cost Table 3.9 shows the marginal capacity costs for both the "peaker" and incremental plant methods. Here again the CEL tariff study is the basis for this calculation. The peaker methodology assumes that the incremental capacity during any peak period will be supplied b y t h e l o w e s t c a p i t a l a n d h i g h e s t o p e r a t i n g c o s t u n i t, t h a t i s, a p e a k i n g p l a n t. T h e i n c r e m e n t a l p l a n t m e t h o d i s s o m e w h a t m o r e r e a l i s t i c, i n t h a t i t a t t e m p t s t o u t i l i z e t h e a c t u a l p l a n t a d d i t i o n w h i c h i s e x p e c t e d t o b e a d d e d t o m e e t g r o w t h i n d e m a n d. H o w e v e r, w i t h t h e i n c r e m e n t a l p l a n t m e t h o d, t h e a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t t h a t t h e p l a n t w i l l a l s o n o r m a l l y d i s p l a c e some of existing kwh's generated by higher cost plants must be taken into account. The n o r m a l p r o c e d u r e i s t o u s e s u c h f u e l s a v i n g s t o r e d u c e t h e c a p i t a l c h a r g e f o r t h i s p l a n t ( s h o w n b e l o w t h e t a b l e ). 21 The table shows, for example, for the peaker method, basic economic assumptions on p l a n t c o s t, l i f e t i m e, O & M c o s t s, f o r e i g n v s. l o c a l c o s t s ( l o c a l c o s t s a r e a d j u s t e d u s i n g t h e I D B ' s 1 9 9 2 c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r o f 0. 8 7 t o c o n v e r t t o e c o n o m i c o r b o r d e r p r i c e s ), a n d calculated annualized capital cost. In the case of the incremental plant method, fuel savings a r e c a l c u l a t e d a n d s u b t r a c t e d f r o m c a p i t a l c o s t s. T h i s a p p r o x i m a t e f u e l s a v i n g s c a l c u l a t i o n assumes the operation of a combined cycle to replace a large gas turbine for 785 hours per year, and a large gas turbine replacing a small gas turbine for 212 hours per year. C o s t s f o r t h e p e a k e r i n c o l o n e s a t b o r d e r ( e c o n o m i c ) p r i c e s i s 3, 5 5 4 c o l o n e s / k W ( U S $ 3 8 6 / k W ), o r a d j u s t e d f o r r e s e r v e m a r g i n a n d s t a t i o n l o s s e s 4, 8 6 8 c o l o n e s / k W ( U S $ 5 2 9 / k W ) o r 6 5 2 c o l o n e s / k W o n a n a n n u a l i z e d b a s i s. T h e a n n u a l i z e d c a p i t a l c o s t o f a c o m b i n e d - c y c l e u n i t, w h i c h i s t h e o p t i m a l c h o i c e u s i n g t h e i n c r e m e n t a l p l a n t m e t h o d, 1 2 3 0 c o l o n e s / k W, l e s s f u e l s a v i n g s o f 1 6 9 c o l o n e s / k W, o r 1, 5 1 6 c o l o n e s / k W. T h e f i n a l annualized cost including O&M for each is: "Peaker" 782 colones/kw vs."incremental P l a n t " 1, 7 6 6 c o l o n e s / k W. W h i l e t h e i n c r e m e n t a l p l a n t m a y b e a n e a r e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e actual addition planned, not all of the capacity added is actually strictly for meeting i n c r e m e n t a l d e m a n d. T h a t i s, t h i s h i g h e r c a p i t a l c o s t p l a n t i s a l s o a d d e d t o r e d u c e e n e r g y costs for non-incremental sales. On the other hand, the peaking plant is clearly only being a d d e d t o s e r v e t h e i n c r e m e n t a l d e m a n d. N e i t h e r c a p i t a l c o s t c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d b e t t e r t h a n the other, although for reasons of simplicity and cost of analysis, it is more common to use 22 t h e p e a k e r m e t h o d. The peaker method is the one employed here for calculating the capacity component of avoided cost. 21 ICF, Inc. "Costs and Rates Workbook, Part I: Textbook," EPRI, September 1981, pp. 3-5 to 3-36. 22 ICF, Inc. "Costs and Rates Workbook, Part I: Textbook," EPRI Rate Design Study, Sept. 1981, pp. 3-27 - 3-34. 7 2

TABLE 3.9A: GENERATION CAPACITY COST PEAKER AND INCREMENTAL PLANT (1994 Costs in Colones) Peaker Incremental Plant Method Method Marginal Plant Gas Turbine Combined Cycle Life (years) 20 30 O&M and A&G (% of capital) 0.0268 0.0184 Capital Cost (colones/kw) Foreign 3,010.50 10,023.05 Local Materials 1,115.04 1,237.44 Capacity Cost (discounted to study year) Border Price 3,554.09 9,910.38 Capital Cost (colones/kw) 4,868.12 13,573.00 Capital Cost per Year (colones/kw/yr) 651.74 1,685.00 Associated Fuel Savings (colones/kw/yr) -- 168.51 Capital Cost Net of Fuel Savings (colones/kw/yr) 651.74 1,516.50 O & M Cost per Year (colones/kw/yr) 130.47 249.74 Total Capital Cost per Year (colones/kw/yr) 782.20 1,766.24 TABLE 3.9B: FUEL SAVINGS CALCULATION (INCREMENTAL PLANT) Generation Type Cost (colones/kwh)--linked Hrs/Yr Savings /kw New Original New Original cc gtl 0.4486 0.5994 785 118.44 gtl gts 0.5994 0.8126 212 45.18 Total Fuel Savings = 163.62 Source: Update to Cuadro 5-6, CEL-RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc. 3.5.3 Avoided Cost T a b l e 3. 1 0 i s u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e a v o i d e d c o s t. T h e c o n c e p t o f a v o i d e d c o s t i n c l u d e s both energy and capacity as does marginal cost, however it varies from marginal cost in that w i t h a v o i d e d c o s t s, w e a r e i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n c o s t s t o t h e l e v e l a t w h i c h c o g e n e r a t e d p o w e r will off-set CEL generation. In the case of energy cost by season and time of day, adjustment is made only for average high voltage transmission losses and station losses. M a r g i n a l c o s t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d, n o r m a l l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e e n d u s e r l e v e l a n d w o u l d i n c l u d e d i s t r i b u t i o n, t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d n o n - t e c h n i c a l l o s s e s. I n t h e c a s e o f c a p i t a l c o s t s, a d j u s t m e n t i s m a d e t o i n c l u d e o n l y p e a k p e r i o d h i g h v o l t a g e t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d s t a t i o n l o s s e s, 7 3

and for lack of reserves provided by the cogenerator. This latter adjustment is made to reflect the fact that for any new demand of 1 kw, CEL costs must reflect this 1 kw plus additional capacity to provide a reserve margin. Thus if an additional 1 kw of cogenerated capacity is added, it offsets only a part of 1 kw plus reserve requirement faced by CEL. The CEL tariff study has used a reserve percentage of 33% or 0.33 kw addition for each 1 kw of new demand. 23 T h e l a s t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a v o i d e d a n d m a r g i n a l c o s t s i s t h a t t r a n s m i s s i o n c a p i t a l c o s t s a r e e x c l u d e d f r o m a v o i d e d c o s t s. T h e s e a r e e x c l u d e d s i n c e i t i s n o t r e a l i s t i c t o t h i n k that addition of small amounts of cogenerated power will actually reduce the need for high v o l t a g e t r a n s m i s s i o n. I t i s p o s s i b l e h o w e v e r, t h a t a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t s i n s u b s t a t i o n c o s t s, d i s t r i b u t i o n l i n e l o s s r e d u c t i o n a n d q u a l i t y o f s e r v i c e m a y r e s u l t f r o m s u c h d e c e n t r a l i z e d generation. An analysis performed by CAESS to estimate these benefits in the cases of the S a n F r a n c i s c o a n d L a C a b a ñ a m i l l s a p p e a r s i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n. The total avoided cost estimates for 1994 in Table 3.10 range from a high in the dry season during peak hours of US$ 0.0823/kWh to a low for the wet season off-peak of US$ 0.0480/kWh. Averaging wet season marginal costs using weighting according to base, i n t e r m e d i a t e a n d p e a k h o u r s i n e a c h d a i l y p e r i o d g i v e s a 1 9 9 4 a v o i d e d c o s t o f U S $ 0.0685/kWh. The corresponding average for the dry season is US$ 0.0745/kWh. 23 It should be noted that these values reflect an average marginal cost based on a "representative" situation estimated based on 1997 plans and dispatch of the system; actual costs vary by year only due to differing loss estimates. All are in 1993 currency terms. 7 4

TABLE 3.10: CALCULATION OF AVOIDED COSTS (1994 US$'s) Rainy Season Dry Season Hours Peak Mid- Off-peak Peak Mid- Offpeak peak peak Marginal Energy Cost 0.0668 0.0634 0.0363 0.0677 0.0617 0.0546 HV and Station Losses 8.6% 8.6% 8.6% 8.6% 8.6% 8.6% Loss-Adjusted Energy Cost 0.0730 0.0692 0.0396 0.0739 0.0674 0.0596 Annual kwh/kw Capacity 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500 Short Run Capital Cost/kWh* 0.0115 0.0115 0.0115 0.0115 0.0115 0.0115 Peak HV and Station Losses 8.4% 8.4% 8.4% 8.4% 8.4% 8.4% Loss Adjusted Capital Cost 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 Reserve Adjusted Capital Cost** 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 Total Avoided Cost 0.0813 0.0776 0.0480 0.0823 0.0758 0.0680 Daily Average for Season US$0.0685/kWh US$0.0745/kWh * Peaker method (see text.) ** Reserve requirement reduction factor = 0.67 Reference: Hagler Bailly, Estudio del Sistema Tarifarico del Subsector Eléctrico, Julio, 1993, Cuadros 5-10, 5-11 (HV and HV peak losses) and Cuadro 5-13 (short-run capital costs) 3.6 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IMPACTS In addition to affecting CEL's future generation cost, purchasing power from sugar mills will also impact the performance and cost of operating and expanding the transmission a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m. P o w e r g e n e r a t e d w h e r e i t i s n o t n e e d e d m u s t b e t r a n s p o r t e d t o w h e r e i t i s a n d d i s t r i b u t e d t o u s e r s. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d, a m i l l p r o d u c i n g p o w e r a t a l o c a t i o n with growing demand and inadequate power line or substation capacity may offer benefits b e y o n d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a v o i d e d g e n e r a t i o n c o s t e s t i m a t e d a b o v e. Two of the mills included in this study, San Francisco and La Cabaña, are served by a power line extending along the northern arterial highway from San Salvador. This line, c i r c u i t n u m b e r 1 0 9 6 1 3 f r o m C A E S S ' N e j a p a s u b s t a t i o n, n o w e x p e r i e n c e s r e s i s t a n c e l o s s e s o f 9 3 5 K W a n d d e l i v e r s p o w e r t o c u s t o m e r s a t i t s r e m o t e e n d i n t h e v i l l a g e o f C i t a l á a t j u s t over 90 volts. To determine the effect of importing power from the mills, the Planning Department at CAESS used the load flow simulation model MILLSOFT in an analysis of f o u r c a s e s : 1 ) t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n, 2 ) S a n F r a n c i s c o e x p o r t i n g 6 M W a l o n e, 3 ) L a C a b a ñ a exporting 5.4 MW alone, 4)and the two mills exporting a total of 6.3 MW. 24 As shown in the following table, the effect of the mills supplying about 6 MW to the system would be to increase the minimum voltage on the line by 15 volts and to reduce 24 Departamento de Planificación, Compañia de Alumbrado Eléctrico de San Salvador, Análisis de Cogeneración - Ingenios San Francisco y La Cabaña, Mayo, 1994. 7 5

losses by approximately 500 kw, equivalent to eight percent of the amount delivered by the mills. TABLE 3.11: LOAD FLOW SIMULATION RESULTS CASE MAXIMUM MINIMUM LOSSES VOLTAGE VOLTAGE 1 120.0 V 90.7 V 935 KW 2 120.2 V 104.8 V 457 KW 3 120.2 V 105.9 V 484 KW 4 120.6 V 106.7 V 426 KW Source: CAESS Planning Department T h e a n a l y s i s g o e s o n t o p o i n t o u t t h a t e i g h t k i l o m e t e r s o f n e w t h r e e p h a s e l i n e w o u l d b e n e e d e d t o c o n n e c t t h e m i l l s, a n d t h a t w h i l e t h e m i l l s c o u l d d e l i v e r s e v e r a l t i m e s t h e p o s t u l a t e d 6 M W, l a r g e r v o l u m e s w o u l d c r e a t e e x c e s s i v e v o l t a g e s i n t h e i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y i n t h e a b s e n c e o f i n c r e a s e d l o c a l d e m a n d. T h u s i n o r d e r t o t a k e f u l l a d v a n t a g e o f t h e 2 7 M W o f c o m b i n e d c a p a c i t y a t t h e m i l l s, C A E S S w o u l d h a v e t o i n v e s t i n a d d i t i o n a l l i n e c a p a c i t y t o t r a n s p o r t t h e p o w e r s o u t h t o w a r d t h e c a p i t a l. I n t h i s r e g a r d, t h e e n t i r e l i n e currently serves a load of only 19 MW, so the direction of the current would be reversed s o u t h o f t h e m i l l s. The CAESS Planning Department did not go so far as to estimate the investment requirements for controlling the losses along the line and bringing minimum voltages up to s t a n d a r d w i t h a n d w i t h o u t h i g h e r l e v e l s o f p o w e r o u t p u t f r o m t h e m i l l s. H o w e v e r, t h e a n a l y s i s d o e s i l l u s t r a t e t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f c o g e n e r a t i o n o n t h e l o c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m c a n b e s i g n i f i c a n t a n d, i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s, p o s i t i v e. 7 6

4.0. ECONOMIC COSTS AND BENEFITS The preceding two chapters present estimates of cogeneration system performance a n d c o s t a t e a c h m i l l a n d p r o j e c t t h e v a l u e o f p o w e r t h a t c o u l d b e p r o d u c e d b y t h e s u g a r industry in the context of CEL's system and cost structure. The purpose of this chapter is to i n t e g r a t e t h e s e s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n a n a n a l y s i s t h a t p r o v i d e s a s e n s e o f t h e p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f p o s s i b l e i n d i v i d u a l c o g e n e r a t i o n i n v e s t m e n t s, a s w e l l a s t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o m e e t i n g f u t u r e S a l v a d o r a n e l e c t r i c r e q u i r e m e n t s. 4.1. ASSUMPTIONS For purposes of calculating returns on investment, the value of the energy exported to CEL is assumed to be US$0.075 per kwh during the dry season from November to April and US$0.69 during the remainder of the year when hydropower is more abundant. These f i g u r e s c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e a v o i d e d c o s t s i n T a b l e 3. 1 0 i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r, w i t h t h e d a i l y peak, mid-peak and off-peak components averaged over time, since the mills' outputs are nearly constant throughout the day. In this analysis, the value of power supplied to CEL is not expected to change in real terms over the course of any project. The time-value of money is reflected at a real disount rate of 12 percent per year, w h i c h i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e u t i l i t y a v o i d e d c o s t c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r. D e b t leveraging is ignored for simplicity, and profitability is expressed in terms of total pre-tax returns on employed assets. Including tax implications of cogeneration investments would h a v e r e q u i r e d i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l m i l l s ' f i n a n c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s, a n d cogeneration costs derived without taxes are more nearly comparable to CEL's avoided c o s t s, a s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e c e e d i n g c h a p t e r. T h e u n i t c o s t o f b u n k e r o i l i s U S $ 1 4 p e r b a r r e l, a s i n d i c a t e d i n C h a p t e r 2, a n d s a v i n g s f r o m e l i m i n a t i n g p r e s e n t m i l l e l e c t r i c i t y c o n s u m p t i o n a r e v a l u e d a t t h e s a m e U S $ 0. 0 7 5 p e r k W h, s i n c e c r u s h i n g o c c u r s e n t i r e l y within the dry season. The assumed project economic life is 20 years, based on the predicted longevity of the larger items of capital equipment. Although useful for illustration, this duration may not be reasonable in certain specific circumstances where the mill in question may face an uncertain future for other mechanical or economic reasons. The mills are assumed to g e n e r a t e s t e a d y o u t p u t w h i l e t h e m i l l i s r u n n i n g ( b a s e d o n i n d i v i d u a l d o w n t i m e e x p e r i e n c e ) during the grinding season and at 90 percent availability during the off-season. A high level of reliability is necessary in order to represent firm capacity to the CEL system. Achieving a d e q u a t e r e l i a b i l i t y w i l l r e q u i r e i m p r o v e m e n t s i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s o m e o f t h e m i l l s, b u t t h e reduced downtime will benefit them in terms of improved sugar production and lower costs. The analysis also assumes that higher-pressure boilers and new turbine generators would be purchased for the sole purpose of cogenerating electricity. While boilers are the most expensive single items in the systems, they must occasionally be replaced or r e f u r b i s h e d t o k e e p t h e m i l l i n o p e r a t i o n. I f a b o i l e r i s r e p l a c e d f o r o t h e r r e a s o n s, t h e a d d e d c o s t o f a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e r a t i n g i s l i k e l y t o b e s m a l l i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t o t a l p r i c e, m a k i n g 7 7

cogeneration more profitable than in the cases presented here. Furthermore, the power a v a i l a b l e f o r e x p o r t c o u l d b e e n h a n c e d a s m u c h a s t w o - o r t h r e e f o l d b y r e d u c t i o n s i n m i l l process steam requirements, which may become cost-effective as a result of access to an attractive market for the power. Ideally, one would design a cogeneration system into any n e w m i l l s o a s t o a c h i e v e a a s u b s t a n t i a l l y l o w e r i n c r e m e n t a l c a p i t a l c o s t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d p o s s i b l y w i t h a b e t t e r o p t i m i z e d o v e r a l l p l a n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n. 4.2. RESULTS T a b l e 4. 1 b e l o w p r e s e n t s f o r e a c h m i l l t h e e s t i m a t e d r e t u r n s o n i n v e s t m e n t f o r t h e t w o d i f f e r e n t c o g e n e r a t i o n c o n f i g u r a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 2. B o t h u t i l i z e a l l o f t h e available bagasse for cogeneration during the crushing season, and they achieve year-round o p e r a t i o n t o m a k e m o r e e f f i c i e n t u s e o f t h e c a p i t a l i n v e s t e d i n b o i l e r s a n d g e n e r a t o r s b y b u r n i n g o i l a s a s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l w h i l e c a n e i s n o t b e i n g p r o c e s s e d. D e t a i l s o f t h e e c o n o m i c e v a l u a t i o n a p p e a r i n A p p e n d i x C. TABLE 4.1: COGENERATION RETURNS ON INVESTMENT (PERCENT PER YEAR) MILL HIGH PRESSURE LOW PRESSURE Central Izalco 24.06% 20.97% El Angel 21.71% 18.84% Ingenio Jiboa 21.12% 18.08% La Cabaña 25.56% 23.39% San Francisco 19.56% 16.93% Cahparrastique 17.80% 15.86% El Carmen 12.07% 9.77% La Magdalena 11.95% 10.05% Chanmico 14.37% 12.44% Ahuachapán 0.34% -1.28% Instead of calculating return on investment for a postulated value of the power generated, one can estimate the price at which the power must be sold to yield a real annual return equal to twelve percent. Combining prices derived in this way with the power p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s f r o m C h a p t e r 2 a l l o w s o n e t o c r e a t e " s u p p l y c u r v e s " c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e two generation schemes. These appear below, illustrating how much cumulative energy could be supplied by the sugar industry at a given price for purchased power. Note that h i g h e r b o i l e r p r e s s u r e s b o t h r e d u c e t h e c o s t o f t h e p o w e r a n d i n c r e a s e t h e o u t p u t. 7 8

FIGURE 4.1: POTENTIAL ELECTRIC SUPPLY FROM SALVADORAN SUGAR MILLS 7 9

4.3. DISCUSSION A s t h e g r a p h i n d i c a t e s, s i x o f t h e m i l l s a r e a b l e t o p r o d u c e p o w e r f o r U S $ 0. 0 6 2 o r l e s s p e r k W h a t a s t e a m p r e s s u r e o f 6 0 0 p s i, a n d f o r U S $ 0. 0 5 8 o r l e s s p e r k W h a t 9 0 0 p s i. T h e p o t e n t i a l c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n n u a l p o w e r s a l e s v o l u m e s a r e 4 7 3, 0 0 0 M W h a n d 5 6 5, 0 0 0 MWh respectively. Three other mills could produce smaller volumes of power at i n c r e a s i n g l y h i g h e r c o s t s, a n d t h e l a s t m i l l, A h u a c h a p á n, w o u l d b e u n a b l e t o p r o d u c e s u r p l u s power for export during the grinding season and has been excluded from the graph. R e p l a c i n g p r e s e n t l o w - p r e s s u r e b o i l e r s a n d i n s t a l l i n g n e w t u r b o g e n e r a t o r s a t t h e s i x p r o m i s i n g m i l l s w o u l d e n t a i l a c a p i t a l c o s t o f b e t w e e n U S $ 1. 5 0 a n d U S $ 2. 0 0 p e r w a t t o f capacity, depending primarily on the size of the facility. Incremental operating costs are negligible during the four to five month grinding season, when mill boilers are fueled by bagasse. Because year-round operation is necessary to amortize the investment, and s e a s o n a l s u p p l y i s o f l e s s v a l u e t o C E L, t h e m i l l s w i l l p r o b a b l y n e e d t o b u r n b u n k e r o i l o r some other fuel for the remainder of the year. Other forms of biomass might be suitable as supplemental fuel. Cane trash represents a potential fuel supply, approximately equal in volume and heating value to the bagasse generated in sugar production. Although harvesting, storage, and material handling technologies are largely experimental, research is proceeding on improved methods with l o w e r c o s t s i n T h a i l a n d a n d t h e P h i l i p p i n e s, f o r e x a m p l e. A s t u d y b a s e d o n h a r v e s t i n g t r i a l s b y W i n r o c k I n t e r n a t i o n a l i n 1 9 9 0 c o n c l u d e d t h a t b a l e d c a n e t r a s h c o u l d b e d e l i v e r e d t o a m i l l i n T h a i l a n d a t a c o s t e q u i v a l e n t, i n h e a t i n g v a l u e t e r m s, t o t h e p r i c e o f B u n k e r C assumed for this analysis. 25 T h e p o s t u l a t e d v a l u e s o f U S $ 0. 0 6 9 a n d U S $ 0. 0 7 5 p e r k W h a r e b a s e d o n t h e p r e s u m p t i o n o f n o u n i q u e c o s t s o r b e n e f i t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o p o w e r t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n. T r a n s m i s s i o n c a p a c i t y t o t h e n o r t h f r o m S a n S a l v a d o r i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o m e e t d e m a n d i n t h e r e g i o n s u r r o u n d i n g A g u i l a r e s a n d C o l i m a w i t h o u t s u b s t a n t i a l l i n e l o s s e s, a n d v o l t a g e s i n C i t a l á o n t h e b o r d e r w i t h H o n d u r a s a r e a s l o w a s 9 1 v o l t s. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e local distribution company's load flow analysis summarized at the end of the preceding chapter, power from the San Francisco or La Cabaña mills could increase minimum v o l t a g e s, r e d u c e t h e p r e s e n t h i g h l i n e l o s s e s, a n d h e l p t o p o s t p o n e t h e n e e d f o r a d d e d transmission and substation capacity to supply these northern communities. In fact, the mills have the potential to meet the entire demand served by CAESS circuit 109613 along the n o r t h e r n a r t e r i a l h i g h w a y a n d s t i l l h a v e p o w e r l e f t o v e r t o d e l i v e r t o S a n S a l v a d o r, b u t t h i s w o u l d r e q u i r e s o m e i n v e s t m e n t t o u p g r a d e t h e s o u t h e n d o f t h e l i n e t o t a k e f u l l a d v a n t a g e o f this supply. 25 Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Baling Sugarcane Tops and Leaves: The Thai Experience, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development, 91-15, August, 1991, p. xvi. 8 0

4.4 CONSIDERATIONS IN THE BUYING AND SELLING OF COGENERATED ELECTRICITY It is important for CEL to have an in-depth understanding of pricing and related c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o i m p l e m e n t a v o i d e d c o s t o r c o m p e t i t i v e b i d d i n g f o r c o g e n e r a t i o n, e v e n though in the final analysis, the pricing and terms for sale of electricity, and the manner in w h i c h i t i s p r o v i d e d, m u s t b e a p r o c e s s o f n e g o t i a t i o n. T h e f o l l o w i n g i s i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e background information for CEL on the actual process of contracting for the supply of private cogeneration, including risk mitigation and contract issues. The main risks may be summarized as follows: 4.4.1 Seller - Cogenerator The seller faces four basic types of risks: sales, payment, regulatory and political. Given the large capital investment by the seller, he must be guaranteed that power produced c a n b e s o l d. R e l a t e d t o t h i s s a l e, t h e a m o u n t t o b e p a i d m u s t b e r e a s o n a b l y c e r t a i n t o b e available for payment, and the price received must be adequate to cover future costs, even if there should be some escalation. The sales of power and purchase arrangements will be subject to some sort of control or regulation. This regulation may involve such areas as general legal authority for power generation and sales, regulation of price terms, foreign exchange control relative to expatriation of profits or loan repayment, quality of service and s a f e t y s t a n d a r d s. F u t u r e l e g i s l a t i o n o r p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s c a n a l s o a f f e c t r i s k s f o r t h e seller by changing groundrules for cogeneration or changing the conditions under which foreign investment in general is handled. 4.4.2 Buyer - CEL The buyer faces three general types of risk. These are purchase risks, maintaining quality and continuity of service, and price risk. The buyer has the obligation to meet the needs of its customers. The buyer may incur higher costs and other problems if the seller is unable to supply the power contracted. The greater the amount of the power in relation to the size of the system, the greater the risk. The buyer also assumes some risk that the operation of the seller may actually cause damage to the buyers electricity system. Price risks refer to the potential that the buyer will pay too much, or that it may not be able to recover its purchase costs from its customers. Terms of the contract may be too liberal for example, locking the buyer into long-term arrangements which foreclose more attractive f u t u r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s, i n c l u d i n g p u r c h a s e s f r o m o t h e r c o g e n e r a t o r s. 4.4.3 Power Purchase/Sales Contract The contract for power sales from the cogenerator will cover a number of specific areas, generally specifying the technical configuration of the plant and specifications; the amount, firmness, dispatchability and seasonal or daily availability of energy and capacity to be provided; interconnection requirements, including metering, protection equipment and transformer characteristics; and the contract start-date, length and pricing. Among the most important categories of conditions will be the contract term, frequency and form of payment, sanctions for failure of either party to meet contractual terms, and means to resolve disputes. 8 1

4.4.3.1 Term of Contract T h e t e r m o f t h e c o n t r a c t s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e t o p e r m i t t h e s e l l e r b o t h t o r e c o v e r h i s investment and to earn a reasonable rate of return. The term should also meet the buyers need to ensure continuity of service. A term of 10 years is normally considered a minimum, however longer terms are necessary as the investment and useful life of the facility increases. A shorter term, for example, 5-7 years before any changes, might be preferable when cogeneration is initially implemented to allow adjustments in certain terms to be made based o n e x p e r i e n c e. H o w e v e r, t h i s s h o r t e r t e r m s h o u l d n o t u n d u l y p r e j u d i c e t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e l l e r. 4.4.3.2 Form of Payment Fixing payment terms in US dollars, or some equivalent currency, paid monthly appears to be appropriate, although alternatively payment might be in colones at the prevailing free-market exchange rate, provided conversion and repatriation is guaranteed. This is to account for the fact that much of the cost of cogenerated power is amortization of capital expended for imported equipment, and loans may be denominated in foreign currency. Agreement on how to measure the quantity of power sold and specifically how energy and capacity loses are to be recorded and taken into account is very important. Sanctions for late payment are appropriate. 4.4.3.3 Determining Prices Assuming the use of calculated avoided costs as a basis for pricing, there must be an accord on the methodology used, assumptions for projections. Prices may be set to provide for seasonal and/or time of day marginal cost differences. Although the complexity of performing seasonal pricing and the disincentive for cogenerators in the first stage of implementing a new program, should be weighed against the potential efficiency benefits. W h i l e a f i x e d s e t o f p r i c e s i n t h e c o n t r a c t i s p o s s i b l e, i t i s l i k e l y t o b e m o r e r e a l i s t i c t o a l l o w a d j u s t m e n t s f o r f a c t o r s b e y o n d t h e s e l l e r s c o n t r o l, i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t a d j u s t m e n t i f assumptions in the estimated investment financial analysis change over time. For example, if the cogenerator is using oil as a supplemental fuel for out-of-season generation, then i n t e r n a t i o n a l o i l p r i c e f l u c t u a t i o n s s h o u l d r e a s o n a b l y b e i n c o r p o r a t e d a s a v a r i a b l e, a s m i g h t l o c a l l a b o r a n d t a x r a t e s, e t c. Similarly to seasonal or time of day pricing, separate payment for the value of firm c a p a c i t y a r e p o s s i b l e. T h i s i n v o l v e s s e p a r a t i n g p u r c h a s e p r i c e s i n t o t w o e l e m e n t s, o n e f o r energy or variable cost, and the other for the cost of new capacity (which would otherwise need to be added by CEL) to meet demand. Separately dealing with whether cogeneration capacity is firm, that is, available at peak, may be particularly important where private generation is large, and where it substantially affects the reliability of the system. In the case where there are only small amounts of cogeneration capacity however, capacity payments while not inappropriate, may discourage cogenerators unnecessarily. This is the case where the firmness of the capacity has little affect on the reliability of the utility, for example, where large quantities of hydro and hydro storage is available, when the cogeneration is of very small-size in relation to the system, or when the number of cogenerators is large ( i n c r e a s i n g g r o u p a v a i l a b i l i t y p r o b a b i l i t i e s o v e r i n d i v i d u a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s ). 8 2

4.4.3.4 Competitive Bidding W h i l e a v o i d e d c o s t s a r e a n a p p r o p r i a t e b e n c h m a r k, a n d w e b e l i e v e a n a p p r o p r i a t e basis for initial cogeneration contracts, it would normally be more financially advantageous for CEL to use competitive bidding for large purchases. It would not appear reasonable however, in the short-term when no clear competitive market exists for cogeneration, to expect competitive bidding either to encourage generation to be offered or to influence price terms significantly. In the sugar industry, as well as other enterprises, ancillary power generation is not likely to be a major factor in the near-term in overall profitability. Significant investment in a d d i t i o n a l p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n c a p a c i t y o n t h e o t h e r h a n d, w o u l d i n c r e a s e f i n a n c i a l r i s k s, a l t e r o p e r a t i o n s, a n d i n c r e a s e t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d p o s s i b l e o u t s i d e i n t e r f e r e n c e i n p r o d u c t i o n. F u r t h e r m o r e, t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r i n E l S a l v a d o r a p p e a r s h e s i t a n t a b o u t c o n t r a c t u a l arrangements with government and CEL, and could not be expected to be aggressive in bringing cogeneration on-line without a distinctly positive environment. The secondary and p o t e n t i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t s o f d e c e n t r a l i z e d g e n e r a t i o n i n E l S a l v a d o r, t h a t i s, r e d u c t i o n o f d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m l o s s e s a n d i n v e s t m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d i m p r o v e d p o w e r quality, are also likely to be difficult for the private generators to quantify and properly reflect in their bidding. 8 3

APPENDIX A System Design Parameters 8 4

APPENDIX B CEL Least-Cost Expansion Plans 8 5

APPENDIX C Economic Evaluation 8 6