Water Services 1997 2001. Evaluation and Final Report

Water Services 1997 2001 Technology Programme Report 6/2002 Evaluation and Final Report

Water Services 1997 2001 Evaluation Report Hallvard Ødegaard Nicholas Booker Final Report Reetta Kuronen (ed.) National Technology Agency Technology Programme Report 6/2002 Helsinki 2002

Tekes your contact for Finnish technology Tekes, the National Technology Agency of Finland, is the main financing organisation for applied and industrial R&D in Finland. Funding is granted from the state budget. Tekes primary objective is to promote the competitiveness of Finnish industry and the service sector by technological means. Activities aim to diversify production structures, increase productivity and exports, and create a foundation for employment and social well-being. Tekes supports applied and industrial R&D in Finland to the extent of some EUR 390 million, annually. The Tekes network in Finland and overseas offers excellent channels for cooperation with Finnish companies, universities and research institutes. Technology programmes part of the innovation chain The technology programmes for developing innovative products and processes are an essential part of the Finnish innovation system. These programmes have proved to be an effective form of cooperation and networking for companies and the research sector. Technology programmes promote development in specific sectors of technology or industry, and the results of the research work are passed on to business systematically. The programmes also serve as excellent frameworks for international R&D cooperation. Currently, a total of about 50 extensive national technology programmes are under way. ISSN 1239-1336 ISBN 952-457-064-5 Cover: Oddball Graphics Oy Page layout: DTPage Oy Printers: Paino-Center Oy, 2002

Foreword The Water Services Technology Programme (1997 2001) was targeted at development of the Finnish water services sector. The main aims of the programme were to improve the technological competitiveness of water services businesses, increase readiness to introduce new technologies at water and sewage works, bring onto the market new products designed to satisfy water service needs in rural areas, and promote research and development in the field of Finnish water services. The total value of the Water Services Technology Programme was about 11.4 million euros. It comprised 39 different projects, approximately half of which were industrial R&D projects and the remainder applied research projects. Riku Vahala from the Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association was responsible for operational management. The programme aimed to address the following key issues: provision of high-quality drinking water, maintenance of water and sewerage infrastructure, treatment and disposal of municipal wastewater and sludge, ways to meeting water service needs in rural areas and control of local pollution sources that affect community water services. The results achieved in the Water Services Technology Programme have mainly been reported in Finnish. This report comprises the final report on the Technology Programme and a peer-review evaluation of the research projects and the programme itself. The English version of the final report, edited by Reetta Kuronen, merely summarises the activities under taken in the programme and gives a short description of the goals and results of projects. The evaluation study of The Water Services Technology Programme was carried out for Tekes by Professor Hallvard Ødegaard of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology and Dr. Nicholas Booker of Australia s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. Both of the evaluators have long experience in R&D in the water and wastewater field and in conducting evaluations in this area. Background information was provided by Programme Manager Riku Vahala and by the researchers involved in the various projects. The external evaluation addressed the following issues: the extent to which the objectives of the programme have been achieved, the technological and industrial (commercial) relevance, the scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment, and the achievements of the programme as a whole. The evaluation was carried out in November 2001 as a peer-review evaluation of the 19 research projects and the findings of the evaluation are presented in this report. Although the evaluation was supported by Tekes, it has not been subjected to peer and policy review by the Agency and does not, therefore, reflect the view of the Agency, so that no official endorsement should be inferred. The long-term impacts and achievements will be assessed in a post-evaluation, which is scheduled to take place in 2004.

The National Technology Agency wishes to thank all the parties involved for their valuable contribution to the implementation of the programme and to building a knowledge base in this research area. Tekes also wishes to express its gratitude to the evaluators and the participants in the evaluation process. Helsinki, January 2002 Tekes, the National Technology Agency of Finland

Contents Part A Final Report...1 Part B Evaluation Report...75 Tekes Technology Programme Reports...135

Water Services 1997 2001 Part A Final Report Reetta Kuronen (ed.)

Summary Water Services 2001" is a technology programme completed by Tekes in 1997 2001. The programme was targeted at the development of the Finnish water services sector. The primary objectives of the programme were improvement of the technological competitiveness of businesses working in the field of water services; increasing preparedness to introduce new technologies at water and sewage works; development and introduction of new products that are designed to satisfy the water service needs in rural areas; promotion of research and development activities in the field of Finnish water services. These objectives support the development of water services sector both in domestic and international markets. It was intended to achieve the objectives through supporting the development of new innovative equipment and new processes and the testing of new technical solutions. Furthermore, the promotion of co-operation between research units, water and sewage treatment works, companies and authorities regulating the sector s development, supplements this goal. Additionally, the intention was to improve opportunities for co-operation between companies aiming at international markets and to increase the interest of various participants of the water services sector to renew their technologies. The Water Services Technology Programme targeted at technical development of water services rendered to communities and rural areas. The issues pertaining to industrial water services were not included in the programme unless they had direct contact with the community water services or technology linked with that. The key issues of the programme were water treatment technology ensuring good quality of drinking water; maintenance and rehabilitation of water supply and sewerage systems; operation and control of treatment plants, water distribution and waste water collection; waste water treatment and sludge disposal; water supply and sanitation in rural areas; pre-treatment technologies for treating local pollution sources of the community sewage networks. The programme consisted of 19 applied technical research projects and 20 industrial R&D projects. This final report presents all these participating projects. A total number of 91 companies, 51 water and sewage works or municipalities, 15 research units or universities and 16 other water-related organisations took part in the programme. The total cost of the programme was 11.4 million euros. Tekes s contribution was approximately 50 per cent of this. Both research and industrial projects have generated new commercial products, new methods, and a considerable body of new important research data that can be used as the basis for new development projects. The programme has offered water and sewage treatment sector a unique opportunity to participate in a sizeable development work, thus allowing the enhancement of their operations as well as improvements to their quality and productivity. Significant new technical innovations have been created. The authorities have been provided with concrete instruments to support their decisions and the consultants have received instructions for high-quality design work. Functional solutions have been discovered to resolve water services related problems faced by households in rural areas. 3

Co-operation in research work and networking between the entities of the sector, companies, research units and authorities, has improved. The programme has improved the recognition of Finnish research findings on international level. Through this programme the Finnish water services research and development work has taken a considerable leap forward. For further information, please contact Piia Moilanen Technical Adviser National Technology Agency (Tekes) Kyllikinportti 2, P.O.Box 69 FIN-00101 Helsinki, Finland Tel. +358 105 2151 Email: piia.moilanen@tekes.fi Riku Vahala Programme Manager Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association Ratavartijankatu 2 A FIN-00520 Helsinki, Finland Tel. +358 9 8689 0113 Email: riku.vahala@vvy.fi 4

Contents 1 Programme review...7 1.1 Key aspects....7 1.2 Objectives...8 1.3 Key issues...8 1.4 Structure of the programme...8 1.4.1 Organisation...8 1.4.2 Financing...9 1.5 Results and effects....10 2 Projects relating to drinking water treatment technology...11 2.1 Artificial recharge of groudwater: infiltration techniques, soil processes and water quality (TEMU)... 11 2.2 Optimisation of nanofiltration for drinking water production...13 2.3 Treatment of humic groundwater...15 2.4 Limestone alkalisation....17 2.5 New iron-containing coagulant for the treatment of drinking water...19 2.6 Dissolved air flotation: efficiency of water works, effecting factors, hydraulics and modelling.... 20 2.7 Development of the turbulent flotation...21 3 Projects relating to maintenance of water and sewage networks... 23 3.1 Procedures and instructions for controlling sewage odour....23 3.2 Guidelines for the visual inspection of sewers and water mains for maintenance and rehabilitation purposes...24 3.3 Smart digital system for sewer pipe diagnostics...25 3.4 The improvement of drinking water quality by measures applicable in the water distribution system....26 3.5 Rehabilitation of water supply and sewerage piping...28 3.6 Rehabilitation of service water pipes and sewer laterals...29 4 Projects relating to maintenance and control systems...31 4.1 Management system for sewage treatment plants in municipalities...31 4.2 Maintenance system for water works....32 4.3 Information system for water supply and sewage networks...33 4.4 Integrated network resource management system for water utilities....34 4.5 Water flow meter integrated into the modelling programs of the water supply network...35 5

5 Projects relating to wastewater treatment and sludge disposal...37 5.1 BNR process design based on measured characteristics of influent wastewater and sludge...37 5.2 Biological nutrient removal from municipal wastewater (Birra II)... 40 5.3 Development of a compact chemical-biological wastewater treatment process...41 5.4 The next generation s activated sludge treatment plant...42 5.5 Polymer handling and enhancing the flocculation efficiency by ultrasonication...44 5.6 Recovery and utilisation of wastewater nitrogen...45 5.7 The reduction of infective micro-organisms in treated wastewater by sand filtration and UV-irradiation...46 5.8 The enhancement and control system for sludge pre-treatment, ensuring a high and stable dry matter content in the mechanical dewatering process...48 5.9 Granulation and utilisation of wastewater sludge...48 5.10 Membrane bioreactor for the filtration of sludge...49 6 Projects relating to water services at rural areas...51 6.1 Improvement of wastewater treatment in rural areas (HAJASAMPO)... 51 6.2 Removal of arsenic from drilled well water (ARPO)... 53 6.3 Removal of radon from groundwater...54 6.4 Safe use of radionuclide removal devices....56 6.5 Control system for wastewater treatment in rural areas...58 7 Projects relating to local wastewater pollution sources...61 7.1 The effect of landfill leachate on the performance and capacity of a municipal wastewater treatment plant, and evaluation of the needs and methods for leachate pre-treatment (Kaato 2001)... 61 7.2 Reduction of the wastewater discharge in the electroplating industry (VESIPIN)...64 7.3 Separation of heavy metal ions from effluent streams of plating lines using filter media made of recycled fibres (VESIKUITU)....65 8 Other projects included in the Water Services 2001 technology programme....69 8.1 Life cycle assessment and eco-efficiency of water and wastewater works...69 8.2 Pro-environmental increase of productivity at water works and wastewater treatment plants....72 8.3 Export promotion of the Finnish water industry....73 6

1 Programme review 1.1 Key aspects The water supply and sanitation system is an aggregate complex involving a number of processes, devices and facilities, the efficient functioning of which constitutes the key factor of the welfare of the society. The water supply and sanitation systems form a chain extending from production of drinking water to disposal and treatment of wastewater. The society pays more and more attention to the environmental aspects. In Finland the quality requirements set for the water services technology are becoming increasingly more stringent, thus creating continuous challenge in this particular sector. Efficient management of the system is a prerequisite for safe and cost-efficient performance. The implementation of information technology plays a key role in developing the systems and equipment for this sector. In general, the quality of drinking water supplied by water supply facilities is up to standard. Nevertheless, some improvements in the technical and aesthetic qualities of household water are still required. Colour and taste imperfection, caused by high iron and manganese concentration, constitute a typical problem for the facilities that use groundwater. By its nature, surface water contains large quantities of organic matter, which has to be efficiently removed in order to reduce among other things chlorination by-products. It is intended to increase the use of groundwater and artificial ground water, whereas the share of surface water of the raw water used is declining. In wastewater treatment primary attention is paid to the removal of organic matter, phosphorus, and nitrogen in view of the fact that these substances have the greatest impact on the conditions of the water body into which wastewater is discharged. Currently, the degrees of removal of organic matter and phosphorus are reasonably high, however the requirements set for treatment are becoming continuously more and more stringent. It is anticipated that nitrogen removal will be more efficient in those regions where nitrogen is the nutrient regulating the eutrophication process of the receiving water body. Stricter requirements increase the significance of reliable functioning of the wastewater treatment process. More widespread use of methods for the removal of biological nutrients requires more advanced understanding of wastewater characteristics. The quality of sludge, constituting the by-product of wastewater treatment, has to be improved and stabilised so that such sludge may be utilised reasonably and safely. Variations in the composition of wastewater are primarily caused by industrial wastewater, the quality of which significantly differs from that of the household wastewater discharged into the sewage system. It is intended to set even more rigorous regulations for industrial wastewater. This increases the need for developing various industrial wastewater pre-treatment methods. In order to improve the quality of drinking water, as well as the efficiency of wastewater treatment, it is necessary to develop and test a variety of processes, equipment and chemicals. In rural areas, populated by over a million Finns, water supply and sewerage are mostly organised separately for each individual estate. The water source on the estate is the estate s own well where the quality of water is too often substandard. Health risks are primarily caused by the excessive concentration of radioactive substances and arsenic. Wastewater in rural areas, from which, in most cases, only solid substances have been removed, constitutes a significant burden on water bodies. By reason of low density of the population it is not feasible to extend the existing centralised water and sewerage systems further; these problems should rather be solved separately for each individual estate. Still, much needs to be done in the development of equipment and methods appropriate to this. Water and sewerage operations are capital-intensive. It is estimated that the purchasing value of 7

treatment plants and networks in Finland constitutes ca 10 billion euros. The focus of the operations is shifting towards renovating and improving the efficiency of the existing structures, since the majority of the necessary infrastructure of the water and sewerage sector has already been built. The need for the renovation of the networks is growing dramatically, both in Finland and at the international level, thus the perspectives for exporting the existing know-how in this field, along with the related technology, appear good. In recent years the export of Finnish water services technology has not increased at the same pace as the export of other environmental technologies. One of the obstacles preventing the growth of international operations is the considerable volume of projects, which involves the co-operation of various participants, and versatile skills. Coping with the international competition requires even more efficient and better-functioning long-term co-operation, i.e. creation of a network involving technology firms, water supply and sewerage facilities, research institutions and administrative agencies. Water supply and sewerage operations in Finland are becoming increasingly more business-based, offering opportunities for new businesses, intensification and improvement of the operations, as well as the development of export activities. 1.2 Objectives The primary objectives of the Water Services 2001 technology programme were: improvement of the technological competitiveness of businesses working in the field of water services; increasing preparedness to introduce new technologies at water and sewage works; development and introduction of new products that are designed to satisfy the water service needs in rural areas; promotion of research and development activities in the field of Finnish water services. These objectives support the development of the Finnish water services sector both in domestic and international markets. It was intended to achieve the objectives through supporting the development of new innovative equipment and new processes and the testing of new technical solutions. Furthermore, the promotion of co-operation between research units, water and sewage treatment works, companies and authorities regulating the sector s development, supplements this goal. Additionally, the intention was to improve opportunities for co-operation between companies aiming at international markets and to increase the interest of various participants of the water services sector to renew their technologies. 1.3 Key issues The Water Services Technology Programme targeted at technical development of water services rendered to communities and rural areas. The issues pertaining to industrial water services were not included in the programme unless they had direct contact with the community water services or technology linked with that. The key issues of the programme were water treatment technology ensuring good quality of drinking water; maintenance and rehabilitation of water supply and sewerage systems; operation and control of treatment plants, water distribution and waste water collection wastewater treatment and sludge disposal; water supply and sanitation in rural areas; pre-treatment technologies for treating local pollution sources of the community sewage networks. 1.4 Structure of the programme 1.4.1 Organisation The steering group, the programme manager, and the responsible representative from Tekes jointly supervised the execution of the programme. The seven member steering group included representatives from the businesses of the sector, as well as those of the public administration. The task of 8

the steering group was to mould the general development of the programme into a comprehensible entity. The steering group issued statements on public research projects suggested for the programme, and gave recommendations to Tekes on launching new research projects and also background studies. Decisions on financing the industrial R&D projects were prepared confidentially by Tekes. The final decisions regarding the projects included in the programme were made by Tekes. The members of the steering group were Risto Laukkanen, chairman (Jaakko Pöyry Group Ltd.), Esko Haume (Tampere Water Works), Jorma Kaloinen (Ministry of the Environment), Markku Maunula (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry), Reijo Sirpoma (YIT Corporation), Martti Varis (Oy Grundfos Environment Finland Ab) and the representative from Tekes. The Tekes s representative responsible for the technology programme was Heikki Uusi-Honko until autumn 1998, Robin Gustafsson after him and Piia Moilanen from summer 2001 until the end of the programme. The programme manager, working in the Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association, was Jukka Meriluoto until September 1998 and Riku Vahala after him until the end of the programme. 1.4.2 Financing The total cost of the programme was 11.4 million euros. The share of Tekes in this constituted 5.6 million euros i.e. 49 per cent. Distribution of financing between applied technical research projects and industrial R&D projects is shown in Table 1. Distribution of the total funding of the programme projects between Tekes and other investors is shown in Figure 1. Table 1. Programme cost. Research projects Industrial R&D projects Total Funding provided by Tekes (million EUR) Loan provided by Tekes (million EUR) Total costs (million EUR) Percentage of the Tekes s support of the total cost 3.5 6.4 56 1.5 0.6 5.0 42 5.0 0.6 11.4 49 Research units 10 % Ministries 9 % Communities 3 % Water and Wastewater Works 7 % Companies 21 % Tekes 50 % Figure 1. Distribution of funding of the programme between the investors. 9

1.5 Results and effects The programme consisted of 19 applied technical research projects and 20 industrial R&D projects. Distribution of the projects by areas of activity is shown in Table 2. A total number of 91 companies, 51 water and sewage works or municipalities, 15 research units or universities and 16 other water-related organisations took part in the programme. Both research and industrial projects have generated new commercial products, new methods and a considerable body of new important research data that can be used as the basis for new development projects. The programme has offered water and sewage treatment sector a unique opportunity to participate in a sizeable development work, thus allowing the enhancement of their operations as well as improvements to their quality and productivity. Significant new technical innovations have been created. The authorities have been provided with concrete instruments to support their decisions and the consultants have received instructions for high-quality design work. Functional solutions have been discovered to resolve water services related problems faced by households in rural areas. Co-operation in research work and networking between the entities of the sector, companies, research units and authorities, has improved. The programme has improved the recognition of Finnish research findings on international level. Through this programme the Finnish water services research and development work has taken a considerable leap forward. The majority of the industrial R&D projects were targeted at product development. Both research and industrial R&D projects produced a number of new commercial products and methods, as well a considerable amount of significant new research findings that can be used as the foundation for new development projects. Within the programme at least 31 academic degrees have already been completed or are currently underway; these include nine PhD, two licensiate s, fourteen MSc, and six BSc theses. Four patent applications have been submitted. All the projects that participated in the Water Services Technology Programme are presented in the following chapters. Table 2. Project distribution between the areas of activity. Area of activity Projects Drinking water treatment technology 7 Maintenance of water and sewage networks 6 Maintenance and control systems 5 Waste water treatment and sludge disposal 10 Local wastewater pollution sources 3 Water services for rural areas 5 Other 3 Total number of projects 39 10

2 Projects relating to drinking water treatment technology 2.1 Artificial recharge of groudwater: infiltration techniques, soil processes and water quality (TEMU) Applied technical research project Objectives Attempts are being made in Finland to increase the share of groundwater of the total water use. The intention of artificial recharge is to produce groundwater that is similar to natural groundwater. This is done by using as few chemicals and in as small amounts as possible, and by infiltrating surface water taken from water bodies into soil, either by means of basin infiltration, or by sprinkling infiltration. The main objective of the TEMU research was to develop such infiltration techniques and recharge processes that would be optimal from the point of view of the quantity, the quality and the environmental impacts of artificial groundwater. Implementation The process of artificial recharge was studied at several water works. The research was primarily focused on the causal relationships, which influence the purification process of surface water being used as raw water, and changing the quality of water to that of groundwater. In particular the impact of the following factors on the purification of infiltrated surface water were explored: 1. the quality of the raw water and the need for pre-treatment 2. infiltration technology 3. the purification process of raw water from the stage of surface water to percolating water and groundwater. Particular attention was paid to the relevance of physiochemical and microbiological processes in the recharge area. The water retention time, soil structure and quality, aquifer proportions, and hydraulic properties, with regard to the purification process in different soil layers, were taken into consideration. Soil and water samples were taken from surface and percolating water layers using lysimeters, and from groundwater using observation tubes. Sampling took place according to a common plan at all the water works. Results Pre-treatment tests revealed that even small quantities of solid substances, such as clay, caused clogging of the soil. Rapid filtration of water significantly reduced clogging. One of the important research objectives, within the project, in view of the quality of artificial groundwater, was to determine the changes in the quantity and quality of organic matter. The studies demonstrate that, to a considerable extent, the reduction of organic matter takes place only in the groundwater zone. In every artificial recharge facility the organic matter particles with the largest molecule sizes, and thus the heaviest, were removed more efficiently than the smaller particles when water was flowing through the ridge. The method of infiltration did not noticeably influence the removal of organic matter. However, longer infiltration time increased the removal rate of organic matter. The behaviour of bacteria and viruses during artificial recharge was investigated by modelling. The results demonstrate that filtration and adsorption efficiently remove bacteriophages in the ridge. The concentration and activity of microorganisms in infiltrated lake water decreased particularly well at the initial stage of the infiltration process. Nevertheless the growth of micro-organ- 11

isms in several artificial groundwater samples was quite intense, demonstrating that these waters are not fully stable from the microbiological aspect. Knowledge about the flow conditions of groundwater was specified by pipe flow measurements. Results were used for adjusting the input parameters of the groundwater model, which in turn specified the final results of retention time and dilution calculations made for groundwater models. The flow conditions of the soil and the groundwater retention time significantly influence the quality of the artificial groundwater. Therefore different groundwater facilities may have altogether different territorial requirements for achieving the same water quantities and water quality changes. The research also resulted in the development of methods relating to artificial recharge and water quality, in particular to sampling techniques, allowing the taking of water samples from deep zones inside ridges. Application of the results Field research results, from all the water treatment plants, will be used for the specification of their groundwater models. The results of the research upgrade the planning and implementation of water delivery to water works. Upgrading the delivery of water to water works improves the general knowhow within the sector, and improves the potential for businesses operating in the field, both at the domestic and the international level. Not only do water works, using basin infiltration and sprinkling infiltration benefit, but also businesses manufacturing related equipment also benefit directly from the results of this research. The accumulated knowhow may be utilised in domestic projects dealing with the formation of artificial groundwater. Moreover, the scientific community in general benefits from these research results. Researchers National Public Health Institute: Ilkka Miettinen, project co-ordinator (ilkka.miettinen@ktl.fi) Markku Lehtola Central Finland Regional Environment Centre: Kari Lehtinen, project co-ordinator (kari.lehtinen@vyh.fi) Kari Illmer Kaj Granberg Finnish Environment Institute: Tuomo Hatva, project co-ordinator (tuomo.hatva@vyh.fi) Tuulikki Suokko Participants Finnish Forest Research Institute National Public Health Institute Finnish Environment Institute Central Finland Regional Environment Centre Southwest Finland Regional Environment Centre Water works of Hämeenlinna, Jyväskylä, Mikkeli, Turku, Tuusula area and Rauma Finnish Groundwater Technics Ltd. Plancenter Ltd. Schedule 1.3.1998 31.12.2001 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 468 000 29 Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 325 000 20 Others 835 000 51 Total 1 628 000 100 Finnish Forest Research Institute: Heljä-Sisko Helmisaari, leading project co-ordinator (helja-sisko.helmisaari@metla.fi) 12

Publications in English Helmisaari, H.-S., Derome, J., Kitunen, V., Lindroos, A.-J., Lumme, I., Monni, S., Nöjd, P., Paavolainen, L., Pesonen, E., Salemaa, M. & Smolander, A. 1998. Sprinkling infiltration in Finland: Effects on forest soil, percolation water and vegetation. In: Peters, J.H. et al. Artificial Recharge of Groundwater. Balkema, Rotterdam. p. 243-248. Lindroos, A.-J., Paavolainen, L., Smolander, A., Derome, J. & Helmisaari, H.-S. 1998. Disturbance of nitrogen cycling in forest soil as a result of sprinkling irrigation. Environmental Pollution 102(S1): 421-426. Paavolainen, L., Fox, M. & Smolander, A. 2000. Nitrification and denitrification in forest soil subjected to sprinkling infiltration. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 32/2000: 669-678. Paavolainen, L., Smolander, A., Lindroos, A-J., Derome, J. & Helmisaari, H-S. 2000. Nitrogen transformations in forest soil subjected to sprinkling infiltration. Journal of Environmental Quality 29/2000:1069-1074. Lindroos, A-J., Derome, J., Paavolainen, L. and Helmisaari, H-S. 2001. The effect of lake water infiltration on the acidity and base cation status of forest soil. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 131:153-167. Miettinen I.T., Lehtola M.J., Vartiainen T., Lindroos A-J., Hatva T. and Martikainen P.J. 2000. Changes in quantity and quality of organic matter during artificial recharge of groundwater. 4th International Conference on Water Supply and Water Quality, Krakow 11-13th September, Poland. Paavolainen, L., Reijonen, R., Smolander, A., Fritze, H., Hantula, J., Niemelä, P. & Helmisaari, H.-S. 2000. Microbial population structure and activity in a forest soil down to a depth of 15 m. In: EUROSOIL 2000, University of Reading, 4-6 September, 2000. British Society of Soil Science. Miettinen, I.T., Lehtola M., Vartiainen, T., Hatva, T., and Martikainen, P.J. Microbial nutrients and growth in artificially recharged ground water. IWA World Water Congress. Berlin, Germany 15-19th October, 2001. 2.2 Optimisation of nanofiltration for drinking water production Helsinki University of Technology, Laboratory of Environmental Engineering Applied technical research project Objectives The purpose of the research was to investigate the possibilities for the optimisation of nanofiltration, being used as the refining unit of the surface water treatment process. In the course of the research, the impact of various procedures on the economic and technical applicability of the process were compared, and attempts were made to find guidelines for the optimal use of nanofiltration in real-life applications. Implementation The research was carried out between 1999 and 2000 in Espoo, at the Dämman water supply plant, where two pilot nanofiltration devices were used. In the first stage, conventional precipitation-based water treatment processes, rapid filtration, and microfiltration were evaluated as potential pretreatment methods preceding nanofiltration. Of the processes compared, the conventional precipitation-flotation-sand-filtration treatment was selected as the pre-treatment method to be used in further testing. The second stage of the research concentrated on the optimal implementation of nanofiltration. Different operating pressures, yieldsand ph values of the feed water were tested, the various nanofiltration membranes and their cleaning procedures were compared. The research was aimed at finding parameters, which would ensure the competitiveness of the process both from the aspect of the quality of the water produced, and the cost. In addition, costs and usage experience related to nanofiltration were studied at three operating water works. 13

The third stage of the research was carried out in 2001, using laboratory-scale nanofltration equipment, focused on the issues relating to the fouling of nanofiltration membranes. By using actual and model waters the research aimed at finding those substances in the feed water, which are the most harmful to the functioning of nanofiltration. Results Comparison of the pre-treatment processes revealed that the most effective procedure for nanofiltration appeared to be microfiltration, but the conventional chemical treatment proved to be almost as efficient. Additional information may be available on the requirements of the pre-treatment processes when the tests carried out in 2001 are completed and their results analysed. The functioning of the process may be influenced when the ph level of the feed water is modified. When selecting the operating parameters a compromise between operating and investment costs is done. At low operating pressures and yields both energy consumption and membrane fouling are low. Membranes need to be cleaned less frequently, and consequently they wear out at a slower rate. However, investment costs will rise due to low unit productivity. At high operating pressure and yield, the same productivity is achieved by smaller membrane area and lower investment costs, but at an increase in operating costs. Optimisation of the operation parameters must always be carried out on a case-by-case basis. In addition to optimisation of pre-treatment processes and operational parameters, the operating costs may also be influenced by the correct choice of cleaning chemicals and procedure. With a properly selected chemical, the productivity of the membrane may be restored by minimal cleaning without any damage. Concerning the quality of the water produced, it was noted that nanofiltration membranes, which remove organic substances efficiently, and are permeable to mineral salts, are best suited for soft, chemically treated surface water. Noticeable differences were observed in the productivity of individual membranes, their fouling rate, and the quality of the water they produced. Consequently the optimal selection of the membrane is a critical factor influencing the efficiency of the membrane process. Application of the results Based on the results achieved, it may be noted that nanofiltration is a particularly promising method for improving the efficiency of the conventional surface water facilities in terms of the quality of the water produced. Furthermore, it may be reasonably presumed that by optimising the process on a case-by-case basis it could be made financially and technically feasible. The tendency for the increasing use of membrane filtration methods in water treatment processes is worldwide. It is therefore foreseeable that facilities where nanofiltration is used, will be set up to wider extend in Finland and the neighbouring countries in the coming years. The data received through the research are encouraging and valuable in view of designing and operating these future process applications. The results of the research help in combining chemical pre-treatment and nanofiltration processes in a cost efficient way.this, in turn, improves the economical attractiveness of the process from the water works point of view. Moreover, the results are applicable fof process designers and suppliers, as well as for water works. The chemical suppliers could use the results for the further development of coagulation chemicals, modification of the pre-treatment process, and for the development of cleaning chemicals. The understanding of the problems in combining the chemical pre-treatment and nanofiltration processes and of the optimisation of the nanofiltration processes creates good prerequisites for the export of know-how and for international scientific collaboration in this field. Researchers Riina Liikanen, HUT, head researcher (riina.liikanen@hut.fi) Jukka Yli-Kuivila, Plancenter Ltd, head researcher (jukka.yli-kuivila@suunnittelukeskus.fi) 14

Heikki Kiuru, HUT, project co-ordinator 1.9.2000-31.12.2001 (heikki.kiuru@hut.fi) Risto Laukkanen, project co-ordinator 1.2.1998-31.8.2000 Co-operators Lappeenranta University of Technology Tampere University of Technology National Public Health Institute Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association Water works of Espoo, Helsinki, Kuopio, Kymenlaakso, Lahti, Pietarsaari, Raisio-Naantali, Savonlinna, Tampere, Turku, Tuusula area and Uusikaupunki Companies: Kemira Chemicals Oy Soil and Water Ltd Dow Suomi Oy HOH Separtec Oy YIT Corporation Schedule 1.2.1998 31.12.2001 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 314 000 80 Others 78 000 20 Total 392 000 100 Publications in English Laukkanen R. 1999. Nanofiltration in drinking water treatment. 4th Finnish Conference of Environmental Sciences. Presentation. May 21-22, 1999, Tampere, Finland. Liikanen, R. 2000. Optimisation of Nanofiltration Process as a Finishing Step in Surface Water Treatment. Presentation. The 2nd Meeting Network Young Membranes, PhD-EuroConference on membrane technology. 7.-8.9.2000, Aachen, Germany. Liikanen R., Laukkanen R., 2001. Removal of Natural Dissolved Uranium by Nanofiltration, IWA World Water Congress Berlin 2001 Proceedings. Liikanen R., Yli-Kuivila J., Laukkanen R. 2001. Efficiency of various chemical cleanings for nanofiltration membrane fouled by conventionally treated surface water, Journal of Membrane Science, 195, 265-276. Yli-Kuivila, J., Liikanen, R., Laukkanen, R. 2000. Comparison of Chemical Pretreatment Methods for Nanofiltration of Cold, Soft and Humic Waters, In: Membrane Technology in Water and Wastewater Treatment, P. Hillis (Ed.) Conference 27.-29.3. 2000 Lancaster, UK. Yli-Kuivila, J., Liikanen, R., Laukkanen, R. 2000. The Optimisation of DAF and Sand filtration as a Pre-Treatment for Nanofiltration, The 4th International Conference Flotation in Water and Waste Water Treatment, Conference proceedings, 11.-13. 9.2000 Helsinki, Finland. Yli-Kuivila, J., Miettinen, I.T., Laukkanen, R. 2000. Potential of Ferric and Polyaluminium Coagulants for Nanofiltration Pretreatment, In: Hahn H.H., Hoffmann E. & Ødegaard H. (Eds.): Chemical Water and Wastewater Treatment VI Proceedings of the 9th Gothenburg Symposium 2.-4.10.2000 Istanbul, Turkey, Springer, p. 181-190. Two upper theses will be published later. 2.3 Treatment of humic groundwater University of Oulu, Laboratory of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering Applied technical research project Objectives The presence of organic matter in raw water tends to create problems with iron removal at those water treatment plants, which use groundwater. Therefore, at small and medium size water works, the limits set for drinking water are often exceeded. The aim of this project was to find solutions to problems faced by water works that use humic groundwater. At first the main emphasis was placed on such methods as ozonation and related bromate formation, as well as on the so-called precision bacteria. Nevertheless, the research project 15

adjusted itself to the new information obtained, and the emphasis was shifted to the development of lime filtering and alkalising, hydrogen peroxide and microfiltration. Results The effect of ozonation on the quantity of dissolved iron was examined in five groundwater intake collectors. Ozone proved to be an efficient oxidant that oxidises iron and manganese without adjusting the ph level. Therefore the use of ozone may improve the efficiency of the conventional biological processes of wastewater treatment methods. The removal of fine precipitates by microfiltration was tested in Liminka at the Kukkala water treatment plant using pilot-scale testing equipment. The tests showed that microfiltration is an efficient removal method when the substance removed is precipitated. In Kukkala the researchers succeeded in precipitation, quite successfully, by merely ozonating water, and after subsequent microfiltration, the quality of the water produced met the standards set for drinking water. Micro-filtration allows the removal of oxidised iron, organic substances, and manganese, even from problematic water where oxidised iron forms a fine precipitate, which is difficult to remove. Hydrogen peroxide turned out to be a good iron oxidant, but it had no effect on the removal of manganese. The pilot tests carried out at Kalajoki demonstrated that the precipitates generated by the use of hydrogen peroxide can be easily removed by filtration. The tests confirmed that the very same waters, which are not suitable for ozonation are also unsuitable for hydrogen peroxide oxidisation. The use of hydrogen peroxide as the flocculation excipient was tested at the Lapua Porrasoja water treatment plant in a full-scale flotation test. The testing resulted in an almost doubling of the removal of humus. The research showed that a limestone filter, used as an alkalising wet filtering device, is a workable and cost-effective water treatment process. It is simple, reliable, and thus suitable even for small water treatment plants. Micro-organisms, which use humus as a carbon source were found. These micro-organisms decompose humus into smaller fractions, which contribute to the biological removal of iron. Application of results The new information obtained in the course of the project allows an improvement in the service level of water works, both in terms of higher quality and increased cost-effectiveness. The Kortesjärvi plant began to use hydrogen peroxide as an oxidant in the filtration process in spring 2001. In Lapua further tests were carried out in summer 2001, in the course of, which the use of hydrogen peroxide as a flocculation excipient was tested. The test results show that limestone filters may be used as alkalising wet filters for processing water containing iron and manganese. This makes the water treatment process simpler, and thus offers significant cost reductions for water works. Exploring the prospects for the use of ozonation in groundwater treatment processes has produced a new technique for the purification of problematic water. Moreover, the pilot tests have demonstrated the feasibility of microfiltration in a groundwater treatment process. Researchers University of Oulu, Laboratory of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering: Esko Lakso, project co-ordinator (esko.lakso@oulu.fi) Jarmo Sallanko, head researcher (jarmo.sallanko@oulu.fi.) Participants University of Oulu, Laboratory of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering University of Oulu, Department of Chemistry Geological Survey of Finland 16

North Ostrobothnia Regional Environment Centre West Finland Regional Environment Centre Pohjois-Suomen vesivaliokunta Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association Companies: Metalcity Oy Ekofinn PSV-Soil and Water Ltd. Partek Nordkalk Corporation Water works: Kempele Water Works Lappavesi Oy Liminka Water Works Vesikolmio Oy Schedule 1.1.1998 31.12.2000 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 240 000 70 2.4 Limestone alkalisation Industrial R&D project Background and objectives In areas with soft and acidic groundwater, the alkalinity of the water must be raised in order to avoid corrosion problems in the water distribution network, household plumbing and appliances. Limestone alkalisation is a simple, easy-to-take-care-of alkalisation method that contains no risk of chemical overdose. There is no danger of excessive ph levels when limestone is used as the alkalising filtering material. The ph of water will rise until reactions between limestone and water have reached an equilibrium (ph approximately 8,5). Because of its easy-to-maintain and safe nature, limestone filtration is well suited as an alkalisation method also for small water works. The objective of the limestone alkalisation project was to improve the readiness of water works to utilise the limestone alkalisation method in water treatment in order to produce high-quality water cost-efficiently and safely. It was intended to achieve this objective through obtaining additional information about the current use of the limestone alkalisation method, and further development of the method. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 34 000 10 Implementation of the project Others 70 000 20 Total 344 000 100 Publications in English Sallanko, J., Lakso, E. 2000. Ozon treatment of humic groundwaters. Poster presentation. Winter city conference, Luleå, 12-16.2.2000. Sallanko, J., Röpelinen, J., Sillanpää, M. 2001. Use of Ozone in groundwater treatment, abstract. International Water Association 2nd World Water Congress, Efficient Water Management Making it Happen, Preprints (Posterabstracts), Berlin 15-19. October 2001. s. 183-184. One doctoral thesis will be published later. The limestone alkalisation project contains four co-ordinated subprojects, which were the survey of the current situation, the study of limestone alkalisation and corrosion, the optimisation of limestone alkalisation retention time and water quality, and the communication of the results. Survey of the present situation The nation-wide part of the survey of the present situation was carried out by an inquiry, by the Finnish Environment Institute; addressed to the water works, which use limestone alkalisation. The purpose of the survey was to determine the location of the water treatment plants, the quality of water, and the efficiency of limestone filters. The feedback, as well as the water quality data, were entered into an 17

Excel table, where they were made available to other subprojects of this research. The results were published in the report Water works utilising limestone alkalisation in Finland (in Finnish). Over half the water works, using limestone alkalisation are located around the regional environment centres of West Finland, North Ostrobothnia and Uusimaa. Since the 1980-ies the number of water works has increased continuously. By assessing the current situation within the region of West Finland Regional Environment Centre, the structure, dimensioning, alkalisation results, and utilisation experience of individual water works using limestone alkalisation were determined. The results were gathered into a report, in which the efficiency of all the plants were analysed and feasible improvements were suggested. Interviews with the operators of the plants revealed that, after the commissioning of limestone filters, the corrosion-related problems have virtually disappeared. Limestone alkalisation and corrosion The viability of limestone alkalisation to improve corrosion resistance was studied at the Laboratory of Corrosion and Material chemistry at the Helsinki University of Technology by using literature reviews as well as laboratory and field-testing. The literature review focused on the water ph level, hardness, carbonate equilibrium and temperature interdependencies, as well as on determining the impact of raw water impurities. As a result from the review can be stated that the aggressiveness of water is a much more complicated phenomenon than could be presumed from water treatment methods based only on limestone equilibrium. Laboratory tests as well as field-tests, carried out at three water intakes, represented mainly weight loss tests, where the factors influencing the corrosion of various pipe materials were explored. The optimisation of limestone alkalisation retention time and water quality Partek Nordkalk Corporation has developed an experimental method and equipment for determining the neutralisation capacity and reactivity of various alkalising crushes. This method is based on ph stat, where the ph of the sample is kept constant by continuous addition of acid. This method enabled the ranking of the alkalising crushes. In the course of the subproject, a small test-device, modelling conventional limestone filtration, was designed and built. The use of this device enabled the testing of the applicability of limestone alkalisation and filtration parameters on various water types. The equipment was tested at seven water intakes. Interdependence between limestone filtration parameters and water properties were modelled with computer software. PSV-Soil and Water Ltd. developed a new limestone alkalisation method, which differs significantly from the conventional limestone filtration method. In the new method mechanical stirring of limestone crush detaches fine particles, which have a high solubility rate, from the limestone crush. Thus the alkalisation process of the water, turbid with fine particles, is rapid, and therefore this method requires little basin area. In the course of the pilot test, carried out within the project, practicability of the method was investigated on a scale exceeding that of the laboratory tests. Limestone consumption and the durability of the equipment were studied, and new dimensioning and design parameters were researched for the construction of full-scale equipment. The pilot tests confirm that mechanical stirring allows the application of the limestone alkalisation method, which requires considerably smaller equipment than is used for the filtration method. The research carried out by the Laboratory of Environmental Engineering at the Helsinki University of Technology, explored the growth of microbes in limestone filters, as well as the factors influencing it in pilot-scale filters and laboratory tests. On the basis of these results the disinfection of the limestone filters, suffering from massive algae formation, should be carried out by considerably more efficient chlorination than that, used in the tests (3 mg Cl2/l 1h), or the limestone crush must be replaced altogether. Too low a chlorine concentration can even promote the growth of microbes by disintegrating the organic compounds into substances with higher biodegradability. 18

Publication of the results Soil and Water Ltd. will collect the results of the subprojects, as well as previous knowledge on limestone alkalisation, into a manual intended for water works operators, designers and the authorities. This manual will be published in the beginning of 2002. It provides a uniform basis for application and further development of the method and includes recommendations related to its dimensioning and application. Application of project results The interest expressed by several water works, as well as their participation in the project reveals that obtaining additional information and developing the limestone alkalisation method is considered important. Certain plans for further development, which have emerged from the subprojects, demonstrate that the project has achieved viable results even before its completion. Besides Finland, the prospects for utilising the results are favourable, at least in Sweden and the neighbouring eastern regions. Contact persons Kjell Weppling, Partek Nordkalk, project director (kjell.weppling@nordkalk.com) Satu Antola, Partek Nordkalk, project co-ordinator (satu.antola@nordkalk.com) Sami Raassina, Finnish Environment Institute (sami.raassina@vyh.fi) Jyrki Palomäki, West Finland Regional Environment Centre (jyrki.palomaki@vyh.fi) Jari Aromaa, Helsinki University of Technology (jari.aromaa@hut.fi) Jari Hietala, PSV-Soil and Water (jari.hietala@poyry.fi) Ari Järvinen, Helsinki University of Technology (ari.jarvinen@hut.fi) Jukka Meriluoto, Soil and Water Ltd (jukka.meriluoto@poyry.fi) Participants Companies: Partek Nordkalk Corporation Soil and Water Ltd. PSV-Soil and Water Ltd. Oy AGA Ab Water works of Heinola, Iisalmi, Keuruu, Kirkkonummi, Nurmijärvi, Tuusula Area and Virrat Others: Finnish Environment Institute West Finland Regional Environment Centre Helsinki University of Technology University of Oulu National Public Health Institute Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association Schedule 1.11.1999 31.1.2002 Publications in English Raassina, S., Suokas, T. 2001. Water works utilising limestone alkalisation in Finland: Current situation and plant specific data. Mimeograph series of Finnish Environment Institute no 207. 232 p. In Finnish, abstract in English. Palomäki, J., Kuorikoski, A. 2001. Limestone deacidification in water treatment plants on the area of West Finland Regional Environment Centre. Regional Environment Publication 215. 163 p. In Finnish, abstract in English. 2.5 New iron-containing coagulant for the treatment of drinking water Kemira Chemicals Oy, Helsinki Water Industrial R&D project Objectives The objective of the project was to develop a new iron-containing coagulant that is particularly suitable for the removal of organic compounds from raw water. In addition to good purification efficiency the properties of the coagulant include low iron(ii) and low manganese concentrations, as well as a simple dosing procedure, preferably with existing equipment. 19

Implementation The project was carried out as a joint project between Kemira Chemicals Oy and Helsinki Water. The basis for the development work was the drinking water treatment process of Helsinki Water in which aluminium sulphate is used. The objective was to create a tailor-made coagulant suitable for the relatively high-quality raw water used by Helsinki Water, in such a way that the product could be used for other raw waters as well. The chemicals tested were produced and the laboratory tests were carried out at Kemira Chemicals. Helsinki Water participated in preparing the tests and monitoring the results, and performed the pilot tests. The coagulants required for the full-scale tests were produced at Kemira s Harjavalta and Pori plants, whereas the test runs were carried out jointly. Results and their utilisation The aim set for the project, i.e. production of a new iron-containing coagulant for drinking water, was achieved. Plant-scale test runs were made using two products of different types: solid iron-containing aluminium sulphate, and ferric iron sulphate with a low impurities content. Reliable proof of the usability of the chemical solution developed in the treatment of humic raw water was obtained through the project, particularly as a result of the plant-scale tests. The results have been successfully utilised: both Helsinki Water s drinking water treatment plants, as well as several other Finnish groundwater treatment plants have shifted from the use of aluminium-based chemicals to using pure iron-based chemicals, which remove humus more efficiently. Domestically produced ferrous iron sulphate is used as the raw material of the iron-based chemical; this choice is not only cost-effective but, in view of the environmental aspects, quite recommendable. Using Kemira s existing marketing organisation the prospects for the worldwide commercial use of the new products are also fairly promising. Researchers Simo Jokinen, Kemira Chemicals Oy, project co-ordinator (simo.jokinen@kemira.com) Eija Laine, Kemira Chemicals Oy (eija.laine@kemira.com) Eira Toivanen, Helsinki Water Sakari Laine, Helsinki Water Participants Kemira Chemicals Oy Helsinki Water Schedule 1.1.1998 31.5.1999 2.6 Dissolved air flotation: efficiency of water works, effecting factors, hydraulics and modelling Plancenter Ltd Industrial R&D project Objectives The objectives of the project were: 1. To improve general knowledge concerning the factors affecting the efficiency of flotation and to specify the basis for the planning work; 2. To explore the performance of the existing equipment and its flaws; 3. To clear up the applicability of video shooting for studying flow profiles and operation of basins; 4. To clear up the applicability of flow modelling as a design instrument. Implementation and results The development of the hydraulics model of a basin was begun by underwater video shooting of the flotation part and the contact part. The aim was to determine the flow conditions in the basin, and the accumulated information was used for verification of the correctness of the results of the basin s math- 20

ematical models. Water samples were taken in the course of the shooting, and they were used to check the quality of the water, and its variation in different parts of the basin. Only a little information exists about the equipment used for preparing the dispersion mixture. The water works possessed no measured data on the amount of air fed into the flotation process. The measurement of air concentration in the dispersion blend was included to the program after the first study objects. Equipment was built according to the guidelines provided in literature, and this could be used to clear up the efficiency of the equipment (saturator) for preparing the water dispersion mixture. Commercially available PHOENICS CFD software was chosen for the mathematical modelling. It was used for the modelling of the flow of raw water being fed to the basin, and the air bubbles of the water injected through nozzles (the so-called dispersion water) inside the basin. Basin geometry and load information were used as the input data. The mathematical hydraulics of the model were compared with the flow data gathered by video shooting, and thereafter the model parameters, e.g. wall functions and density of dispersed phase, were adjusted, so that the model matched the results of the video observations. The model enabled the investigation of how the hydraulics of the basin changed if the load and/or geometry of the basin were altered. Models also enabled the determination of how the air in dispersion affects the flow conditions of the basin. The project provided valuable experience relating to the application of the flotation equipment. This information can be used for designing new plants and in renovating existing ones. In future, it is intended to utilise the modelling experience as a tool for designing different types of water treatment plants. Researchers Plancenter Ltd: Jorma Pääkkönen, project leader (jorma.paakkonen@suunnittelukeskus.fi) Hannu Sippola (hannu.sippola@suunnittelukeskus.fi) Anne Lindberg Co-operators Water works of Oulu, Pori, Turku and Vaasa. Schedule 1.6.1999 31.12.2000 2.7 Development of the turbulent flotation Insinööritoimisto Oy Rictor Ab Industrial R & D project So far the common opinion has been that the flotation clarification process is able to function only in the laminar flow conditions. An absolutely new flotation process, which works all the time in the turbulent flow area, was developed in this project. In this process the major part of the flocs rise after the upflow channel on the top of the flotation basin and build there a sludge blanket, which is removed at a certain intervals into the sludge channel. A part of the flocs continue their movement and flow downwards together with the microbubbles. In the separation zone they form a high turbulent flow floc-microbubble cushion through which all the purified water must flow. There are lots of possibilities to build further new flocs in that cushion. All the time a part of the flocs and air bubbles flow upwards and get stucked on the top blanket, but also a part of new ones flow in the separation zone. On the lower part of the separation zone the floc-microbubble cushion does not flow any deeper. Only the purified water continues the flow through the separation bottom into the purified water space. The Turbulent Flotation even used over 40 m 3 /m 2 /h surface load has given much better purifying results than the normal laminar flow flotation. Contact person Oiva Suutarinen, Insinööritoimisto Oy Rictor Ab (suutarinen@rictor.inet.fi) Schedule 1.1.1998 31.12.1999 21

3 Projects relating to maintenance of water and sewage networks 3.1 Procedures and instructions for controlling sewage odour VTT Chemical Technology (Technical Research Centre Of Finland) Applied technical research project Primary issues and objectives Sewage odour is a result of microbiological processes that occur in conditions of oxygen deficiency. The main substance causing the odour is hydrogen sulphide H 2 S, which is generated from the sulphates in wastewater. This project was aimed at developing simple methods, which enable the prevention of odour emissions from spreading in the sewage surroundings and methods, which reduce odour formation. Furthermore, the purpose of the project was to set up guidelines for sewerage plants aimed at avoiding odour formation. Implementation and results In the course of the project the odour formation mechanisms were determined, and, by field-tests, different ways for the removal of odour emissions were investigated. Odour may result from several factors. On individual estates odour emissions may be caused by faults in structural design, or by negligent sewage maintenance. In sewer systems however, odour may be caused by incomplete or incorrectly installed ventilation; by wastewater remaining in the mains for too long; or by the faulty design of the sewer drain. Furthermore at pumping stations, odour emissions can be caused by the formation of sludge, uneven pumping, or inappropriate constructional factors. Odour problems should be eliminated during the design phase of a sewage system. By various improvement procedures, odour emissions can be diminished also later. The project investigated numerous sites suffering from odour emissions, and field-tests were carried out in order to find solutions applicable to each individual case. The aim was to find the most suitable method, both in terms of investment and operating costs. Various technical solutions applied at the pumping stations and pressure sewers were used to avoid odour emissions, including air-treatment at the pumping stations, and chemical and physical treatment of wastewater. However, no unambiguous odour emission reduction method has been discovered. The appropriate method must be selected on a case-by-case basis. Naturally, the investment and running costs, the location of the sewer and pumping stations, the required extent of odour reduction, as well the potential impact on the functioning of the wastewater treatment plant, influences the selection of the method. In order to verify the method s suitability for a certain destination, the applicability of the method should be assessed in field-tests before a final choice can be made. As a result of the project, an extensive overview of the problems relating to sewage odour, and potential solution options was prepared. The resulting understanding can be used as a basis for further studies, and as a practical instrument for reducing odour emissions. A manual for the personnel of sewerage plants, Operational guidelines for the reduction of sewage odour (in Finnish) was created, based on the research results. This manual serves as an instrument for helping to solve odour-related problems. 23

Researchers Tuula Vahlman, VTT Chemical Technology, project leader (tuula.vahlman@vtt.fi) Jaakko Räsänen, VTT Chemical Technology Torsti Siltanen, VTT Chemical Technology Jorma Pääkkönen, Plancenter Ltd Heimo Ojanen, Plancenter Ltd Participants VTT Chemical Technology Plancenter Ltd Oy Grundfos Environment Finland Ab Climecon Oy Vapo Oy Water and wastewater works of Espoo, Helsinki, Mikkeli, Turku, Vaasa, Ilmajoki and Sipoo Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association Schedule 1.11.1998 30.9.2000 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 104 000 49 Others 109 000 51 Total 213 000 100 Publications in English Stillwell, N. 1999. The applicability of FT-IR spectroscopy to inorganic gas emission monitoring. Cranfield University. MSc thesis. 3.2 Guidelines for the visual inspection of sewers and water mains for maintenance and rehabilitation purposes Industrial R&D project Objectives The objective of the project was to prepare uniform guidelines for the visual inspection of sewers. The ultimate aim was to create a new guidance publication concerning CCTV-inspection of sewers and water mains. The new publication would include general quality requirements, assessment criteria for defects and model contract documents. Results The publication includes the guidelines for the visual inspection of sewers but also water mains are referred. Only gravity sewers were studied. In the course of the work, the researchers learned that they would have to modernise several earlier guidance publications published in 1995, dealing with the rehabilitation of water mains and sewers. The project focused on the assessment of the defects according to the classification system used in Finland and on the examples photos of the defects. The final instructions are primarily designed for the inspection of old pipes, but parts of them can also be used for inspection of rehabilitated and new installations. As CCTV-inspection is usually preceded by cleaning the pipelines, the guidelines also discuss the cleaning of pipelines. The manual was prepared by Infratec Oy Ltd in association with Viatek Ltd as administrating leading partner. The publication includes model tender documents, and also the quality requirements for CCTV-inspection and reporting. Furthermore the guidelines specify the quality requirements for the prepara- 24

tory work for the visual inspection. The model documents are also available electronically on computer discs. Application of the results The guidance publication has been utilized by specialists in the field, and it will obviously become the standard guideline for this particular business sector. The project results will be used by water and sewerage works, by consultants, and by contractors within the sector. The participating water and sewerage works will benefit from establishing standard operational practices, and will therefore need less human resources for supervising the work. Uniform standards result in uniform practices, thus offering a reduction in costs for builders and contractors, when visual inspection tenders are organised and CCTV-inspection is carried out. Moreover, improved quality will result in cost reductions for the customers of water and sewerage works. Contact persons Matti Ojala, Infratec Oy (matti.ojala@infratec.inet.fi) Matti Heino, Infratec Oy (matti.heino@infratec.inet.fi) Mika Rontu, FIWA (mika.rontu@vvy.fi) Participants Infratec Oy Ltd Viatek Ltd Water works of Kotka, Kouvola, Pori, Tampere and Vantaa Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association (FIWA) Schedule 1.12.1997 31.12.1998 3.3 Smart digital system for sewer pipe diagnostics VTT Building And Transport, Urban Planning (Technical Research Centre Of Finland) Applied technical research project Objectives By its nature this research constituted a preliminary study, aimed at determining the applicability of digital sewer scanner technology and image processing (automatic pattern recognition) for evaluating the condition of sewers. The ultimate goal is to integrate the measuring and analysis systems previously developed by VTT, and to develop a consumer product based on the new domestic instruction manual on the visual inspection of sewer systems, as well as the CEN standard on visual inspection. In the course of this pilot-study the prerequisites for such work were determined. Implementation and results Based on the experience gained from the USA and Japan, the project aimed at studying how to create a completely novel European Diagnostics System for inspecting sewers. The prospects offered by the new method for Finnish business and export activities were also explored. The study was based on extensive international co-operation, in, which the network of experts, developed in the course of the COST C3 project, was involved. The use of the next generation of diagnostics systems, the creation of, which is the objective of the project, would be to allow the prediction and management of the operational needs of sewer networks, and the carrying out of necessary renovation works. The core of the system consists of the diagnostics software developed by VTT and the Japanese sewer scanner. While the scanner moves in the sewer pipe it can be controlled and the results can be monitored in real time. Use of the diagnostics software (edge detection algorithms and neural 25

network classifiers) automatically allows the identification of possibly defect locations and the type of defect. The results of two measurements, made at different times, can also be compared for studying the changes (the development of the defects). Moreover the additional, tomographic methods allow the condition of the surroundings of the pipe to be studied without further excavation from the surface. On the preliminary stage of the project, the necessary basic data for the development project itself were accumulated, the theoretical foundation for the automatic interpretation of the measurements was developed, and the basic environment of interpretative software was tested. A new Japanese measurement robot was tested in Helsinki, Hamburg, Copenhagen, and Malmö. The project involved extensive exchange of information and close co-operation between researchers in Europe, the United States and Japan. As the project developed, the research group became increasingly convinced that the diagnostic system, constituting the goal of the project, would dominate the European market, and has a valid potential to penetrate others. The system will certainly out-rival the systems currently used for the visual inspection of sewers. The businesses in the sector understood the favourable opportunities that the project provided for new business and export ventures. A consortium was established for furthering the project, and a research programme was developed for the consortium. Different European market zones were assessed and a decision was taken to start with the markets adjacent to the Baltic Sea. The project will be continued through funding from the technology programme of Tekes, INFRA (2001 2005). Contact person Hannu Maula, VTT Building and Transport, project co-ordinator (hannu.maula@vtt.fi) Participants VTT Building and Transport Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA Companies: Core Inc, Japan OYO Corporation, Japan Viatek Ltd Infratec Oy Ltd Painehuuhtelu Oy Lokapalvelu Oy Helsinki Water Schedule 1.1.2000 31.1.2001 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 91 000 55 Others 76 000 45 Total 167 000 100 Publications in English Pantsar, Tuomas. 2000. Detection of Surface Cracks and Pipe Joints in Digital Sewer Images. Helsinki University of Technology, Department of Engineering Physics and Mathematics. Master s thesis. 3.4 The improvement of drinking water quality by measures applicable in the water distribution system Plancenter Ltd Industrial R&D project Objectives The purpose of the project was to clarify how drinking water quality is changed in distribution pipelines, what causes these changes, and how the quality changes can be controlled. The focus of the study was to find out the need for pipeline cleaning and the applicability of various methods. 26

Implementation and results The main focus of the research was on determining the significance of loose, easily movable deposits in pipelines. In addition to taking samples, the changes in water quality and water quality variations were explored by the continuous measurement of turbidity. The turbidity measurements gave an excellent illustration about the variations in water quality. Pipeline cleaning was carried out in the course of the research, and its impact on water quality was analysed. During cleaning samples of pipeline deposits were taken, which could be used for estimating both the quantity of the deposits removed, and their quality. The composition of the water and the deposits were assessed both by chemical and microbiological studies at the Kuopio office of the National Public Health Institute. Regions where problems of water quality have been observed were selected for the research. Water samples were taken, both before and after cleaning, at the input and output bounds of the researched region. At the same time, within an approximately one-week period, turbidity was measured with a continuous turbidity meter. Pipes were cleaned, mostly by soft-cleaning methods (with pipeline cleaning pigs). The effectivity of flushing were also studied. Pipeline network modelling was an important tool at the project. It was used for finding suitable sampling points and research areas. Water supply network models included all the water supply main pipelines. Flow rates passing the nodes were estimated according to the number of consumers and their respective water consumption. The models took into account the weekly water consumption variations, pumping into the water pipeline network, and the heights of elevated and lower water tanks. The models were calibrated using the pressures of the water supply system and their variation. In addition to hydraulic modelling, quality was also modelled. The most important quality-related result was in calculating the detention time. In addition to the detention time calculations, the model was used for modelling chlorine, chloramines, and ammonium and nitrite concentrations. Application of the results According to the feedback, the participating water works have benefited significantly from the project. The automatic data processing models for water works water pipelines were improved considerably. Substantial new information was received about the detention time of water in pipelines and its consequence. Furthermore, by modelling the water supply system, areas where the water is a mixture of several water treatment plants, either continually or temporarily were found. These regions are problematic from the point of view of the quality of drinking water. Modelling results can be utilized in planning water pipeline systems and in finding suitable sampling points. The project also included a literature overview. After submitting the final report also a guide manual for water works was published. This manual deals with the cleaning methods for pipelines and factors affecting the quality of drinking water. Contact persons Plancenter Ltd: Jorma Pääkkönen, project leader (jorma.paakkonen@suunnittelukeskus.fi) Reijo Kuivamäki, head researcher (reijo.kuivamaki@sjk.fi) Ilari Myllyvirta (ilari.myllyvirta@suunnittelukeskus.fi) Co-operators National Public Health Institute Water and wastewater works of Espoo, Helsinki, Jyväskylä, Kempele, Oulu, Tampere, Vaasa and Vantaa Suomen Pipe Cleaning Oy Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association Schedule 1.6.1996 31.12.1999 27

3.5 Rehabilitation of water supply and sewerage piping Oy KWH Pipe Ab Industrial R&D project Objectives The objective of the project was to try to understand, and take into account, the individual needs of customers in the process of rehabilitating water piping and sewers, by developing new, efficient rehabilitation methods. For example, the soil, the location of the application, the size, the manhole solutions, and lateral connections have a major influence on the components and installation methods of the rehabilitation system, which are selected. The project aimed at finding new information on the manufacturing of plastic piping suitable for renovation, as well as its optimal installation. The ultimate objective was to develop a complete functioning rehabilitation system extending from the manufacturing and installation processes to the commissioning of the pipelines, based on the needs of customers. Implementation At the preparatory stage of the project a preliminary market survey was carried out, and the participants existing system was weighed against other available products. The manufacturing process of the rehabilitation piping was assessed, its development was started, and a practical test-installation was simulated. Furthermore the preparatory work included technical and financial calculations relating to the production and the expected output volume of the pipes. The actual project continued with a more specific evaluation of market volumes, the selection of target markets and applications, as well as interviewing key customers in order to determine their needs. A pilot production line was designed and ordered, and a prototype-line for producing rehabilitation piping for water supply and sewerage was manufactured and set up. Guidelines for manufacturing, designing, installing, and commissioning were prepared, to ensure that the technology would be smoothly transferred from the product development laboratory to production and the market. Field-tests were carried out at the customers sites. These field tests enabled confirmation that the compliance of the product to the needs of the particular customer, and practical experience with the use of the developed plastic pipe was accumulated. Results As a result of the project the new VipPeh plastic pipe renovation method was created. This method facilitates and accelerates the rehabilitation of piping. The method is based on inserting a plastic pipe into the rehabilitated pipe, in, which the new pipe assumes a shape matching that of the inner surface of the rehabilitated pipe under the influence of high temperature and pressure. There is a high demand for this developing product group, both in Finland and abroad. The markets for this rehabilitation method are fairly extensive, particularly in the Baltic Sea region. Contact persons Oy KWH Pipe Ab: Stefan Slotte, project leader (stefan.slotte@kwhpipe.com) Ossi Pirnes (ossi.pirnes@kwhpipe.com) Jan-Åke Sund (jan-ake.sund@kwhpipe.com) Co-operators Companies: Kaukotek Oy Varsinais-Suomen Höyrymyynti Oy Escarmat Oy Oy Meyer vastus Ab Yago Oy Erco-Mek Oy Ab Oy Petsmo Products Ab Schedule 1.11.1997 28.2.1999 28

3.6 Rehabilitation of service water pipes and sewer laterals Industrial R&D project Objectives One objective of the project was a nation-wide survey of the type and scope of problems associated with the maintenance and rehabilitation of service pipes and sewer laterals on individual estates. Another was to determine the methods used in towns and rural municipalities for organising the rehabilitation of service pipes. The purpose of the project was to provide a general operational model and recommendations for rehabilitation. The current situation at three test sites of different types was explored. Results The project will continue until the end of 2001. Based on the results received by autumn 2001 the problems associated with the rehabilitation of service pipes and sewer laterals may be divided into three groups as follows: 1. Factors preventing rehabilitation: information relating to the location, ownership, and the state of service pipes is insufficient; no general rules exist for the rehabilitation operations, especially relating to the funding mechanism. 2. Rehabilitation methods and materials: the technical execution of the rehabilitation operations needs to be developed; rehabilitation involves improvement in the pipe materials; the dimensioning principles should be adjusted. 3. Rehabilitation work: different phases of the process require different professional operators; operating methods sustainable for the yard areas; the size of the projects should enable costeffective activities. The results of the project will be utilised in the development of the operations of water and sewerage plants. Moreover they will serve as a foundation for potential follow-up projects. Contact persons Matti Ojala, Infratec Oy Ltd, head researcher (matti.ojala@infratec.inet.fi) Jari Salila, Infratec Oy Ltd Petteri Niemi, Helsinki Water, project co-ordinator (petteri.niemi@hel.fi) Participants Companies: Infratec Oy Ltd Kaukotek Oy KWH Pipe Oy Ab Painehuuhtelu Oy PTV Uponor Suomi Oy Helsinki Water Nurmijärvi Water Works Turku Water Works Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association Schedule 1.10.2000 31.12.2001 29

4 Projects relating to maintenance and control systems 4.1 Management system for sewage treatment plants in municipalities Enviro Data Oy Industrial R&D project The objective of the project was to develop an advisory system for activated sludge plants in municipalities. The study was based on the corresponding system BIOPERT, developed primarily for activated sludge plants in forestry industry, used in approximately 30 % of Finnish sewage treatment plants. The advisory system was developed using calculations and the decision-making rules which contained the calculations of key values. These rules include guidelines for sludge handling, waste recycling, and nutrient control. Furthermore there is a group of regulations named other, which address microbiological issues and arrangements concerning energy utilisation. The following diagram represents the functioning scheme of the system. According to the chart the input data are gathered in the search file either automatically or are entered manually. The information usually consists of 10 to 20 parameters. Some of these are measured daily and some every 2 to 4 days. The software makes the necessary calculations, draws the conclusion, and then reports the guidelines to the operator. In addition the programme provides activities reports and graphic information. The management system can also work in an automatic mode, so that it makes the necessary adjustments automatically. The program developed is constantly supplemented with additional functions and instructions that correspond to the relevant processes. They include for instance the biological removal of nitrogen and phosphorus. When necessary, a special training programme is developed for the better understanding of the use of the software and the functioning of the plant. The program was tested at Rauma water works. Online Field Data Instructions for Operators Process Calculations Reports and Graphs Offline Lab and Field Data Online Control 31

The benefits offered by the system are: improved and stabilised treatment results; reduced consumption of energy and chemicals; personnel problems (vacations, replacements etc) will be alleviated. The software was developed in Visual Basic 6 for Windows NT or newer system. Distribution of the program in Finland has already begun. Contact person Pertti Hynninen, Enviro Data Oy (pertti.hynninen@envirodata.fi) Schedule 1.1.2001 30.6.2001 Publications Program Biopert 1.0, kunta 4.2 Maintenance system for water works Komartek Oy Industrial R&D project Objectives The objective of the project was to develop a modern information system for the technical maintenance of water works. The system would include all the information on the water works and its equipment, preventive maintenance, treatment of error messages, cost management, and the supply of spare parts. The information system will function as a tool for arranging the operations of the water works service staff and managing the timing and funding of the maintenance operations. The system will be applied as a maintenance tool both in Finland and in export markets. Implementation The contents of the programme were specified in co-operation with the representatives of Lappeenranta Water Works. The specification process started with determining the water works equipment, whereas the information on the properties of the components included in the maintenance was mapped, and the requirements for the functioning of the system developed were established. As a result of this process the description of the properties of the system developed, the specification of the implementation, and the plan for testing the system at the pilot-site were established. The pilot environment of the system was created at the water and wastewater treatment plants in Lappeenranta. The water treatment plant was selected as the pilot-site. At the pilot stage the functioning of the system was tested, both from the technical and the operational aspect. At the same time the benefits of the system for the water works were determined. Results As a result of the project a maintenance system intended for the maintenance of water works was developed. This system proved to be applicable for the maintenance of sewage works as well. The plants, which used the software, have reported that the historical data, the information on the location of machinery, equipment, and spare parts, were particularly important for the maintenance of the plants. If any changes of the operational personnel occur the collected data can be used flexibly to serve the new personnel and important information will not disappear even though personnel leave. The rights to the software VESIKUNTO, developed in the project, are owned by Komartek who is also responsible for the marketing of the software. In the technical realisation of the product development, the flexible development of several language versions was taken into consideration, as the system will be offered and marketed on export market. Export will be carried out by the already existing export organisation of Komartek, which, in addition to its own marketing division, also includes the company s subsidiaries: Komartek OÜ in Estonia, Komartek Polska in Poland, and Komartek SIA in Latvia. 32

Contact persons Komartek Oy: Kari Hämäläinen (kari.hamalainen@komartek.fi) Jukka Sirkiä (jukka.sirkia@komartek.fi) Co-operators Lappeenranta Water Works Schedule 1.9.1999 31.7.2001 Publications VESIKUNTO program 4.3 Information system for water supply and sewage networks Tekla Oyj Industrial R&D project Objectives The primary objective of the project was to develop a water supply and sewage network information system that would satisfy the needs of domestic water works. Moreover, in the course of the project the extension and development targets required for the efficient and comprehensive use of the system had to be mapped. Furthermore the goal was to achieve a wide variability and flexibility of the application options that would enable the product to be successfully marketed on export markets. Implementation The project was carried out in co-operation with the water works. Water treatment plants operated as pilot users of the system, and participated in determining the contents of the programme. Operational experience gained in the course of the development process enabled the direction of resources to those sectors that had demonstrated the greatest potential for further elaboration. The first part of the Xpipe software developed was delivered to customers in October 1999, and the second, more extensive and specified part in autumn 2000. Results As a result of the project the first version Xpipe 6.0 of the software, suitable for the production application, was developed. The software enables online recording of networks and their conditions. Information on household water, rainwater, and wastewater networks is stored in the programme in the form of a simplified, representative micromodel. The location, types and properties of all network objects and specific data, e.g. about maintenance, are recorded in the database. Consumer data can also be included in the software. This means that the data available in the customer information system becomes a part of the network information. Several users can use the software simultaneously. User experience with the software was generally positive, and it was perceived that the software has numerous other development possibilities. It was believed that Xpipe software has the potential of becoming a successful commercial product due to its various application options and properties that can be tailored to meet the needs of different user groups. Further development of the programme into a system aimed at better customer service was carried out within the framework of the same technology programme. Contact persons Tekla Oyj: Antti Nevas (antti.nevas@tekla.com) Sakari Kyllönen Co-operators Kajaani Water Works LV Lahti Vesi Oy Pori Water Works Vaasa Water Works Schedule 1.11.1997 31.12.1999 Publications Program version Xpipe 6.0 33

4.4 Integrated network resource management system for water utilities Tekla Oyj Industrial R&D Project Objectives This project is a continuation of the project Information system for water supply and sewage networks carried out also within the same technology programme. In the course of the preceding project the first version of the network information system Xpipe, applicable in actual production conditions, was developed. The objective of the present project was to integrate all information relevant to water supply and sewage facilities, so that it could be used through a single data system. Among others, the most valuable new fields of application were network calculations, simulations, and interfacing with other data systems. The software s level of commercial applicability was seen as an important feature allowing improvement in the international competitiveness of the software. Implementation In the summer of 2001 the third official product version of Xpipe software was delivered to the clients. The latest software version, developed within the project, will be completed during the first half of 2002. Further development will be based on the practical usage experience of the customers. Results Simulation, customer information inquiries, real-time connection with other Tekla software, data transmission, and maintenance information has been developed in the latest version, Xpipe 6.11. Language support has also been improved and a mobile maintenance application was created for accumulation of the maintenance information on the terrain. The procedure of network analysis is discussed in the theses discussing these issues. Pilot versions for workstation and laptop use have been developed in order to explore the software s functioning over the Web. The Xpipe software has already been implemented in the production by many water works and in many others its implementation is in progress. The software has already attracted one foreign customer and it is used, on a daily basis, by a number of users. The commercial prospects for the software are good, both in Finland and Sweden. For the application of the software in foreign markets, the opportunities for co-operation with Finnish businesses that are already operating abroad are being explored. To launch the software on the international market the user manual is being translated and the program is being tested in the English language. Support in other languages will be considered should the market expand. Work on the diversification of the software is being continued in order to ensure its conformity with the requirements of the international market. Contact persons Tekla Oyj: Antti Nevas (antti.nevas@tekla.com) Petteri Mikkonen Sakari Kyllönen Schedule 2.5.2000 31.12.2001 Publications Program versions Xpipe 6.1 and Xpipe 6.11. 34

4.5 Water flow meter integrated into the modelling programs of the water supply network SCC Viatek Oy Tampere (previous Tampereen Viatek Oy) Industrial R&D Project Objective The supply of healthy drinking water requires the maintenance of the pipeline systems, e.g. a sufficient water variation and flow rate within the set limits. To control the situation various programs for monitoring, analysing, and modelling these parameters have been developed. These programs require information concerning, for example, flow rates, current directions, pressure and temperature. Obtaining this data using the existing methods is time-consuming and expensive. The objective of this project was to develop an easily installable gauging system based on a number of gauging procedures and automatic data transmission, which would enable a more diverse and accurate use of programs, as well as facilitating both the local and regional surveying of water conduits. Implementation and results In the course of the project a pilot version of the discharge meter, intended for installation in the network, was built. This meter enables the conditions in the network to be measured while it is under pressure. The meter is installed through a hydrant and the sensors are aligned with the help of a camera. The data obtained is recorded in a data logging system, which transforms the information into a comprehensive form that the maintenance program is able to utilise. In the process of developing the software interfaces, the intent was to ensure their maximum compatibility with the existing software. Furthermore the intention was to use the gauging system for the detection of leaks in the network. Jonelec Oy has designed and manufactured the gauging system and the task of Tampere University of Technology has been the processing of the measurement data. Viatec Oy co-ordinated the entire project, and utilised the gauging method and data in the maintenance system. Different parts of the system were tested jointly, and based on the obtained results necessary improvements were made in order to ensure the adequate accuracy of the measurement results. One of the important criteria of the development work was to keep the price of the potential industrial version competitive. Based on the test runs of the pilot version, a decision will be made whether or not to start commercial manufacturing of the gauging system. Contact person Kimmo Hell, SCC Viatek Oy Tampere (kimmo.hell@viatek.fi) Participants Companies: Tampereen Viatek Oy Jonelec Oy Tampere University of Technology Schedule 1.1.1999 15.10.2001 35

5 Projects relating to wastewater treatment and sludge disposal 5.1 BNR process design based on measured characteristics of influent wastewater and sludge Helsinki University of Technology, Laboratory of Environmental Engineering Applied technical research project Objective The research project dealed with methods for the biological removal of phosphorus (Bio-P). It was aimed at achieving results, using the Bio-P method, for transforming municipal wastewater treatment plants into facilities that use the Bio-P method. As the ultimate aim was to have control of the entire process, the project was divided into four parts, as follows: influent wastewater sludge storage polymers simulation/modelling. The sub-projects The properties of the influent wastewater The objective of the research was to find our the quality of the organic matter in Finnish wastewater, in order to determine the suitability of wastewater for the biological nutrient removal (BNR). In addition to the traditional chemical oxygen demand (COD), the contents of the readily biodegradable organic matter (RBCOD), not yet researched in Finland, as well as the content of volatile fatty acids in the RBCOD were also measured. The necessary prerequisite for the BNR is that the wastewater contains a sufficient quantity of RBCOD, otherwise, the introduction of a suitable carbon source in the process is required. Typically, wastewater contains predominantly slowly biodegradable organic matter, which cannot be used directly by microorganisms in BNR. It is possible, however, to transform the slowly biodegradable organic matter into readily biodegradable matter by applying fermentation as a separate part of the process, before BNR. The efficiency of such fermentation was investigated by the fatty acid potential method, and it was established that, by using fermentation, it is possible to increase the amount of organic matter suitable for the BNR. The monitoring of the pre-fermentation tests, carried out by the Finnish Environment Institute, confirmed the results. Wastewater was characterised at eight locations: Espoo (Suomenoja), Helsinki (Viikinmäki wastewater treatment plant), Turku, Kaarina, Pori, Kitee, Lapua, and Tallinn (as well as the wastewater from UPM-Kymmene s Jämsänkoski plant). The results showed that the Finnish wastewaters are weak in terms of RBCOD. Nevertheless there is a potential for the BNR by utilising, among others, the fermentation process. Microbiology In many instances it has been observed that the polyphosphate (polyp) of Bio-P sludge is located in microbial cells, which are noticeably larger than the average sludge cells. These microbial cells form clusters resembling a bunch of grapes. Therefore it has been traditionally believed that Bio-P is based on one dominating polyp-accumulating organism (PAO), or a group of such organisms. For over twenty years this organism has been believed to be an acinetobacter, but it had not been successfully isolated or identified. The earlier tests conducted by the Laboratory of Environmental Engineering at the Helsinki University of Technology had already established that a similar organism is dominant in the technicalscale Bio-P process, used at the Suomenoja wastewater treatment plant. This research indicated that the organism in question is not an acinetobacter. 37

Thorough microscope studies revealed that the polyp-accumulating fungi spores, not bacteria, dominate the processes at the Suomenoja plant. The researchers reached this revolutionary result when they investigated the surface structure of PAO, and observed that, in the presence of an anti-bacterial antibiotic, the PAO cells transform into considerably larger cells resembling yeast. The new fungal-pao has now been isolated and identified. At the same time the researchers have learned how to reverse the fungi to the stated PAO-appearance in situ in the process sludge. Regarding the new type of PAO, the project is still in progress, and the results will be published in the professional publications. New PAO will probably have a remarkable influence on Bio-P theory. Nevertheless, the development of more efficient and stable processes requires exhaustive study and understanding of the fungal-pao, which plays a central role in the entire process. Storage polymers The biological phosphorus removal is based on the activity of polyphosphate-accumulating organisms. Due to the alteration of anoxic and oxic or anaerobic and aerobic conditions, the organisms store phosphate above their normal requirement, so that the phosphorus content of the sludge may rise by as high as five per cent. The prevailing theory states that, in the anaerobic conditions the polyp organisms, constituting important components of the process of biological phosphorus removal, accumulate the wastewater s volatile fatty acids as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA). Under aerobic conditions the PHA are used as intracellular energy sources, where bacteria take phosphates from the wastewater and accumulate them as polyphosphates. It is believed that glycogen constitutes an important source of reduction potential for the very same organisms in the storage process of the readily degradable matter into the PHA. The results of the previous study, which was carried out at the technical-scale wastewater treatment plant at Suomenoja, as well as the results of the laboratory tests performed within this research, indicate that the amounts of storage polymers, as compared to the removed phosphorus, were considerably lower than described in the referred literature. Furthermore, the storage polymers do not seem to be as significant as the models of the biological phosphorus removal allow to assume. It has been noticed that the role of the PHA in the biological phosphorus removal process does not comply with the role that is attributed to it by established theory. Moreover it has been observed that the carbon content and the quality of wastewater influence the formation of the PHA, but phosphorus removal depends neither on the quantity nor on the consumption of the PHA. This is consistent with the results that the most important microorganisms in the biological phosphorus removal appear to be the fungal spores and not the polyphosphate bacteria, as assumed from the theory. Nevertheless the role of glycogen, as well as PHA, as the regulator for biological phosphorus removal is still debatable. As a result of the study the determination of the PHA as a storage polymer of the sludge became a routine procedure. Simulation Mathematical modelling and simulation of the phenomena influencing the wastewater treatment processes allow rapid testing of the hypotheses, partial replacement of long series of tests and efficient use of cross-scientific expertise. Moreover, the presentation of the theory in a mathematical form is a prerequisite for the practical applications, the ultimate intention of which is the optimised planning and management of the processes, and consequently, the achievement of greater reliability, improved treatment efficiency, and lower operating costs. The objective in the laboratory was to integrate modelling into the research in such a way that if required the researchers do not have to depend on the previously developed modelling concepts. For this purpose a simulation tool was developed in the general Matlab/SIMULINK environment. In its current form this tool allows simulation both for continuous and batch-type free sludge processes. Various process descriptions can be constructed proceeding from the same primary solution. 38

The MSc thesis constructed in the course of the development of the instrument, constitutes the first Finnish comprehensive scientific analysis on the mathematical modelling of biological wastewater treatment. The knowledge on the Bio-P theory is still insufficient for carrying out optimised dimensioning of the full-scale processes without extensive testing at individual facilities, allowing the calibration of simulation models. The development of the models will be continued as the other sub-projects progress. With the accumulation of the theoretical knowledge it will be possible to start testing the hypotheses by simulation, which will certainly accelerate the research work. The ultimate objective is to mould the new Bio-P theory into a mathematical form and to enable its use in practise. Researchers Helsinki University of Technology: Anne-Mari Aurola (anne-mari.aurola@hut.fi) Anna Calonius (anna.calonius@hut.fi) Ritva Laitala (ritva.laitala@hut.fi) Hannes Melasniemi (hannes.melasniemi@hut.fi) Kristian Sahlstedt (kristian.sahlstedt@hut.fi) Co-operators Kemira Chemicals Oy Water and wastewater works of Kitee, Lapua and Turku Schedule 1.3.1998 31.12.2001 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 475 000 95 Others 25 000 5 Total 500 000 100 Publications in English Aurola A-M. 1999. Organic matter and polyhydroxyalkanoates in biological phosphate removal from municipal wastewater. Helsinki University of Technology Laboratory of Environmental Engineering. Licentiate thesis. Aurola A-M., Calonius A.C., Pauli A.S.-L. and Laukkanen R.H. Carbon storage in biological phosphorus removal: case study in technical scale UCT processes. Submitted to Water Research. Aurola A-M., Calonius A. C., Dirks K., Lemos P. C., van Loosdrecht M. C. M., Reis M. A. M and Serafim L. Glycogen determination from activated sludge. (Manuscript). Baetens D., Aurola A-M., Foglia A., Dionisi D., and van Loosdrecht M.C.M. Gas chromatographic analysis of polyhydroxybutyrate in activated sludge: a Round-Robin test. Accepted to be published in Water Science and Technology. Calonius, A. C. 2000. Role of Glycogen in Biological Phosphorus Removal. Helsinki University of Technology Laboratory of Environmental Engineering. Master s Thesis. Laukkanen R. & Aaltonen R. 1999. Preliminary characterisation of organic matter in municipal wastewater. Nordic conference on nitrogen removal and biological phosphorus removal, Oslo 2.-4.2. 1999. Melasniemi, H. 1999. Microbes in biological phosphorus removal new developments. Nordic conference on nitrogen removal and biological phosphorus removal, Oslo 2.-4.2.1999. Melasniemi, H. & Hernesmaa, A. 2000. Yeast spores seem to be involved in biological phosphate removal: a microscopic in situ case study. Microbiology 146, 701-707. (Reviewed by Jones, M. 2000. The mystery of the missing phosphate. A review of Melasniemi, H. & Hernesmaa, A. 2000. in the Hot off the Press section of Microbiology Today, 27, May 2000.) Melasniemi, H., Hernesmaa, A., Pauli, A. S-L., Rantanen, P. & Salkinoja-Salonen, M. 1998. Comparative analysis of biological phosphate removal (BPR) and non-bpr activated sludge bacterial communities with particular reference to Acinetobacter. J Indust Microbiol & Biotechnol 21 p. 300-306. Sahlstedt K. 2001. Mathematical modelling and simulation in biological wastewater treatment research. Master s Thesis in Finnish with English summary. Helsinki University of Technology. TKK-VHT-29. 39

5.2 Biological nutrient removal from municipal wastewater (Birra II) Finnish Environment Institute Applied technical research project Objectives The objective of the project was to find methods, which would, by using small quantities of chemicals, increase the efficiency of the biological phosphorus removal from wastewater. This would allow meeting the increasingly more stringent requirements for phosphorus removal. Nevertheless it was necessary to keep the amount of chemicals at such a level, where the benefits of the biological process, i.e. a lower consumption of chemicals and a smaller chemical load on the environment, would not be compromised. Another objective was to make the nitrogen removal more efficient by using suitable methods. Implementation The project was divided into two sub-projects. The first sub-project Enhancing biological phosphorus removal with simultaneous precipitation included feeding small quantities of ferrous iron sulphate into the process that is based on the activated sludge method, and, which involves biological removal of nitrogen and phosphorus. The aim of the research was to find the suitable feeding points, and dosage amounts, as well as methods for adjusting the doses. The second sub-project, Secondary filtration as a device for increasing the efficiency of the nutrient removal process, explored the suitability of chemical contact filtration and biological contact filtration as a supplement to the biological nutrient removal process. In both sub-projects the biological process used was a UCT-type hybrid process, which removed 60 70 % of the nitrogen by nitrification and denitrification, as well as 70 80 % of the phosphorus. The characteristic feature of the process was that free swimming KMT carrier material was used in the aeration basin in order to ensure nitrification. The volume of the carrier substance was approximately 60 % of the volume of the aeration basin. In the biological contact filter phosphorus was precipitated chemically and nitrate was removed biologically by denitrification, using methanol. The dosage of chemicals was adjusted according to the amount of phosphorus and nitrate coming to the filter. Ferrous and aluminium salts, fed into water before the filter, were used as precipitants. Precipitation of phosphorus took place in the filter. Results As a result of the research the following conclusions were drawn: Partial simultaneous precipitation did not lead to the targeted phosphorus removal. In itself, the biological phosphorus removal did not impair the dewatering or settleability of the sludge, and could even enhance the them. Targeted phosphorus removal appears to be possible by using the biological contact filtration method, provided that the wastewater fed into the process does not contain too much phosphorus. Omitting the primary precipitation, i.e. feeding the raw wastewater directly into the biological treatment process, did not noticeably improve either the phosphorus or the nitrogen removal. Biological contact filtration facilitates the achievement of the intended level of nitrogen removal. It is possible to achieve an outstandingly high level of wastewater treatment by combining the biological removal of nitrogen and phosphorus with the biological contact filtration. The results of the research can be utilised for improving the efficiency of the existing wastewater treatment plants, allowing them to adjust to the more stringent regulations set for the removal of phosphorus and nitrogen. An important result is the development of the dimensioning rules for the chemical-biological filter. The method for the biological removal of phosphorus and nitrogen, which was developed in the course of the research is particularly suitable for neighbouring regions, where financial resources for the use of chemicals in larger amounts are not available. 40

Researchers Finnish Environment Institute: Pirjo Rantanen, head researcher (pirjo.rantanen@vyh.fi) Matti Valve, project co-ordinator (matti.valve@vyh.fi) Johanna Kallio Riikka Vilpas Co-operators Espoo Water Works Helsinki Water LV Lahti Vesi Oy Tampere Water Works Turku Water Works Vihti Water Works Kemira Chemicals Oy Kemwater Plancenter Ltd. Uusimaa Regional Environment Centre Helsinki University of Technology, Laboratory of Environmental Engineering Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association Schedule 1.2.1998 30.6.2001 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 280 000 29 Ministry of the Environment Publications in English 62 000 6 Others 639 000 65 Total 981 000 100 Autti, J., 1999. Settleability and dewaterability of biological and biological-chemical sludges from nutrient removal process. Helsinki University of Technology, Dept. of Chemical technology. Master s thesis. Vilpas, R. 2001. Enhancing nitrogen and phosphorus removal in a biological chemical filter. Helsinki University of Technology, Dept. of Chemical technology. Master s thesis. Rantanen, P., Valve, M. 2001. Increasing the efficiency of a biological P and N removal process. Nordisk konference om rensning af kommunalt spildevand biologiske renseprocesser og slambehandling. København 17.-19.1.2001. Valve, M. 2001. Enhancing biological phosphorus removal from municipal waste water with partial simultaneous precipitation. Presentation. IWA 2nd World Water Congress, Berlin, Germany, 15-18 October 2001. 5.3 Development of a compact chemical-biological wastewater treatment process Kemira Chemicals Oy Industrial R&D Project Starting point In recent years wastewater treatment research has been focusing on biological methods, leaving the chemical aspects somewhat neglected. The experience accumulated in Finland, however, demonstrates that by combining chemical and biological treatment it is possible to achieve a noticeable reduction of oxygen consumption in the biological process, together with the efficient removal of phosphorus. In Finland the established method is simultaneous precipitation, which is used for the treatment of over 90 % of wastewater. The drawbacks in the method are the need for large reservoirs, and the considerable energy consumed in the aeration process. Searches for more reasonable methods, from the aspects of both space and cost, have resulted in suggesting the use of an efficient chemical precipitation method, followed by a compact biological stage, requiring only limited space. In addition to the efficient reduction of solids, approximately 70 % of the organic matter is removed from wastewater by efficient chemical precipitation. The remaining organic matter consists of soluble biodegradable substance with small molecule size. Therefore the biological treatment stage, as opposed to the conventional solutions, may be 41

smaller from the point of view of both size and cost. Objective The main objective of the project was to improve the compatibility of both the biological and chemical treatment stages in order to achieve the optimum treatment result easily. The goal was to learn how to adjust the process conditions in such a way that would avoid the swelling processes caused by the filamentous bacteria. Another objective was to develop a chemical or a combination of chemicals that would help to adjust the content of the nutrients and trace elements at the biological treatment stage in order optimise the biological removal of nutrients. Co-operators Oulu Water Works University of Kuopio University of Oulu Schedule 1.10.2000 4/2002 5.4 The next generation s activated sludge treatment plant YIT Corporation, Kiuru & Rautiainen Oy Industrial R&D project Implementation The project began by obtaining information on the various treatment processes. This was followed by developing the necessary chemicals on a laboratory scale, and by further pilot testing, using the continuous pilot equipment (precipitation/clarification for the preliminary precipitation, and the biological filtration unit). At the final stage, the full-scale testing of the process will be carried out. Finally, studies of the process s ecological efficiency, its feasibility and market research will be carried out. The project will be continued into the first half of 2002. By the autumn of 2001 the preliminary studies, as well as the pilot runs were completed, and some promising results, related to the compatibility of the chemical and biological parts of the process, were achieved. The more deeper microbiological expertise that was necessary for the project was obtained from the University of Kuopio. Feasibility and market studies, as well as the information on the ecological efficiency of the process were purchased from the University of Oulu. Contact person Eelis Kähkönen, Kemira Chemicals Oy (eelis.kahkonen@kemira.com) Objective The objective of the project was to develop a wastewater treatment plant, set up in an entirely new way, which utilises the activated sludge method for particularly efficient treatment of domestic wastewater. The intention was to develop a purification plant where, for the first time, the treatment of wastewater is carried out as an industrial process. This means that the wastewater treatment process takes place in as stable conditions as possible; and even in these cases, where this cannot be achieved, the process is always conducted at least in a way that is controllable from every aspect. The treatment routine does not allow the disturbance of the efficient biological process, or the diversion of wastewater past the plant. The treatment process includes the elimination of the entire direct oxygen consumption of the treated wastewater, and as efficient biological removal of nutrients as can be achieved by using the organic carbon content of the wastewater itself. Starting point The starting point of the project was the HUT/Savonlinna process developed between 1991 1995 by the Laboratory of Environmental Engineering at the Helsinki University of Technology for the effective nutrient removal from domestic waste- 42

water. This is an application, where the traditional activated sludge process is, where necessary, supplied with a post-treatment that can be adjusted flexibly according to varying conditions. As opposed to traditional practice, the active sludge processes with an extremely low load, applied in the treatment facility, involve sludge concentrations of the biological treatment reactors, which are two to three times higher than has been considered possible so far. One of the major flaws in the conventional activated sludge treatment plants is their hydraulic uncontrollability, resulting from the natural flow used in these activated sludge processes, as well as the constant variation of the treatment results caused by the inadequate adjustment options in the process. These processes are not at all able to stabilise either the flow or the quality of wastewater, nor are they able to control the contact time of the biological substance performing the cleaning process, with the treated wastewater. Furthermore these processes cannot be adjusted to seasonal changes. Results As a result of the project a model of a new activated sludge plant, not having the flaws mentioned before, was developed. The treatment of the wastewater takes place with maximum efficiency, but is still clearly less expensive than the processes carried out in the conventional plants. This is achieved by using the highest possible biomass concentrations and by omitting the post-treatment stage. The work was performed in the form of creative thinking, by using the experience gained from the developing of the HUT/Savonlinna processes, as well as by seriously questioning the traditional technical solutions of the processes previously used. All the main objectives of the project were achieved. The activated sludge treatment method, named Carmen, takes place at such a low load that all the conventional biochemically decomposable compounds of the domestic wastewater are completely oxidised, and its entire nitrogen content is oxidised into nitrate-nitrogen. Thus the entire direct oxygen demand of the wastewater is eliminated. The content of the biologically usable organic carbon in the wastewater is fully utilised for the removal of nutrients by using biological methods. The Carmen plant is fully controlled hydraulically, and its biological treatment process can be controllably adjusted to any conditions. The facility can normally even-out the short-term fluctuations in the wastewater flow during the dry season, smoothout the fluctuations in the wastewater time lag, the contact time of the biomass and the wastewater in the course of the biological treatment process. It is possible to use extremely high biomass concentrations in the biological treatment reactor, and the removal of dry matter, using the secondary sedimentation process, is so efficient that no further treatment is needed. Therefore the investment and operating costs of the Carmen plants are noticeably lower than the investment and running costs of the conventional activated sludge treatment plants that are capable of providing the same treatment result. The Carmen plant is very simple. It is based on certain new solutions in the technical process. The activated sludge treatment process consists of identical processes occurring simultaneously. The process involves two subsequent reservoirs, acting as connected vessels, which are controlled from the rear of the second reservoir. The active sludge processes are adjusted downstream so that during a dry period the flow of the treated wastewater coming out of the plant is stable for a short period of time. At that moment the level of wastewater is controlled and changed according to necessity. In standard solutions the first reservoir is a reactor tank equipped for the biological treatment, and the second reservoir is a combination so that the circulation of the biomass in the process can be achieved in the easiest way. The combined reactor and secondary sedimentation tank has an interior wall, which is placed crossways, and can be readjusted using a motor. This wall enables the division of the tank into the reactor part and the sedimentation parts, as required. The project has been completed in every aspect, excepting that a full-scale pilot facility, which would allow conclusive verification of the achievement of the objectives set, is needed. The shortterm stabilisation of the wastewater flow, which is essentially related to the new treatment facility, 43

was tested at the Kitee wastewater treatment plant in 2001. There is no doubt that the Carmen plant functions as intended, both from the theoretical and the practical point of view. The marketing of the Carmen method has already begun, and the pilot plant will be constructed in Finland as soon as possible. Contact persons Heikki Kiuru, Kiuru & Rautiainen Oy, HUT (heikki.kiuru@hut.fi) Jyri Rautiainen, Kiuru & Rautiainen Oy (jyri.rautiainen@kiuru-rautiainen.inet.fi) Hans Lindqvist, YIT Corporation (hans.lindqvist@yit.fi) Participants Companies: YIT Corporation (project co-ordination) Kiuru & Rautiainen Oy Helsinki University of Technology HUT, Laboratory of Environmental Engineering Schedule 1.1.1999 31.12.2001 5.5 Polymer handling and enhancing the flocculation efficiency by ultrasonication VTT Energy (Technical Research Centre of Finland) Applied technical research project Starting point Every year the Finnish wastewater treatment plants produce about half a million tons of dry sludge matter, one third of which comes from the municipal wastewater treatment plants. However, with the development of wastewater treatment methods, as well as increased efficiency in the utilisation of the industrial raw materials, the processing of sludge has become more difficult. The disposal of the waste materials has become more difficult, and the disposal costs have increased. The dry matter content of the sludge has to be increased in order to facilitate its transport and secondary processing, and to decrease the volume of the disposed sludge. Before dewatering, large quantities of polymers are used for the flocculation of the sludge. The intensification of the use of polymers would significantly reduce the treatment costs. According to the information obtained from publications the ultrasonic treatment helps to reduce the use of polymers and/or enhances the settling and dewatering processes. Objective The objective of this project was to develop a new ultrasonic technique, which would help to increase the dry matter content of the sludge, and improve the efficiency of the polymers used. This is attempted through the use of ultrasonic treatment of the polymers, and by increasing the efficiency of flocculation by applying the ultrasonic technique. Implementation The project was divided into two sub-projects. The first sub-project involved research dealing with the impact of the ultrasonic treatment process on the properties of polymers. The second sub-project explored the impact of the treatment on flocculation. In autumn 2001 the intention was to study the impact of the ultrasonic treatment on the dewatering process, the quantities of polymers needed for the process, and to perform a conclusive technical and economic examination of the method. The tests were carried out on a laboratory scale, and it was intended to use the multiple variable analysis method. The results of the research will be available in the beginning of 2002. If the results of this first stage are successful, the project will be continued through the development and realisation of a pilot technique, which will be tested at the treatment plants. Researchers VTT Energy: Pentti Pirkonen, project co-ordinator (pentti.pirkonen@vtt.fi) 44

Saara Isännäinen, head researcher (saara.isannainen@vtt.fi) Kirsi Korpijärvi Hannu Mursunen Co-operators Companies: Kemira Chemicals Oy Oy Metsä-Botnia Ab Finnsonic Oy Lappeenranta Water Works Schedule 1.2.2001 31.12.2001 Financing (plan 2001) Financier EUR Share % Tekes 71 000 60 Others 47 000 40 Total 118 000 100 5.6 Recovery and utilisation of wastewater nitrogen Industrial R&D Project Objective During the last years, mainly biological methods have been developed for the control of nitrogen in wastewater. Nevertheless these methods result in the conversion of ammonium nitrogen into elementary nitrogen, whereby the nitrogen is not recovered. Furthermore the biological methods are sensitive to temperature and load fluctuations. The objective of the present preliminary study was to investigate the applicability of a physico-chemical method for the treatment of water containing ammonium nitrogen, such as wastewater and landfill runoff water. A second objective was to develop a system for the recovery and utilisation of this nitrogen from wastewater. A further objective was to provide an initial assessment of the cost of the method as compared with other methods, and to evaluate the potential for applying the method. The targeted nitrogen removal cost was to be between 10 to 30 EUR/kg N. Implementation The main responsibility for the project was assigned to Kemira Chemicals. Kemira s task was to carry out the laboratory tests, and develop a new regeneration concept for the chosen ion exchange method. Envitop Oy participated as an expert in the field of ion exchange materials. Envitop Oy performed the laboratory tests on the recovery of ammonium nitrogen, and studied the regeneration of the ion exchanger. Hadwaco Ltd. carried out the laboratory optimising tests with the evaporating equipment intended for the landfill runoff water. Matti Ettala Oy was responsible for conducting the market research and the competitiveness analysis. Results In the course of the preliminary research, and based on the results of laboratory tests, an ammonium nitrogen recovery method, suitable for domestic wastewater was developed. The initial estimated cost of the method was 3 to 10 EUR/kg N, depending on the possibilities for the utilisation of the recovered nitrogen and the duration of the payoff period calculated for the investment. An estimation of the size of nitrogen removal markets, and an overview of the competition were obtained. The necessity for the further development of the method was investigated, and a programme for the continuation of the research was prepared. The aim of the project is to test the method under actual conditions. Contact persons Timo Kenakkala, Kemira Chemicals Oy, project co-ordinator (timo.kenakkala@kemira.com) Eero Aitta, Kemira Chemicals Oy (eero.aitta@kemira.com) 45

Jukka Palko, Envitop Oy (envitop@envitop.com) Matti Ettala, Matti Ettala Oy (matti.ettala@co.inet.fi) Marja Koljonen, Hadwaco Ltd (marja.koljonen@hadwaco.com) Participants Companies: Kemira Chemicals Oy Envitop Oy Matti Ettala Oy Hadwaco Ltd Schedule 1.4.2000 31.8.2000 5.7 The reduction of infective micro-organisms in treated wastewater by sand filtration and UV-irradiation University of Kuopio, Department of Environmental Sciences Applied technical research project Objective Untreated domestic wastewater, entering a municipal wastewater treatment plant, contains a significant amount of micro-organisms. For example, the concentration of the faecal coliform bacteria can reach up to 10 6 10 8 cfu in 100 ml of wastewater. Although the bacterial content decreases in the course of the treatment, the biologically treated wastewater, which is discharged to water bodies usually contains 10 5 faecal coliform bacteria in 100 ml of wastewater. This constitutes a considerable microbial load, which is an indication of the risk that a number of pathogens can also be discharged into the recipient water body. The research aimed at improving the treatment of municipal wastewater so that the intestinal bacteria would be destroyed as efficiently and cost-effectively as possible, without causing any harm to the recipient water body. The purpose of the treatment is to reduce health hazards caused by intestinal bacteria, which may occur if the water from the water body is used for drinking, fishing or bathing, or in certain cases, for animal consumption. In order to reduce the health hazards, a purification target for the project was to achieve the reduction of faecal coliforms to a level of 20 cfu per 100 ml of wastewater. This is the limit set by the EU for drinking water abstracted from surface water, where treatment includes only a simple physical treatment and disinfection (EC 75/440). Implementation In addition to the faecal coliform bacteria, used as the principal hygiene indicator of water, other bacteria of faecal origin, which are present in wastewater and serve as pollution indicators, were tested. These bacteria included clostridia and bacterial viruses, which have been found to be more resistant than coliform bacteria. In addition to the detection of wastewater indegenious coliphages more resistant FRNA-phages were used as model viruses to confirm the efficiency of UV-irradiation. The tests were performed at four wastewater works by using pilot equipment that consisted of a sand filter and two UV-reactors. Each of these test runs lasted for approximately three months. Moreover, additional laboratory-scale experiments, dealing with the quality of water, were performed at another three participating wastewater works. During the test runs, the influence of mechanical filtration and two different commercial aluminium chemicals on the quality of wastewater and subsequently the effect of UV-irradiation on microbes in sand filtered wastewater were researched. As a result of the sand filtration process the quality of water was improved through reducing the solids, turbidity, and organic matter that weaken the impact of UV-irradiation. Results At the time of writing, the experiments have not yet been completed. This text presents only the prelim- 46

inary results, which suggest that the objectives can will be achieved. By applying mechanical sand filtration, the quantity of solids and the turbidity of the wastewater were reduced to approximately half of their initial value. The mechanical filtration did not remove much of the phosphorus. By using additional chemicals, the content of both solids and phosphorus were reduced approximately 90 %. Chemical oxygen demand was also reduced. It was not possible to reduce the bacteria concentration by mere mechanical sand filtration. However, by applying the chemical treatment a reduction of more than 99 % was often achieved. After UV-irradiation the bacteria content often remained under the detection limit, particularly in the case of faecal coliforms and coliphages. Enterococci and clostridia in particular, turned out to be more resistant than others; nevertheless, while the reduction of enterococci was over 99 %, the reduction of the clostridia was less than 90 %. The combination of sand filtration and UV-treatment removed over 99 % of clostridia. The use of an aluminium based chemical increased the efficiency of the removal of clostridia spores considerably, because in this case the spore content was already low before the UV-treatment. The reduction of the FRNA-phages, which are more resistant than any other studied bacteriophages, tested by adding phages to the sand filtered water, resulted in over 99 % removal, regardless of the initial quantity of added phages. The UV-permeability of water influenced strongly the inactivation of FRNAphages indicating the need of pretreatment of the effluent before UV-irradiation. Utilisation of the results As a result of the research, a new and more efficient wastewater post-treatment method for the reduction of pathogenic microorganisms was developed. It is intended to utilise the results in the wastewater works that participated in the project. Other wastewater works will also benefit from the research, as the necessity for the post-treatment of wastewater will soon increase as a result of the introduction of new and stricter discharge permit requirements. The outcome of the research may also be used in the general planning of wastewater post-treatment processes. The results will be published in 2002. Researchers University of Kuopio: Helvi Heinonen-Tanski, project co-ordinator (helvi.heinonentanski@uku.fi) Ritva Rajala, head researcher (ritva.rajala@uku.fi) Merja Pulkkanen Matti Pessi Co-operators Water and wastewater works of Kuopio, Tampere, Hämeenlinna, Riihimäki, Hyvinkää, Lappeenranta and Joensuu Companies: Plancenter Ltd Onninen Oy Waterlink Oy Prominent Finland Oy Kemira Chemicals Oy Schedule 1.5.2000 31.12.2001 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 125 000 83 Others 26 000 17 Total 151 000 100 Publications in English Rajala, RL., Pulkkanen, M., Pessi, M. and Heinonen- Tanski, H. 2002. Removal of microbes from municipal wastewater effluent by rapid sand filtration and subsequent UV-irradiation. Abstract for the presentation in IWA World Water Congress to be held in Melbourne 7-12 April 2002. 47

5.8 The enhancement and control system for sludge pre-treatment, ensuring a high and stable dry matter content in the mechanical dewatering process DWT-Engineering Ltd Industrial R&D Project In the course of the project, an enhancement and control system for sludge pre-treatment, ensuring a high and stable dry matter content in the mechanical dewatering of sludge was developed. The resulting system was tested at a small wastewater treatment plant. By successful application of the controlled preliminary dewatering process the results were achieved in the mechanical compression and centrifugation, allowing the use of smaller equipment working under higher pressure, which results in a significant competitive edge. Furthermore, less energy and smaller amounts of chemicals are needed for the final treatment. Contact person Markku Sihvonen, DWT-Engineering Ltd (info@dwteng.com) Co-operators VTT Energy Schedule 1998 1999 5.9 Granulation and utilisation of wastewater sludge Helsinki Water, Rejlers Ltd Applied technical research project Objectives The objective of the project was to investigate the technical and economic feasibility of the drying and granulation of sludge. The second part of the project involved assessment of the environmental impacts (EIA) of this new alternative for waste disposal. The environmental impacts of the new method were compared with the conventional alternatives. Results The available techniques for the thermal drying and granulation of sludge, their benefits, strengths and costs were established by interviewing the suppliers. In addition to the thermal drying method, a sludge incinerator was also included in the comparison. The Joensuu wastewater treatment plant served as the model. The annual output of sludge from this plant is 8,000 tonnes. The investment that is required for implementing the thermal drying of sludge varied from 0.7 to 2.5 million euros. The investment costs for installing an incinerator were somewhere in the middle of these two estimated figures. The expected operating costs of an incinerator are believed to be twice as high as the running costs of the thermal drying unit, constituting ca 33 euros per tonne of sludge. The sludge disposal at Helsinki Water was used as a reference in the EIA comparison. The EIA assessment reveals that the strengths of the policy of spreading the sludge granules in forests include an insignificant loss of nutrients, low discharge of soluble heavy metals, and low discharge of acidifying substances. The weaknesses are the need for extensive areas, high transport costs, and various logistical problems. The requirement for the investigation of long-term impacts, as well as such negative attitudes as: forest is not a landfill, were considered potential threats. From the environmental aspect, the strengths of the agricultural use of sludge granules are, lower nutrient losses as compared with composting, and the fertilising effect allowing a reduction in the use of artificial fertilisers. Compared with the incineration process, the advantages of this method are the recycling of nitrogen and organic matter, and low discharge of acidifying substances. However, a very positive energy balance may be seen as a strength of the incineration of sludge granules. Recirculation of phosphorus and potassium can be achieved, when the ash is used as a forest fertiliser. The nutrient discharge related to the 48

use of such fertilisers is low. The weaknesses of incineration include a substantial discharge of heavy metals, if conventional incineration methods are used. This applies particularly to mercury discharge, which is fairly high, when compared with that resulting from coal or peat incineration. Nitrogen and humus in the sludge is lost in the incineration process, and the discharge of nitrogen and acidifying sulphur are quite extensive. Incineration produces disproportionately large quantities of ash as compared with its energy content. The fears associated with waste, the overall negative attitude of the general public towards waste incineration, and the trends established by the EU directive on the incineration of waste, which complicate co-incineration, were seen as threats linked with the incineration method. Therefore the acceptability of the incineration alternative seems unlikely, especially in view of the low value of sludge as a fuel. The total cost of thermal drying and granulation at a sewerage plant the size of the Joensuu plant is approximately 33 euros per tonne of sludge. This sum is comparable with, or slightly lower than, the cost of reactor composting. In composting, a proportion of the costs can be recovered by the income derived from selling the compost, but in many regions the demand for such compost is small and the price has to be low. The advantage of sludge granules is the fact that the mass of the granules decreases by approximately one-fifth, whereas in the course of the composting process the mass generally increases, due to the use of the binding material. At the same time, many options for utilising sludge granules are available: in agriculture, the fertilisation of public lawns, forest fertilisation, and incineration. In view of the fact that such fertiliser or fuel is an extensively developed product, it may be assumed that the marketing of granulated sludge may provide some return, which could be used to partly cover the treatment expenses. As a result of the project a thermal drying unit has been set up at the Joensuu wastewater treatment plant. The method has attracted a great deal of interest, and a number of environmental licence applications suggest thermal drying as the sludge treatment method of choice. Further research is aimed at clarifying the options for the co-treatment of sludge and biological waste, applying the thermal drying method. Contact persons Timo Holmberg, Rejlers Oy, head researcher (timo.holmberg@rejlers.fi) Yrjö Lundström, Helsinki Water, project co-ordinator (yrjo.lundstrom@hel.fi) Participants Rejlers Ltd Biolan Ltd Helsinki Water Joensuu Water Works Mikkeli Water Works Schedule 1.8.1998 28.2.1999 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 35 000 46 Others 42 000 54 Total 77 000 100 5.10 Membrane bioreactor for the filtration of sludge Industrial R&D Project Background and objectives Biologically treated wastewater is usually fed from the treatment plant through a secondary sedimentation tank. The problems associated with the secondary sedimentation taking place in a tank, is that bacteria, solids, and nutrients are released into the recipient water bodies. In numerous cases, the efficiency of the secondary sedimentation is being improved by using chemicals. This chemical treatment, or even the entire secondary sedimentation, may be substituted by membrane filtration, where solid matter and bacteria can be completely removed from the wastewater, if the pore size of the membrane is less than 0.1 µm. At the same time, 49

membrane filtration, i.e. the membrane bioreactor, reduces the tank area, which means that, for example, biological nitrogen removal can be carried out using the existing equipment without the need for major renovation. Other benefits of the membrane filtration method are the increase in the dry matter content of the sludge. The object of this project was to develop a membrane bioreactor method, which is appropriate, in northern conditions, for municipal wastewater treatment plants in such a way that, after the completion of the project, the membrane bioreactor could be introduced to the market. Implementation At the initial stage of the project, information about the existing membrane filtration equipment was gathered by using published information and interviews. For the most part, the project has been an attempt at collating the technology. Its aim was to strengthen the co-operation between the manufacturers of membrane bioreactors, the end users, and the researchers. VTT Energy and the Lappeenranta University of Technology explored the functioning of the submersible membrane module under laboratory conditions. At the Keuruu wastewater treatment plant the method was tested in actual operating conditions. Moreover, the method will also be tested at the Kuopio wastewater treatment plant. Results Sludge forms a layer on the surface of the membrane, impeding filtration. This layer, however, may be reduced by inverse washing, or by placing the membrane module into as strong a current as possible. Flow, generated by the aeration, was used for this purpose at the treatment plant. Various membrane detergents were tested in the laboratory. Even the use of mere inverse washing enabled a 60 per cent restoration of the capacity obtainable from a clean membrane. The best detergent provided 75 per cent restoration of the filtration capacity of a clean membrane. Filtering has been more efficient at a wastewater treatment plant than in the laboratory, but the results are still below the values described in the professional literature. The quality of the filtered wastewater has been comparable to the quality of settled wastewater. This means that the filtration can be technically successful under the conditions at the treatment plant, but the filtration should be more efficient in order to make it practicable, and thus more competitive. At the final stage of the project attempts will be made to increase the flow through the membrane by finding an optimal location for the membrane. Ways to improve the efficiency of the inverse washing will be investigated. Moreover, at the Kuopio water works the researchers intend to determine the impact of the increase in sludge concentration on the functioning of the membrane bioreactor and the nitrogen content of the discharged wastewater. Filtering tests will be continued until the winter of 2002, when it will be possible to estimate the cost of the method. Finally, a technical and economic assessment of the inclusion of the membrane filtration in the biological wastewater treatment processes will be prepared. Contact persons Hanna Huotari, VTT Energy (hanna.huotari@vtt.fi) Kare Sarkki, Hyxo Ltd (kare.sarkki@hyxo.fi) Kia Aksela, Skanska Econet Ltd (kia.aksela@skanska.fi) Participants Hyxo Ltd Skanska Econet Ltd Soil and Water Ltd. Kuopio Water Works Keuruu Water Works Tampere Water Works VTT Energy Lappeenranta University of Technology Finnish Environment Institute Schedule 1.9.2000 31.3.2002 50

6 Projects relating to water services at rural areas 6.1 Improvement of wastewater treatment in rural areas (HAJASAMPO) Finnish Environment Institute Applied technical research project Background and objectives A large proportion of the wastewater treatment systems, servicing more than a million Finns the year round, as well as over 0.4 million holiday homes, which remain outside the reach of the sewage networks, will require significant improvement in the coming years. According to the water protection objectives set by the government, it is necessary to improve the removal of organic substances and phosphorus in order to reduce the load on water bodies. Both the specialists working in this field, within businesses and in municipalities, as well as those, who commission construction of on-site sewage systems, i.e. the residents, need comprehensive information. The Hajasampo project was launched at the initiative of the Finnish Environment Institute (FEI) in the region surrounding Lake Pyhäjärvi to remedy the lack of information on wastewater treatment in rural areas. The project is also a part of the Environmental Cluster research programme of the Ministry of the Environment. The project had two main objectives. On the one hand the objective was to improve wastewater treatment methods suitable for rural areas, and to gather information on their functioning by monitoring the situation. On the other hand the project aimed at developing methods allowing control over the choice of various wastewater processing equipment, implementation methods and maintenance procedures, including training aimed at ensuring the efficiency and reliability of the systems. The aim was to create efficient ways, and operating models, for the realisation of the water protection programme objectives, both for municipalities and businesses. The sub-projects The project was carried out in the following sub-projects: wastewater treatment methods design and construction sampling, field assessment, and preliminary studies of soil infiltration systems efficiency of wastewater treatment plants possibilities for reducing the water bodies pollution loads product development within the project practical experiences with composting toilets servicing and maintenance operations renovation of septic tanks responsibilities and supervision training and educational activities domestic and foreign co-operation, and information activities. The gathering of information on methods, and the utilisation of this information As a result of the Hajasampo project an instruction manual on wastewater treatment in rural areas, intended for the municipalities of the Pyhäjärvi region, was produced. An index file of the on-site wastewater treatment methods was prepared. This file served as the basis for a brochure issued to the residents of the region. The possibilities and methods for the renovation of septic tanks were also investigated within the project. Based on the results, an instruction manual was compiled, both for the residents of the area, and for the professionals. Training events and seminars, intended for various target groups, were organised within the project. As a result, an understanding was developed concerning the basic contents of further training. 51

There are no such uniform and generally applicable supervisory instructions or regulations for on-site wastewater treatment, which would ensure sufficient efficiency. In the course of the project a summary of expert opinions was produced. This summary dealt with the identification of responsibilities, requirements, supervision, and their improvement in the future. Design, construction and maintenance Wastewater treatment equipment only functions efficiently if designed and built properly, and when it is correctly maintained. The wastewater adviser, who was employed by the project, prepared among other things plans for wastewater treatment facilities, which were to be built or refurbished in the Pyhäjärvi region. He consulted the residents and the contractors on issues concerning their implementation. Between spring 1998 and autumn 1999 altogether 82 wastewater systems and 72 composting toilets were built in the region. A more permanent model for the planning and maintenance of wastewater treatment systems as compared to the results produced by the temporarily employed adviser was created when the Water Services Cooperative of Varsinais-Suomi was established, and when the co-operative employed a water supply and sewerage consultant on a part-time basis. Performance studies The performance of the wastewater treatment facilities was studied at 48 wastewater treatment plants, where between 1999 and 2000, all in all, 290 samples were taken. In order to reduce the amount of work and analysing costs an effort was made to create new sampling methods. The results of the performance studies demonstrate that the use of the methods selected allow the achievement of at least a satisfactory treatment result in relation to the pollutant distribution that each process aims to influence, can be attained, as long as the treatment facility is properly designed, built and maintained. New information on the experience of using composting toilets was obtained through interviews and questionnaires. This information may be utilised both by the equipment manufacturers in their product development activities, as well as by the residents who are contemplating the acquisition of a composting toilet. Product development activities The businesses, which took a more active part in the project, were able to utilise the project, as well as its intermediary results in their product development work. Envitop Oy developed new lime-clay filter techniques for the secondary processing of wastewater, which is particularly well suited to the removal of phosphorus from septic tank effluent. Based on the new information obtained through the project, Green Rock Oy developed a chemical compound, which, installed in the toilet seat, allows the precipitation of phosphorus already in the septic tank. Implementation of the results Through the co-operation of a large number of operators from the water supply and sanitation sector the Hajasampo project produced a considerable mass of new information, new operating methods, and new products. The results will benefit the residents of rural areas, the other authorities, and also the water supply and sewerage businesses. As a result of the publicity received by the project, issues relating to wastewater treatment in rural areas have attracted nationwide interest. The research of wastewater treatment in rural areas will be continued in numerous follow-up projects. Researchers Finnish Environment Institute: Erkki Santala, project co-ordinator (erkki.santala@vyh.fi) Katriina Kujala-Räty, head researcher (katriina.kujala-raty@vyh.fi) Lauri Etelämäki Toivo Lapinlampi Mari Ruuska Harri Mattila, FEI, Lake Pyhäjärvi Protection Fund, Häme Polytechnic Mika Vainio, FEI, Town of Säkylä Jami Aho, FEI, West Finland Regional Environment Centre 52

Participants Finnish Environment Institute Lake Pyhäjärvi Protection Fund Southwest Finland Regional Environment Centre Pirkanmaa Regional Environment Centre West Finland Regional Environment Centre Towns of Säkylä, Eura, Yläne, Oripää and Köyliö Companies: Envitop Oy Propipe Oy Green Rock Oy Ekora Engineering Oy Partek Nordkalk Corporation Biolan Oy Schedule 1.1.1998 31.5.2001 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 325 000 37 Ministry of the Environment Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Publications in English 72 000 8 56 000 6 Others 434 000 49 Total 887 000 100 Mattila, H. 2001. The role of public acceptance in the application of DESAR technology. In: Lens, P., Zeeman, G. & Lettinga, G. (eds.). Decentralised Sanitation and Reuse: Concepts, Systems and Implementation. London, IWA Publishing. S. 517-532. Integrated Environmental Technology Series. Kujala-Räty, K., Santala, E. (eds.). 2001. Improvement of Wastewater Treatment in Rural Areas Final Report of the Hajasampo Project (Haja-asutuksen jätevesien käsittelyn tehostaminen Hajasampo projektin loppuraportti). Suomen ympäristö 491. (In Finnish with an extensive summary in English) 6.2 Removal of arsenic from drilled well water (ARPO) Finnish Environment Institute Applied technical research project Objective Besides radon, arsenic constitutes one of the most serious problems of the drinking water quality in individual wells in Finland. Arsenic is not a problem in public water works. In Finland the largest quantities of arsenic found in the soil and drilled wells can be observed in Pirkanmaa. Water containing arsenic may be safely used for any other household purposes except drinking. Extended exposure to arsenic, with a daily ingestion of 2 5 mg of arsenic, can cause poisoning symptoms and potentially increase the risk of skin cancer and tumours in internal organs. The objective of this research was to find methods for the removal of arsenic from the well water of single households, and to develop effective, reliable and inexpensive arsenic removal equipment for households. The project also investigated the potential markets for such arsenic removal equipment, as well as export opportunities. Implementation and results The research project (ARPO 1) was launched in 1996. In the course of the project three new commercial devices were tested. The methods used were activated carbon filtration, adsorption of activated alumina, and ion exchange. The research was continued in 1997 (ARPO 2) with the testing of three commercial point-of-use reverse osmosis devices. The results were quite discouraging: none of the adsorption-based methods tested at either of the two sites produced water with a quality even close to the limit values set for drinking water. The reverse osmosis (RO) device with the acetate membrane turned out to be ineffective at all the test sites. 53

The third stage of the research involved further testing of adsorbents, based on greensand, activated alumina, and a commercial iron removal adsorbent. It was noted that the activated alumina (AA) appeared to be the most efficient of all adsorbents tested. Two of the AA adsorbents, produced by different manufacturers, which the researchers had found to be the most efficient, were chosen for an extended monitoring survey carried out in Lempäälä, during which standard household conditions were simulated. The RO devices were tested with new thin-film composite (TFC) membranes under increased pressure. Based on the positive test results the first reverse osmosis devices were installed in households during the first half of 2000. The functioning of these devices will be monitored until the end of 2001, after which the test results may be published. As a result of the research new methods for the removal of arsenic from the well water of individual households were developed. The initial test results demonstrate that pentavalent arsenic can be removed rather efficiently by using reverse osmosis, where TFC membranes are used at the normal network pressure. It was discovered that where trivalent arsenic was present in the water, higher pressure was required. In the course of the studies two AA adsorbents were discovered, which are suitable for the removal of both pentavalent and trivalent arsenic without preliminary oxidation, which was earlier considered an unavoidable part of arsenic removal. Reverse osmosis equipment is already on the market. AA equipment will be launched after the final test results prove that the filters function appropriately, and the price of the equipment can be kept at a reasonable level for consumers. Researchers Matti Valve, FEI, project co-ordinator (matti.valve@vyh.fi) Pirjo Rantanen, FEI, head researcher starting from 1.9.2000 (pirjo.rantanen@vyh.fi) Pauliina Kokkonen, FEI, head researcher until 31.8.2000 Soile Heinonen, TUT Hanna Kahelin, GSF Participants Finnish Environment Institute (FEI) Geological Survey of Finland (GSF) Tampere University of Technology (TUT) City of Lempäälä City of Tampere Companies: SCC Viatek HOH Separtec Ltd Oy WatMan Ab Schedule Parts 1 and 2: 1.8.1997 31.10.1998 Part 3: 1.2.1999 31.12.2001 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 106 000 42 Others 144 000 58 Total 250 000 100 Publications in English Myllymäki, P.,Valve, M., Kahelin, H. and Heinonen, S. 1999. Developing small devices for arsenic removal in private households. IWSA World Water Congress, Buenos Aires 18-24 September 1999. Poster presentation. 6.3 Removal of radon from groundwater Finnish Environment Institute Applied technical research project Objective The objective of the project was to obtain new information on methods for the removal of radon from the water of drilled wells, and to develop efficient equipment for households, which would allow a decrease in the radon content of well water to 54

a level safe for health. The presence of radon in well water is a general problem in Finland, because in approximately 40 per cent of the more than 4000 drilled wells investigated by the Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, the radon content exceeded the maximum limit set for public water works, and in the worst cases the content exceeded the limit more than a hundredfold. Implementation The project was launched in spring 1995 as a co-operative venture of the Finnish Environment Institute, the Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, and the Helsinki University of Technology. The purpose of the project was to explore the possibilities for removing radon by aeration and activated carbon filtration. After the initial stage three equipment suppliers, whose task was to develop new equipment, were involved in the project. The latter stage of the research was financed through the Water Services Technology Programme. Results In the course of the project four different types of aeration devices were developed, and possibilities for using activated carbon filtration were examined. Activated carbon filters and aerators were installed in households, and their functioning was monitored. The removal of radon by aeration is based on the migration of gaseous radon from water into air, when water and air are blended powerfully. Each equipment supplier developed their own specific blending techniques. In processes where activated carbon filtration is applied, water containing radon is directed through the activated carbon layer; in the course of this process radon is caught in the activated carbon. The efficiency of radon removing filters is highly dependent on the quality the carbon used; therefore in the course of the project the efficiency of five different types of carbon was compared. At best the use of aerators and activated carbon filtration resulted in the removal of as much as 99.9 % of the radon, even with a fairly high radon content in the raw water. The major problems relating to aeration, are the short-lived radioactive decomposition products, the increase of the bacteria content of the water as a result of aeration, potential short-term breaks in the water supply or reduced removal efficiency during periods of intensive water usage. However the major problem in the use of activated carbon filtration is related to the fact that the filters themselves become radiation sources. Another problem may arise from the impact of other qualitative properties of water on the filtration result. Therefore the quality of the water should be inspected both before installation of the removal equipment, as well as after. As a result of this research individual households have been provided with efficient and convenient possibilities for the removal of radon from their drinking water. Moreover, recommendations and safety instructions were developed for the purchasing, installation, usage and disposal of the equipment. There is still a lot of research and development necessary concerning radon removal. With the initiative of the Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority such research and monitoring has continued. Researchers Finnish Environment Institute: Tuomo Hatva, project co-ordinator (tuomo.hatva@vyh.fi) Pauliina Kokkonen (earlier Myllymäki), head researcher Co-operators Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority Companies: Insinööritoimisto Vartiainen Oy Overcraft Oy Oy Wat Man Ab Schedule 1.8.1997 29.2.1998 55

Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 18 000 48 Others 19 000 52 Total 37 000 100 Publications in English Myllymäki, P., Salonen, L., Turtiainen, T. 2000. Radon and uranium removal from bedrock water in Finland. In: Future groundwater resources at risk. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference (Changchun, China, July 1998). International Hydrogeological Programme, UNESCO, Paris. IHP-V Theme 3, Technical Documents in Hydrology, No.27. pp. 83-85. 6.4 Safe use of radionuclide removal devices Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority Applied technical research project Objective The purpose of the research was to limit the harmful impact of the radioactive substances in household water. In the course of the project equipment suitable for the removal of radioactive substances from household water, as well as factors influencing their safe utilisation were investigated. The objective of the project is to produce, by 2002, an instruction manual for consumers and businesses operating in the field. Implementation The research was divided into five different segments according to their subject. The first two parts focused on the removal of radon using various methods. The first researched the, as yet, untested aerator that is available on the market, and the other focused mainly on activated carbon filters and their long-term functioning under different conditions. The remaining three parts of the research dealt with the removal of long-lived radio nuclides (uranium, radium, lead, and polonium). The first of these three concerned the removal of these substances using ion exchange filters from different manufacturers. The research objects were chosen so that the researchers also had access to the experience accumulated on filters, which had been used for several years as well as get filters long-term functioning under different condition. The fourth research package dealt with the simultaneous removal of several substances, and the fifth researched the binding of lead and polonium with particles of different sizes, and the impact of water treatment equipment on their distribution. A questionnaire was forwarded to the test locations where the water treatment equipment was installed. The questionnaire sought information on the experience of clients with the particular water treatment equipment in use. The purpose of this was to collect material for the subsequent instruction manual covering the entire range of subjects of the research. The research was carried out in the form of field studies. The water treatment equipment was placed at locations with varying contents of radioactive substances, where there was also the presence of harmful amounts of other substances like iron, manganese, humus, or fluoride in the water. Results According to the research results 90 per cent of radon can be efficiently removed either by aeration or by activated carbon filters. Aerators can be safely used to reduce even considerably high radon contents. In addition to the removal of radon, activated carbon filters also collect short-lived gammaactive daughter products of radon, and thus become sources of radiation themselves, so their use is limited to the removal of concentrations of 1,000 5,000 Bq/l. Other long-lived radioactive substances are not removed from the water by using aerators. At the same time activated carbon filters remove these substances from water in rather varying quantities. 56

Uranium and radium-226 can be efficiently removed from water by using ion exchangers. Strong base anion exchange resin is suitable for the removal of uranium. Uranium does not need to be removed from the entire household water, as it has no harmful on health through water used for washing. Radium can be removed; however, by strong cation exchange resin, which allows the removal of over 90 % of radium from the water. Development of methods for the removal of lead and polonium is quite important since, besides radon, these substances constitute the most significant source of radiation for users of water from drilled wells. Lead and polonium appear in ground water as dissolved compounds, but they can also be bound into mineral and organic colloids. For this reason their removal with only activated carbon filters or ion exchangers is not always possible. According to the information available today, the only reliable method for the removal of lead-210 and polonium-210 is the use of reverse osmosis equipment. The binding of lead and polonium with substances with various particle sizes was also studied, and new information was acquired on this subject, which can be used as the base for developing methods for removing these substances. In the course of the fourth research package the equipment of four businesses was examined. Two of these equipment simultaneously removes radon, iron, and manganese from the treated water. The equipment studied removed over 90 per cent of radon. Simultaneous removal of fluoride and longlived radio nuclides from drinking water is also possible. During the research, the uranium, radium, lead, and polonium removing ability of two different units designed for removing fluoride was investigated. The equipment had not been tested for the removal of radioactive substances before. The best results were obtained with uranium and radium removal (over 90 %) whereas lead and polonium removal was not as successful. One of the important research results was the experience gained in the long-term functioning of activated carbon filters and ion exchangers. The acceptable service life of activated carbon filters limits to 2 to 4 years, depending on the quality of water and water consumption. Ion exchangers that are equipped with automatic regeneration devices, can be used for up to 10 years. The useful life of ion exchangers without automatic regeneration devices is between 2 and 4 years, depending on the quality of water and water consumption. It is recommended that filters mounted in taps are replaced once every summer. The recommendations of the future instruction manual that relates to the useful life of equipment will be specified further. Utilisation of results The results of the research will be used for writing an instruction manual for the removal of radionuclides. The instruction manual will be useful both for consumers and water treatment businesses, thus allowing the selection of removal devices suited to specific needs. In other Nordic countries there has been, as of yet, no experimental research relating to the removal of uranium or other long-lived radio nuclides. The results will also be utilised for the development of water treatment equipment and used in the design of new equipment for the market. Researchers Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority: Pia Vesterbacka, head researcher (pia.vesterbacka@stuk.fi) Tuukka Turtiainen, head researcher (tuukka.turtiainen@stuk.fi) Laina Salonen (laina.salonen@stuk.fi) Hannu Arvela, project co-ordinator (hannu.arvela@stuk.fi) Co-operators Companies: HOH Separtec Oy Oy Wat Man Ab Callidus Oy Akva Filter Oy Alvitek Oy Well Rock Oy 57

Schedule 1.2.2000 31.8.2001 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 70 000 60 Others 47 000 40 Total 117 000 100 6.5 Control system for wastewater treatment in rural areas Oy Labko Ab Industrial R&D project Objective The objective of the project was to create a wastewater treatment system for sparsely populated areas, which would allow the control of wastewater discharged from estates that are not connected to the communal sewer system. The appropriate alarm, sensor, and data transmission systems will allow wastewater treatment to be controlled and verify the timely performance of the maintenance, e.g. the timely emptying of the closed container for wastewater. Also, with the system the costs of the maintenance and the maintenance measures done for the treatment systems can be controlled. Implementation During the project, full-scale alarm and data transmission systems were built at three single-family houses and two lodges that are used all year round. The dwellings are located within the Kangasala community and are functioning as a pilot scheme. Also the suitability of the properties security surveillance systems for the project s purposes was analysed. Wastewater alarm signals as well as fire and theft alarm signals on the properties were included in the research. Results The system developed transmits alarm signals to the server that subsequently transmits the information on to the desired destination. Alarms are sent via server to the computer or to the mobile phone either by e-mail or SMS. It is intended that wastewater-related alarm signals are sent to the service company involved in the project (Jäte- ja viemärihuolto K. Räihä Ky) who is responsible for the emptying of the wastewater systems. It is also likely that the same party would also be responsible for other maintenance. Kangasala municipality invested in a new sludge receiving station. The station was equipped with a vehicle identification system and a sludge metering system. The identification system allows the dumping from only those vehicles that have been registered with the system. The metering system allows the measurement of the volumes of sludge brought in by every individual vehicle. Also a GSM-modem was installed at the station for the purpose of sending the volume and identification data to the server, where the information, for instance, could then be further transmitted on to an invoicing system. The sludge receiving station is working well and it is possible to see the daily events in the Internet. The owner of the collection vehicle can see only the data concerning his own car but the owner of the station (Kangasala municipality) gets all the data. One aim of the project was to equip the collection vehicles with a metering system and a system for the identification of individual properties. This would allow the measurement of the collected sludge volume for every property and to attribute the information to the particular location from where the sludge was collected. This would allow the basing of invoicing on volumes and enable supervision of the maintenance of the sewer systems of individual properties. There have been difficulties in finding a reliable metering system for sludge, which is possible to install into the sludge collection vehicles. The identification of the individual properties can be done e.g. by GPS-navigator. Thus it is possible to register the property and 58

address the maintenance acts done to the right property. The project will end at the beginning of February 2002. The results of the project will be applied to the already existing products as well as new products of Oy Labko Ab. The results can be utilised in individual products as well as in an integrated system, which would allow the creation of a completely new operating model for the organisation of wastewater treatment for sparsely populated areas in communities. The products will be first marketed on the domestic market and offered to export markets in the future. Contact person Timo Sarlin, Oy Labko Ab (timo.sarlin@labko.fi) Participants Companies: Oy Labko Ab Oy Labkotec Ab Jäte- ja viemärihuolto K. Räihä Ky Kangasala municipality Schedule 3.1.2000 1.2.2002 59

7 Projects relating to local wastewater pollution sources 7.1 The effect of landfill leachate on the performance and capacity of a municipal wastewater treatment plant, and evaluation of the needs and methods for leachate pre-treatment (KAATO 2001) University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences Applied technical research project Objectives The objective of the research was to develop methods and procedures that would allow to control the point source pollution originating from landfills more cost-efficiently, and to reduce it in the shortterm and the long-term perspective. The potential methods for achieving the goal of the project were divided into three groups: first, changing the composition of the waste disposed off in landfills and possibilities in the landfill s operation methods to reduce water pollution load; second, the on-site treatment of landfill leachate; and third, treatment of landfill leachate at municipal wastewater treatment plants. These methods can also be combined. Implementation At the initial stage of the project, several literature reviews on topics related to the formation and characteristics of landfill leachate, as well as the treatment of landfill leachate, were prepared. The experimental part dealt with the characteristics of the landfill leachate from currently used landfills, as well as functioning of the on-site leachate treatment plants, and the treatment of leachate at municipal wastewater treatment plants (see the table at page 62). Furthermore, laboratory and field tests relating to the formation and treatment of landfill leachate were carried out. In addition to full-scale plants, various laboratory and pilot scale reactors for leachate treatment and waste lysimeters simulating the landfill conditions were used in the tests. The tests relating to the treatment of landfill leachate mainly monitored the heaviest pollution load factors of leachates, i.e. organic matter (COD) and ammonium nitrogen. In order to achieve long-lasting purification results, and for the purpose of developing treatment processes the researchers also monitored harmful organic chemicals, metals, and aquatic toxicity determined in various ways ( algae, water flea and bacterial tests). Results The main characteristics of municipal landfill leachate which required treatment was the presence of organic substances and ammonium nitrogen. Moreover landfill leachate turned out to be toxic to aquatic organisms. The content of such hazardous organic chemicals as PAH compounds, phthalates, phenol, and creosols were the largest, but, in general, the concentration of hazardous chemicals was low. The results demonstrate that a considerable quantity of organic substances and nitrogen originating from grey waste is dissolved in landfill leachate. This means that separate collection of waste (i.e. sorting of biological waste at it source of origin) does not remove the need to treat leachate formed at a landfill where grey waste is deposited. The operation of a landfill as a bioreactor (by using such landfill management techniques as moisture regulation) allows the characteristics of landfill leachate, as well as the process of generation of methane gas, to be influenced to a considerable extent. This influence is specifically focused on the or- 61

Table 3. Sub-objectives, actions, and methods used in the project KAATO 2001. Objective Procedure Used methods The characteristics of landfill leachate and the need for their treatment Landfill operation methods for managing the environmental pollution loads On-site and off-site treatment of landfill leachate, and development of treatment Identification of the current situation at landfill sites participating in the project Development of sampling and analysis methods and application of toxicity tests The impact of the composition of waste and landfill operations on water pollution load Previous experience on characteristics and treatment Recycling of landfill leachate Initial watering of waste Optimisation of the moisture content of waste Biological in-situ treatment of landfill leachate On-site biological treatment of landfill leachate On-site physical and chemical treatment of landfill leachate Off-site treatment of landfill leachate at municipal wastewater treatment plant Field work Field work, organic and inorganic laboratory analysis, toxicity tests Waste lysimeter tests Literature review Waste lysimeter tests Waste lysimeter tests Batch tests using different waste Waste lysimeter tests Laboratory and pilot-scale reactor tests, full-scale treatment plants Laboratory scale reactor tests, full-scale treatment plants Full-scale treatment plants, laboratory tests ganic substances, i.e. whether the organic matter of waste primarily leaches out from the landfill with leachate, or are turned into a biogas (methane). By the on-site treatment of landfill leachate the enviromental pollution caused by landfill leachate can be reduced considerably. The best treatment efficiencies, over 90 %, removal of COD and ammonium nitrogen, were achieved by evaporation and biological treatment. The treatment, in general, reduced the toxicity of the leachate, but did not remove it completely. The most sensitive of the toxicity tests was the algae growth inhibition test, the next were the water flea test and the bacteria bioluminescence inhibition test. The algae test also allowed the detection of the impact of the landfill leachate on eutrophication of water bodies. Landfill leachate can also be treated in a landfill body. The biodegradable organic compounds of the landfill leachatecan be decomposed into methane by controlled recycling of leachate into the methane-generating part of the landfill. The landfill leachate can also be recycled to a landfill body for denitrification purposes. This, however, first requires nitrification of ammonium nitrogen in the aerobic surface layer of the landfill, or in an external nitrification process. At an hourly level the landfill leachate constituted, at times, over 30 % of the nitrogen load of the sewage treatment plants, and over 10 % of the COD load, although at the annual level the share could be merely some per cent. The discharge of landfill leachate to a sewage treatment plant must be a con- 62

trolled process (incl. equalization of the quantity and quality of leachate, and timing of the discharge) that takes into consideration the capacity of the treatment plant, so that any hazardous impact resulting from the process is avoided. At the investigated sites no negative impact of landfill leachate on the performance of the treatment plant, nor on the characteristics of the sludge were observed. Utilisation of the results The landfill operators, designers and consultants, as well as environmental authority, can utilise the results directly, when estimating the formation of landfill leachate pollution load, or when designing, developing and carrying out the management and treatment of landfill leachate. The results of the research can be applied on a case-by-case basis, taking into consideration the specific features of each individual landfill. Researchers Jukka Rintala, University of Jyväskylä, head of the project (jukka.rintala@jyu.fi) Riitta Kettunen, Tritonet Oy, project coordinator (riitta.kettunen@tritonet.fi) Sanna Marttinen, University of Jyväskylä Jari Jokela, University of Jyväskylä Kai Sormunen, University of Jyväskylä Pertti Keskitalo, Tritonet Oy Markus Soimasuo, Biomark Ky Participants University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences Companies: Tritonet Oy Biomark Ky Jyväskylän teknologiakeskus Oy Kiertokapula Oy Pirkanmaan jätehuolto Oy Mustankorkea Oy Joensuun seudun jätehuolto Oy Oulun jätehuolto Water and wastewater works: Espoo Water Works Tampere Water Works Jyväskylän Seudun Puhdistamo Oy Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council Finnish Solid Waste Association Schedule 1.3.1998 20.6.2000 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 128 000 52 Others 117 000 48 Total 245 000 100 Publications in English Marttinen, S.K., Kettunen, R.H., Sormunen K., Soimasuo, M. and Rintala, J.A. Screening of physicalchemical methods for removal of organic material, nitrogen and toxicity from low strength landfill leachates. Chemosphere. (in press). Jokela, J.P.Y., Kettunen, R.H., Sormunen, K. and Rintala, J.A. Biological nitrogen removal from municipal landfill leachate: in situ denitrification and low cost nitrification in biofilters. Water Research. (submitted) Marttinen, S.K., Kettunen, R.H., Sormunen, K.M., and Rintala, J.A. Removal of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate at a sewage treatment plant. Water Research (submitted). Marttinen, S., Kettunen, R., Jokela, J., Rintala, J. 1999. Phthalates in municipal sewage and landfill leachate. In Proceedings Fourth Finnish Conference of Environmental Sciences, May 21-22, 1999 Tampere. 125-128. Jokela, J., Kettunen, R., Marttinen, S., Rintala, J. 1999. Biological nitrification of municipal landfill leachate in a laboratory scale suspended carrier biofilm processs. In Proceedings Fourth Finnish Conference of Environmental Sciences, May 21-22, 1999 Tampere. 271-274. 63

Jokela, J.P.Y., Kettunen, R.H., Marttinen, S.K. and Rintala, J.A. 1999. Influence of waste moisture on methane production and leachate characteristics. In Proceedings Sardinia 99 Seventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium. Cagliari, Italy, 4-8 October 1999. Vol. I, ss. 67-74. Marttinen, S.K., Kettunen, R.H., Jokela, J.P.Y. and Rintala, J.A. 1999. Sewage treatment plant as an option to control leachate emissions. In Proceedings Sardinia 99 Seventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium. Cagliari, Italy, 4-8 October 1999. Vol. II, ss. 239-246. Jokela, J.P.Y., Kettunen, R.H., Sormunen, K. and Rintala, J.A. Methane production from landfilled municipal solid waste: effects of source-segregation, moisture control, and landfill operation. In Proceedings 9th World Congress Anaerobic Digestion 2001, Antwerpen, September 2-5, 2001. Marttinen, S. K., Kettunen, R. H., Soimasuo, R. M., Rintala, J. A. 2001. Screening of landfill leachate treatments for removal of leachate toxicity. In Proceedings Fifth Finnish Conference of Environmental Sciences, May 18-19, 2001 Turku. 209-212. 7.2 Reduction of the wastewater discharge in the electroplating industry (VESIPIN) VTT Manufacturing Technology (Technical Research Centre of Finland) Applied technical research project Objectives The treatment of waste is an ever-present source of problems in workshops and specifically surface engineering industries, where thousands of tons of substances that are hazardous to the environment are used annually. The objectives of the Vesipin project, which was done in two parts, were 1. to make a review of the electroplating plants operating in Finland, 2. to make a literature review of the suitable waste water purification methods (e.g best available techniques, BAT) by recovering or recycling materials or chemicals in the electroplating industry, 3. to make a review of the current and future emission limits (national and EC-limits and EC-directives (e.g Parcom + Helcom and IPPC-directive, SEVESO II-directive) 4. to make financial calculations about the repayment period for the purchased equipment 5. to make a survey of the existing coating processes and waste water treatments methods used by the participants involved in this project and difficulties faced in the surface or waste water treatment processes used by the participants 6. according to these survey results make laboratory and industrial scale waste water treatment experiments make proposal for improvements to the participants. The main goal was also to resolve the problematic applications of the customers on a case-by-case basis. Implementation and results During the first stage of the project a literature review was prepared, which analysed the wastewater treatment methods suitable for metal surface treatment processes, as well as the collection of materials and chemicals, their regeneration, and recycling. Furthermore the research aimed at finding further treatment possibilities for metal-containing sludge, as well as the technical and economic possibilities for the implementation of alternative methods and processes and less hazardous chemicals in place of those currently being used. During the second stage of the project the surface treatment processes currently used in the participating surface engineering businesses, as well as those used in wastewater treatment methods, and the problems arising from the processes, were outlined. Suggestions based on this background information, obtained through enquiries, as well as laboratory and industrial tests performed, were made for improving the current situation. Thus technical preparedness was created for the participating surface engineering facilities to meet the ever more stringent regulations. In the final meeting of the project it was stated that all participants were satisfied with the results obtained. As a result of the project the participating 64

businesses took a closer look at the legislation regulating emissions, and obtained new information on the evaluation of different purification methods which supported their process-related decisions. Beside other results of the project, Reikko Oy achieved concrete results by developing a specific treatment method that is able to remove the momentary peak load of heavy metal emissions. More efficient and uniform purification result allowed the company to stay within and even go below the required effluent values. The Vesikuitu project was initiated in the spring of 2000 as a continuation of the Vesipin project; this project is also a part of the technology programme Water Services 2001. The project is aimed at developing a pilot scale cellulose-based filtration method for the removal of heavy metals. Contact persons VTT Manufacturing Technology: Simo-Pekka Hannula, project co-ordinator (simo-pekka.hannula@vtt.fi) Amar Mahiout (amar.mahiout@vtt.fi) Co-operators Companies: Oy Galvatek Ab Vammas Defencetec Oy Tampereen Teollisuusniklaamo Oy Kromipinta Oy Purso Oy Pintakäsittely Sähkösinkityslaitos Reikko Oy Abloy Oy JK-Sinkitys Oy Kova-Kromi Oy Hårdkrom Schedule 1.11.1997 31.12.1999 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 111 000 68 Others 53 000 32 Total 164 000 100 7.3 Separation of heavy metal ions from effluent streams of plating lines using filter media made of recycled fibres (VESIKUITU) VTT Manufacturing Technology, VTT Energy (Technical Research Centre of Finland) Applied technical research project Starting point In 1997 there were approximately 200 businesses in Finland who operated in the field of metal plating. Presently, the quite specific wastewater that originates from these facilities is mostly treated by the separation of heavy metals by precipitation, either without or with flocculation polymers. The results of the preliminary research demonstrated that recyclable fibre is a potentially good material to serve as the raw material for a cost-effective wastewater filter, which can easily be treated after it is used. Objective The objective of the research was to develop a cost-effective filtering material based on recyclable fibre and a suitable filtration method, and a filter press that would help to maintain the heavy metals load on the sewage system, caused by the wastewater from plating processes, below officially set limits. The intention was to design, build, and implement pilot scale wastewater filtration equipment, based on the results of the laboratory tests, which would allow the plating companies to design industrial scale wastewater filtration process for the removal of heavy metals from their wastewater. The target method is more cost-effective than the currently used precipitation method, and produces less hazardous waste. Implementation The measures taken by the project for the development of suitable equipment were the analysis of wastewater, laboratory tests, pilot tests, and the designing of the final structure of the filter press, in- 65

cluding a description of its operation. This goal was achieved through the following sub-tasks. 1. Taking wastewater samples and analysing metal ions. 2. Designing and building laboratory test equipment. 3. Laboratory tests with different filter materials. 4. Separation of metals from the filter and regenerating the mass. 5. Drying the completely used filter mass by compression. 6. Developing and building the pilot equipment. 7. Pilot tests. 8. Analysis of the results of the pilot tests and technical and economic optimisation of the test equipment based on the test results. Results According to the results of the first phase of the project (the sub-tasks 1 5), removal of heavy metals using a cellulose-based recyclable fibre filter was so successful with some of the wastewater samples that, for example, no residue of copper that was present in the initial solution could be detected in the filtered solution by the used analytical methods. The recyclable fibre thus seems to be a suitable material for the removal of heavy metals from the wastewater of plating processess. However, the results of the tests reveal some limitations to the technology. Metal separation is most successful when the ph level of the wastewater is close to neutral, solids content is small and metal content does not exceed some hundred milligrams per litre. Of various cellulose fibre qualities it seems that the normal insulation fibre, as well as the fine cellulose constituting the waste material from insulation production, are well suited for the purpose. According to the initial tests, the regeneration of the filter using hydrochloric acid seems to be successful, whereas the results obtained by using sulphuric acid are clearly less successful. New regeneration results will be obtained through the pilot tests. These results will be available at the end of 2001. Utilisation of results Of three businesses that participated in the project, initial tests demonstrated that the method would be suitable for wastewater treatment immediately after suitable equipment has been found. The pilot tests were started at these businesses and the initial pilot-scale results confirmed the results of the laboratory tests. However, the development of pilot equipment into industrial-scale equipment still requires a lot of input and design work. The final decisions, with respect to the equipment, will rest with the businesses, in view of the fact that the needs of each business are different. Contact persons Jari Koskinen, VTT Manufacturing Technology, project co-ordinator (jari.koskinen@vtt.fi) Reima Lahtinen, VTT Manufacturing Technology (reima.lahtinen@vtt.fi) Juha Heikkinen, VTT Energy (juha.heikkinen@vtt.fi) Co-operators Companies: Oy Lauttasaaren Piirilevytekniikka Ab Tampereen teollisuusniklaamo Oy Tekval Oy Amoila Oy Termex-Eriste Oy Setec Oy Ocotec Oy Lahden Autec Oy Schedule Part 1: 1.2.2000 28.2.2001 Part 2: 1.2.2001 31.12.2001 66

Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 221 000 64 Others 125 000 36 Total 346 000 100 Publications in English J. Heikkinen, P. Pirkonen, J. Koskinen, R. Lahtinen, A. Mahiout. Method for removing heavy metals from metal plating effluents. 7th Nordic Filtration Symposium in Copenhagen 27.-28.8.2001. (lecture) J. Heikkinen, P. Pirkonen, J. Koskinen, R. Lahtinen, A. Mahiout. Method for removing heavy metals from metal plating effluents. IWA 2nd World Congress in Berlin 15.-19.10.2001. (poster presentation) Finnish Patent Application FI200110635. 67

8 Other projects included in the Water Services 2001 technology programme 8.1 Life cycle assessment and eco-efficiency of water and wastewater works The Finnish Environment Institute Applied technical research project The research project was completed in two parts. The first part focused on the assessment of the life-cycle and the second focused on the development of the method for the assessment of eco-efficiency. Part I Life cycle assessment of a water supply and wastewater treatment system a case study of Tampere water works Objective The main aims of the study were to assess the environmental impacts of water supply and wastewater treatment and to explain the questions: whether the treatment of municipal wastewater already causes more harm to the environment than the water being treated; and whether it is feasible to increase the efficiency of wastewater treatment from the current level. Moreover the objective of the research was to provide an understanding of the role of municipal wastewater as an environmental pollutant in relation to other sources of pollution. Implementation Tampere Water Works was the product system chosen to be studied by life cycle assessment (LCA). In the inventory analysis the inputs and outputs of Tampere Water Works were assessed throughout the subsystems of the Water Works according to the life cycle. Production of fossil fuels and raw materials of chemicals were not included in the system boundaries. One cubic meter of drinking water and one cubic meter of treated wastewater were the functional units. Impact assessment was conducted by life cycle impact assessment model. The model includes all stages of life cycle impact assessment: classification, characterisation, normalisation and weighting. Impact categories taken into account were climate change, acidification, ozone formation, ecotoxicity, eutrophication and oxygen depletion. Characterisation was based on the only-above thresholds approach in which only those emissions causing adverse effects were taken into account in the model. Average Finnish characterisation factors calculated from the results of air quality and transport models were used in the cases of acidification and ozone formation. The characterisation factors of ecotoxicity were based on expert opinions about effects of toxic compounds in the Finnish environment. Under eutrophication and oxygen depletion site-specific conditions were also taken into account in the determination of characterisation factors of nutrients and biological oxygen demand. An aggregating impact from various impact categories into a single score was calculated by using impact category weights. In the model, impact category weights were obtained from 58 experts working with environmental issues. Results Impact assessment shows that the environmental impacts of treated wastewater are much higher than those caused by the wastewater treatment in the case of Tampere Water Works. The summed impacts of water supply and wastewater treatment are also clearly lower than the impacts of treated wastewater. Energy production needed in waste- 69

water treatment and other subsystems in Tampere Water Works is the most important source of the environmental impacts after the treated wastewater. Eutrophication is the most significant impact category and climate change mainly due to energy production is the second one. The magnitude of the impact of the treated wastewater was compared to the impacts of direct emissions from energy production, industry and road traffic in Tampere. The results of the comparative calculations reveal that the impact of the final effluent on the environment is not significant compared with that of the direct emissions from other sectors in the city of Tampere. The potential environmental impacts of untreated sewage would be of the same order as the impacts of direct emissions from energy production. The estimate of the environmental impacts of Tampere Water Works represents other water works in Finnish inland cities rather well because the methods used to treat the wastewaters are very similar and the recipient waters are also rather similar near the other inland cities. The life-cycle assessment at the Tampere Water Works provides significant information for supporting the decision-making processes of the environmental policy. The results of the research can also be utilised to improve the operation of water works. Part II The method to evaluate eco-efficiency of water and wastewater works Objective Eco-efficiency is a subset of sustainable development which links together the environmental and economic strands of sustainability. Eco-efficiency calls for water works to achieve more value from lower inputs of materials and energy and with reduced emissions. The objective of the research was to create a system analytic method for assessing the eco-efficiency of water and wastewater works The aim was to create a eco-efficiency model which could be utilized to estimate the investments, to plan future activities and to inform the interest groups of the water and wastewater works. Implementation In this study the eco-efficiency concept is analysed using multiattribute utility theory. The method to measure eco-efficiency is an application of the procedure called SMART (Simple Multiattribute Rating Technique). In the case of water and wastewater works the following attributes of eco-efficiency were chosen: Improving Quality of Products and Services, Decreasing Emissions, Decreasing Consumption of Natural Resources and Improving Economy. These attributes are the main goals of the eco-efficiency actions in water works. It is important to note that the strategic goals of water works are very close to those of eco-efficiency. In the eco-efficiency model the attributes are characterized in detail with the help of sub-attributes such as Improving Quality of Drinking Water. The set of attributes and sub-attributes should include all the dimensions that are needed in order to describe the eco-efficiency of water and wastewater works. Each attribute and each sub-attribute should also be separate and independent. In the eco-efficiency model the indicators are needed to define scores for the sub-attributes. Each sub-attribute should be described sufficiently by the indicator. In this model there is only one indicator for each sub-attribute. Impact assessment of the emissions into water and atmosphere was conducted by the life cycle assessment (LCA). The values of the indicators were normalized by using e.g. the annual amount of drinking water produced. Finally, the normalized values were converted to the unitless index scores according to the rules of the multiattribute utility theory. An aggregated eco-efficiency index for whole water and wastewater works was calculated using the weights of the attributes and the weights of the sub-attributes. The eco-efficiency index was calculated using the so-called simple additive model, which means that the index scores were multiplied by the weights of the sub-attributes and summed up. The weights of the attributes and the weights of the sub-attributes were obtained from 17 experts 70

working in the water and wastewater works of Helsinki, Tampere and Turku and 11 authorities working with environmental issues. In the eco-efficiency model the following average weights of the sub-attributes were used: improving quality of drinking water 0.12, improving reliability of water services 0.16, decreasing emissions into water and atmosphere 0.32, decreasing emission into ground 0.06, decreasing water consumption 0.02, improving energy efficiency 0.07, decreasing consumption of chemicals 0.04, improving the structure of water networks and effluent networks 0.03, improving economic efficiency 0.17. Results The eco-efficiency model was applied to the water works of Helsinki, Tampere and Turku. These water works are public enterprises which manage the water supply and wastewater system of the city. The time series of indicators were collected from the period 1990 1999 and the eco-efficiency indices were therefore calculated for the same period. According to the model, the eco-efficiency index has definitively been improved at the Helsinki water works, despite the fact that the consumption of energy and chemicals increased slightly over the same period. The increase of the rate of nitrogen removal to 50 % at the Helsinki water works at the end of 1997 was a major step towards eco-efficiency. If the investment costs were also taken into account in the model, it was evident that the nitrogen removal was very profitable from the point of view of eco-efficiency. Tampere water works has also been developed towards eco-efficiency during the 1990s. The eco-efficiency method described in this study integrates the most essential information for decision makers about the management of water works. The model is also a useful tool for decision makers when new investments are considered. In the eco-efficiency analysis not only are the financial costs and benefits calculated but environmental impacts, consumption of natural resources and quality of products are also taken into account at the same time. Although the model is only approximate, the result of the eco-efficiency analysis provides a good indication of how water and wastewater works are functioning with regard to eco-efficiency. The eco-efficiency model should be taken as a preliminary proposal for more sophisticated attempts to evaluate sustainable development in water and wastewater works. Researchers Jyrki Tenhunen, FEI, project co-ordinator, head researcher (jyrki.tenhunen@vyh.fi) Veli-Matti Tiainen, FEI, project co-ordinator until 29.9.1998 Jyri Seppälä, FEI (jyri.seppala@vyh.fi) Jaana Oinonen, TUT Tiina-Kaisa Lohi, FEI Financing Financier Part I EUR Share % Part II EUR Share % Total EUR Share % Tekes 42 000 42 29 000 26 71 000 34 Ministry of the Environment Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 8 400 9 8 400 7.5 17 000 8 8 400 9 8 400 7.5 17 000 8 Others 41 000 40 66 000 59 107 000 50 Total 99 800 100 111 800 100 212 000 100 71

Participants Finnish Environment Institute FEI Tampere University of Technology TUT Tampere Water Works Helsinki Water Turku Water Works Kemira Chemicals Ltd Schedule Part I: 1.1.1998 28.2.1999 Part II: 1.1.1999 2.5.2001 Financing (see page 71) Publications in English Part I Tenhunen, J. & Seppälä, J. 2000. Life cycle assessmant of a water supply and wastewater treatment system - a case study of Tampere. In: 1st World Water Congress of the International Association. Paris 3-7- July 2000. Texts of posters. [CD-rom]. Paris, International water Association. Part II Tenhunen, J. 2001. A method to measure eco-efficiency of water and wastewater works. In: IWA 2nd World Water Congress. Berlin 15-19-October 2001. [CD-rom]. Berlin, International Water Association. 8.2 Pro-environmental increase of productivity at water works and wastewater treatment plants Helsinki Water Industrial R&D project Objective The objective of the project was to improve the productivity of the Viikimäki wastewater treatment plant while also taking into consideration the environmental aspects. In order to achieve the objective, the operations of the treatment plant were analysed, more efficient operating methods were created, and metering equipment for monitoring the process was developed. Implementation and results Discharge permit and license terms applicable to the treatment plant, as well as reports in electronic form lodged with various parties were gathered in a data bank. This helped reporting and speeded up the reporting process. For the purpose of cost analysis, the annual costs of various products from the treatment plant were calculated, i.e., purified wastewater and digestion gas. At the monthly level such variable costs as consumption of chemicals and electricity were calculated. The cost analysis provided additional information about the cost structure of the plant. Cause-and-effect relationship diagrams were drawn up for the wastewater treatment process, which will be used to carry out more efficient control of the process. Using the multivariate statistical analysis method the interdependency of factors between environmental and cost-related effects were established. This revealed that flow and by-pass volumes had the most significant effect on the purification result. To monitor the operations of the treatment plant, graphic gauges and two new indices were developed. In addition to the wastewater treatment permit, the environmental policy standard requirements set by Helsinki Water, and the comparative data from other plants, served as the basis for the metering devices. The metering devices developed are two-stage gauges and, where possible, gauges used for the individual processes in the purification process. The OCP (oxygen consumption potential) index and the efficiency index were used as the treatment plant s efficiency and environment impact indicators. The indices allow monitoring of different load factors using only one parameter. The OCP index describes the efficiency from the aspect of the water system, and the efficiency index from the aspect of the functioning of the plant. Among other things the indices facilitate the comparison of different plants. Contact persons Helsinki Water: Esko Tiainen, project co-ordinator (esko.tiainen@hel.fi) Seppo Kiiskinen (seppo.kiiskinen@hel.fi) 72

Co-operators Companies: PwC Services Oy SKA-Research Oy Schedule 1.3.1998 31.10.2000 8.3 Export promotion of the Finnish water industry Tampere University of Technology Applied technical research project Objectives and methods During the last few years, the export of Finnish water supply and sanitation technology has not been expanding at the same rate as the export of other environmental technologies. One of the factors limiting growth has been the mere size of the projects, a fact that would necessitate co-operation between operators, and would require multiple skills. The steering group of the Water Services Technology Programme, initiated this research with the purpose of developing alternative operating models aimed at promoting export activities. The key objective was to identify the principal development needs and opportunities for export promotion, as well as to create new forms of collaboration in the field. The necessary basic data and statistics were collated through a literature survey. In addition, the study applied several inter-active methods for issues identification and problem solving. These included thematic interviews of national and international experts, a workshop, and a web-based delphisurvey. A SWOT analysis was prepared on Finnish water exports. At the end, the study team formulated a future vision with three alternative scenarios and outlined respective implementation strategies. Results It was established that one of the obstacles to the development of export operations was internationally poor recognition of the expertise that Finland has to offer in the water supply and sanitation sector. In order to improve the international visibility of Finnish know-how and skills, it is recommended to plan and implement high-profile promotional campaigns. The visibility of Finnish experts and Finnish research at international conferences and in publications should be improved considerably. A co-ordination body needs to be established for the organisation of long-term and continuous image management. Training and research activities play a pivotal role in the constructive development of international activities. More specialists are required in the field, and the emphasis on education and training should be placed, not only on technical skills and knowledge, but also on economic and administrative issues most crucial from the export point of view. Training should be further expanded and made available to organisations responsible for water supply and sanitation services in the Baltic region and former Soviet Union states. In order to ensure adequate support for a meaningful and continuous functioning of operations in Finland, a national strategy aimed at international operations, as well as an export strategy for the water supply and sanitation services sector is required. These strategies need to identify a shared vision, develop scenarios, operational approaches and action programs for the development of export and international activities. The export projects in the water supply and sanitation sector are becoming increasingly comprehensive. This requires the mastering of new and extensive fields of expertise, particularly in the management of financing and organisation. One of the possibilities would be a structured co-operation in network format, i.e. through an organisation that could be called Finnish Water Partnership (FWP). This would involve at least the largest water and sewerage utilities, training and research institutes, and actors in the public sector, as well as the principal businesses in the field. As a result of the pro- 73

ject, a concrete proposal was prepared for further actions focused on the export promotion of the Finnish water supply and sanitation technology and expertise. The evaluation of the initial prerequisites for the Finnish Water Partnership was continued with the support of the resources allocated from the Water Services Technology Programme. Contact person Tapio Katko, Tampere University of Technology, project co-ordinator (tapio.katko@tut.fi) Participants Tampere University of Technology Satakunta Polytechnic Finpro Finnish Environment Institute Finland Futures Research Centre Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Ministry for Foreign Affairs Ministry of the Environment Helsinki Water LV Lahti Vesi Oy Tampere Water Works Companies: Internetix Campus Kemira Chemicals Oy Oy KWH Pipe Ab Soil and Water Ltd, Jaakko Pöyry Infra Oy E. Sarlin Ab Plancenter Ltd Uponor Suomi Oy YIT Environment Ltd Lemminkäinen Construction Ltd Schedule 1.10.1998 31.12.1999 Financing Financier EUR Share % Tekes 61 000 78 Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 8 400 11 Others 8 400 11 Total 77 800 100 74

Water Services 1997-2001 Part B Evaluation Report Hallvard Ødegaard Nicholas Booker 75

About the evaluators Hallvard Ødegaard 1969 MSc, Civil Engineering, Norwegian Institute of Technology 1975 Dr.ing., Environmental Engineering, Norwegian Institute of Technology Since 1977 employed as professor at Department of Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil and Envrionmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway since 1985 as a full professor. Professorship in Environmental Engineering in the area of Water and wastewater treatment. Visiting professor at EAWAG, ETH, Zürich, Switzerland in 1991 92. Visting professor at Hokkaido University, Japan 01.09.99 31.12.99. Visiting professor CSIRO, Molecular Science, Melbourne, Australia 01.01.2000 01.05.2000. Prof Ødegaard is working both with treatment of drinking water, wastewater and industrial process water. His specialities are particle removal processes, humic substance removal in drinking water treatment, chemical treatment and biofilm processes in wastewater treatment. He has published more than 350 papers out of which more than 170 refereed papers in international journals. Nicholas Booker 1978 BEng. (Chem.) Adelaide University, South Australia 1989 PhD (Chem. Eng.) Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, U.K. Dr Booker has worked on the development of water and wastewater treatment processes for the last 15 years. He left the Water Research Centre in the UK in 1989 to begin work at Australia s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) on the development of physico-chemical processes for the treatment of sewage and drinking water. As a Senior Principal Research Scientist Dr Booker led a range of projects that included studies into the fouling of microfiltration membranes, high rate chemical coagulation and floc separation processes and the development of alternative approaches for urban water service delivery. Dr Booker returned to the UK in 2001 as a Visiting Research Fellow at the University of Bradford. There he is continuing his research into the sustainability of wastewater management and reuse in urban water systems. 77

Summary The Water Services 2001 Technology Programme was a technology programme completed by Tekes between 1997-2001 and was targeted at the development of the Finnish water services sector. It comprised 39 different projects approximately 50 % of which were industrial research and development projects and the remainder applied research projects. This report is a summary of the review of the applied technical research project component of the Water Services Technology Programme. The primary objectives of the Water Services Technology Programme were to increase the technological competitiveness of the Finnish water services sector through the application of well targeted, collaborative projects that included research institutes, water service providers and businesses active in the water sector. The projects aimed to satisfy the water service needs of both urban and rural communities and households. As such the programme addressed issues related to the provision of quality drinking water, maintenance of water and sewerage infrastructure, treatment and disposal of wastewater and sludges, meeting the water service needs of rural areas and controlling local pollution sources that impact community or rural water services. An external review panel, comprising two internationally recognised researchers from the water and wastewater field, performed the review of the Water Services Technology Programme. The review was based upon project reports that had been prepared by the research teams prior to the review, a series of interviews in Finland of key researchers from each applied technical research project and an evaluation of published literature and reports from each project. The general conclusion of the evaluation is that most of the research performed in this programme is of good quality measured on an international level. Other general findings are (please see the appendix for a detailed evaluation of each project): The objectives of the Water Services Technology Programme appear to have been met by the suite of applied research projects performed within the programme. The body of research performed represents a large investment in the future of Finland s water industry. The use of public money to encourage multi-disciplinary and industry collaborative projects appears to have been a worthwhile investment. Groups that would not normally have collaborated with each other did so with the result that improved project outcomes were achieved. The few projects where collaboration was not as pronounced, would have benefited from a more cooperative approach. It is characteristic that projects that have a very good quality are those where an applied research institute group and a university research group have cooperated. These are also the projects that have been best published internationally. It is also a characteristic that high quality projects have been coordinated and lead by high quality researchers. The scientific output of the programme was consistent with a research program aimed at improving the access of the water industry to technology. As such, the program tended towards technology transfer rather than the development of basic or new knowledge, even though there were good examples of projects where both basic and applied research was carried out. The technology transfer function appears to have been well progressed, however, feedback from the industry partners to this research effort would have enabled a clearer view of the actual impact this research has made or will make in the future. The constituent projects that made up the water services technology programme covered most ar- 79

eas of concern affecting the Finnish water industry and included provision of quality drinking water, maintenance of water and sewerage infrastructure, treatment and disposal of wastewater and sludges, meeting the water service needs of rural areas and control of local pollution sources that impact community or rural water services. There were also a group of other projects that did not fall into each category but attempted to address common issues for both water and wastewater services. There was a strong emphasis on commercialisation of the outcomes from this research programme. Up to 90 % of the research projects identified areas where commercialisation of know-how, products or processes may be possible and a number of the projects were actively seeking commercialisation partners at the time of this review. There is no doubt that the quality of most of the research performed under this programme was world class. However, the profile of Finnish water and wastewater research could be raised internationally if more of the research groups were prepared to publish the results of their work in English, outside Finland in respected international water journals. 80

Contents About the evaluators Summary Background...83 General evaluation of the programme...85 Goals....85 Participants...85 Evaluation method...85 Extent to which programme objectives were met...86 Improvement of the technological competitiveness of businesses working in the field of water services...86 Increasing preparedness to introduce new technologies at water and sewage works...86 Introduction to the market of new products that are designed to satisfy the water service needs of rural areas....87 Promotion of research and developments in the field of Finnish water services....87 The technological relevance of the programme....88 Relevance to Finland...89 Relevance to the international community...89 The industrial (commercial) relevance... 90 The scientific quality... 90 Scientific originality....90 Scientific production (reviewed papers, other papers).... 90 Collaboration with other universities/industrial research groups...90 General evaluation/achievements...91 Conclusions...93 Appendix Evaluation of Individual Projects....95 Project 2.1 Artificial recharge of groundwater: infiltration techniques, soil processes and water quality (TEMU).... 95 Project 2.2 Optimisation of nanofiltration for drinking water production... 97 Project 2.3 Treatment of humic groundwater...99 Project 3.1 Procedures and instructions for controlling sewage odour... 101 Project 3.3 Smart digital sewer pipe diagnosis system feasibility study.. 103 Project 5.1 BNR process design based on measured characteristics of influent wastewater and sludge...104 Project 5.2 Biological nutrients removal from municipal wastewater (BIRRA II)...107 Project 5.5 Polymer handling and enhancing the flocculation efficiency by ultrasonication...110 Project 5.7 Reduction of infective micro-organisms in treated wastewater by sand filtration and UV irradiation...112 Project 5.9 Granulation and utilization of wastewater sludge...114 81

Project 6.1 Improvement of wastewater treatment in rural areas (HAJASAMPO)....115 Project 6.2 Arsenic removal from drilled bedrock well water (ARPO)....118 Project 6.3 Removal of radon from groundwater....120 Project 6.4 Safe use of radio nuclide removal devices....122 Project 7.1 The effects of landfill leachate on the performance and capacity of a municipal wastewater treatment plant and the evaluation of the needs and methods for leachate pre-treatment (KAATO)... 124 Project 7.2 Reduction of the wastewater discharge in the electroplating industry (VESIPIN)... 126 Project 7.3 Separation of heavy metal ions from effluent streams of plating lines using filter media made of recycled fibres (VESIKUITU)... 128 Project 8.1 Life cycle assessment and eco-efficiency of water and wastewater works...130 82

Background The primary objectives of the Water Services Technology Programme were: 1. improvement of the technological competitiveness of businesses working in the field of water services; 2. increasing preparedness to introduce new technologies at water and sewage works; 3. an introduction to the market of new products that are designed to satisfy the water service needs of rural areas; 4. promotion of research and development activities in the field of Finnish water services. These objectives aimed to support the development of the Finnish water services sector in both the domestic and international markets. The programme aimed to achieve these goals through the support of projects directed at the development of new innovative equipment and processes, as well as through the testing of new technical solutions. Encouraging and enhancing the cooperation between research units, water and sewage treatment plants, companies and authorities regulating the sector s development, was seen as a valuable additional outcome from these projects. Encouraging this improved cooperation was hoped to provide a potential vehicle for enhancing the international competitiveness of Finnish companies servicing the water sector. The programme aimed to address the following key issues: 1. Provision of quality drinking water 2. Maintenance of water and sewerage infrastructure 3. Treatment and disposal of wastewater and sludges 4. Meeting the water service needs of rural areas 5. Control of local pollution sources that impact community or rural water services The Water Services Technology Programme was initiated by Tekes calling for projects from the Finnish research community and industry groups that addressed these issues. In all 39 projects were commissioned at a total programme cost of 11.4 million euros with Tekes providing on average close to half the project funding. The research projects involved 14 research units from within Finland and over 90 Finnish companies. There were 19 applied technical research projects and 20 industrial research and development projects supported by the programme. The split of projects according to the area of activity and the funds allocated to the applied research projects in that area of activity are summarised in the table next page. The Water Services Technology Programme was targeted at promoting the technical development of water services provided to communities and rural areas. The issues pertaining to industrial water services were not included in the programme unless they had a direct impact on community water services or its technology. 83

Number of Projects Cost of applied technical research projects Area of activity Applied Industrial Total cost (Million EUR) Proportion of cost supported by Tekes (%) Drinking water treatment 3 4 2.4 43 Maintenance of water and sewage networks Maintenance and control systems Wastewater treatment and sludge disposal Water services for rural areas Local wastewater pollution sources 2 4 0.4 50 0 5 0 0 5 5 1.8 54 4 1 1.3 40 3 0 0.8 61 Other 2 1 0.3 46 Total 19 20 7.0 48 84

General evaluation of the programme Goals An external review of the Water Services Technology Programme was initiated by Tekes in order to assist bench mark this national research programme against international research in the field. The external review panel were only required to review the scientific and technological quality of the applied technical research projects; the industrial research projects will be reviewed in a different manner. Participants Two invited international researchers, both of who are active in the fields of water and wastewater research, made up the external review panel. Riku Vahala of the Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association coordinated and accompanied the external review panel during the project evaluation interviews in Finland. The review panel comprised: 1. Professor Hallvard Ødegaard, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim Norway 2. Dr. Nicholas Booker, Senior Principal Research Scientist, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia. Evaluation Method The individual project evaluations were performed by the review panel, based on an analysis of the following: 1. Brief project summaries prepared by each project team, translated into English and distributed to the evaluation panel before the interviews. 2. Project interviews held by the review panel, comprising presentations and discussions with key research staff from each project during the week Monday 5th to Friday 9th of November in Helsinki, Finland. 3. Publications and written material presented to the review panel by the individual project research teams. The individual projects were evaluated according to the following criteria To what extent the objectives of the programme were achieved Obtained results versus planned results Most significant results obtained Progress according to plan delays The technological relevance Choice of projects in relation to program, Relevance to Finland and the international community Technological originality Industrial (commercial) relevance Potential for commercialisation External support from industry Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality Scientific production (reviewed papers, other papers) Invitations to international meetings Visiting scientists and students Collaboration with other universities/ industrial research groups General evaluation/achievements Based on the above evaluation, a project summary report was prepared for each project, these reports appear in the Appendix to this report. 85

The evaluation of the Water Services Technology Programme is based on the individual project evaluations, discussions with members of the Water Services Technology Programme steering group and literature provided to the review panel. The evaluation of the Water Services Technology Programme follows the same format as the individual project reviews with additional comments about the evaluation procedures and recommendations for the future. Extent to which programme objectives were met The suite of research projects that were funded under this programme addressed the key water service issues of drinking water treatment, maintenance of water and sewage networks, maintenance and control systems, wastewater treatment and sludge disposal, water services for rural areas and local wastewater pollution sources. During the project assessment by the review panel, the degree to which these research projects also met the objectives of the Water Services Technology Programme was looked for. In general, most projects attempted to satisfy at least one, if not many of the programme objectives. It was clear from the presentations of the applied technical research projects that there was a strong emphasis on working with industry and businesses throughout most of the programme. In almost all cases, there were representatives from both water suppliers and water related businesses involved in each project steering committee to ensure that the interests of both these groups were addressed. This approach appears to have worked well with all projects remaining focussed on the issues and not drifting into areas of basic research interest. Improvement of the technological competitiveness of businesses working in the field of water services Finnish businesses, working in the field of water services that collaborated with these projects fell into the broad categorisation of either technology providers or consultancy groups. It was clear that the consultants collaborating with these projects enhanced their knowledge of particular issues and/or gained valuable exposure of their expertise in particular areas, for example through the design, construction and evaluation of demonstration facilities. However, it was not clear to the review panel whether the range of consultants that collaborated with the projects included all those currently active in the water services field in Finland. If not, then those that were involved would gain a significant commercial edge over those that weren t. In this respect, Tekes needs to ensure that the flow of information resulting from these publicly funded projects is equally available to all the consultants that are active in the water area. Otherwise, there is a risk that allegations of favouritism will be levelled at Tekes, for example, by overtly improving the competitiveness of one Finnish company with respect to another. Where consultancy experience did not already exist, some research groups exploited the opportunity provided to develop business opportunities to fill these gaps; this was most apparent with most of the projects coordinated by VTT. It was apparent that VTT used the opportunity provided by the Tekes funded projects to develop their expertise in particular areas; an example of this was the development of VTT Manufacturing Technology into a centre of excellence for the metal plating industry. Most of the applied technical research projects had made a thorough assessment of which technology suppliers were relevant for their project. As such, in most cases the industrial partners to the research projects included the major relevant technology suppliers for that specific project. With these projects the project aims and outcomes reflected the interests of the industrial partners and as such concrete product developments were generally spawned by these projects. Increasing preparedness to introduce new technologies at water and sewage works All the projects included one or more water supply and/or wastewater treatment authorities in their project collaboration group. The result of this was a strong sense that the Finnish water industry was closely involved in most of the research and as such had a good grasp of the outcomes from the re- 86

search. Most research teams used presentations to the Finnish water industry and publication of results in the various Finnish water industry journals as a vehicle for dissemination of project outcomes. However, the review panel was not able to assess from the water industry s perspective whether this positive story presented by the research community was the reality in the water industry. It was gratifying to see that many of the projects did not see that new technology was always the best approach to take for the water services industry. Some of the projects aimed to identify the most appropriate solution to water industry problems, in some cases this meant that new technology was needed but in many cases, the conclusion was smarter application of currently available technology. In this way, the projects have made significant impact on informing public debate or enabling the water industry to make investment decisions that are cost effective and that will result in improved service provision and reduce environmental impact. An example of this was the project that aimed to develop life cycle analysis and eco-efficiency tools to enable the Finnish water industry to assess the impacts of potential investment decisions. This project sets the basis for the Finnish water services industry making decisions that take into account not just performance and economic issues but also the environmental impact. Further work is recommended to attempt to include social acceptability into this important investment analysis tool. Introduction to the market of new products that are designed to satisfy the water service needs of rural areas A large proportion of the applied technical research projects that were undertaken were aimed at meeting the needs of Finnish rural water consumers, especially those at risk from radionuclides and/or arsenic in their drinking water sources. There were a number of companies identified by the research groups that are actively marketing technology directed towards these needs. What this research has achieved is a clear definition of the problems faced by these rural water consumers and a developed understanding of the limitations of currently available technology. Many of the projects were performed in close collaboration with the equipment suppliers resulting in the production of new or modified technology or operating practices that enable rural water consumers to be able to reliably obtain safe drinking water. The issues of wastewater disposal by rural communities were also addressed through a major project that looked at on-site treatment and disposal systems for domestic wastewater. The project used field trials, in collaboration with Finnish technology providers, to evaluate a number of approaches for treatment and disposal of wastewater from individual homes. These trials were used to assess the relative costs, performance and public acceptability of the many technological approaches on offer. The outcome from the research was a highly accessible guidebook that allows consumers and local planners to make decisions about which technology will best suit their needs and local conditions. Promotion of research and development activities in the field of Finnish water services. The promotion of the research activities of the Finnish research institutions was raised by the close collaboration of the water industry with the projects. The fact that Tekes actively required the research institutions to identify and collaborate with suitable industrial partners catalysed this interaction. This resulted in the water industry being made more aware of the research that was being performed within the research institutions and hopefully having a say in directing the course of future research efforts in Finland. All the projects had published or intended to shortly publish their major research findings in a form that would be readily accessible to the Finnish water industry, either through the publication of manuals and guidebooks or through relevant industry journals and seminars. The research profile of Finland internationally, however, was not as comprehensively raised as it could have been. Most of the research that was performed was of a high level and would be of relevance internationally. The Finnish research groups should be encouraged to use every opportunity to present their research at international forums. The lack of English translations of many of the outputs from the research projects limits the ability of these 87

projects to demonstrate their relevance internationally. Tekes should encourage all the research groups to include at least an English translation of the executive summary within each project s final report. A good example of where this had been done was in Project 6.1 (Hajasampo) where the final report includes a nine-page project summary in English. The technological relevance of the programme Relevance to Finland 1. Provision of quality drinking water There were a number applied technical research projects that addressed the provision of adequate supplies of safe drinking water in Finland. These included issues that are relevant to Finnish water supplies such as: Radionuclides in groundwater Humic materials in both surface and groundwater Arsenic in groundwater Artificial recharge of groundwater. A majority of the water quality research was directed to issues relating to groundwater. This is not surprising when 60 % of Finland s water is abstracted from groundwater sources supplied by up to 1500 individual groundwater supply authorities. Surface water sources make up the remaining 40 % of the water supplied in Finland by about 70 water supply authorities. Within the groundwater area, there was a strong emphasis on the problems of water quality in rural areas where there is a strong dependence on private household wells. Hence the justification for research aimed at developing reliable point of use or household treatment technologies for the removal of arsenic and/or radionuclides from well water. With such a heavy dependence on groundwater in Finland, the need for recharge of these groundwater sources is increasing. Current estimates are that artificial recharge replaces 10 % of Finnish groundwater abstractions. However, 10-year projections show a 10 to 15 % increase in groundwater abstractions in Finland that will require a doubling of artificial recharge capacity. The issues related to groundwater recharge were well researched within Project 2.1, the single largest research project that included researchers from local and national Finnish environment agencies, the forest industry and health agencies. 2. Maintenance of water and sewerage infrastructure Only two of the applied research projects were directed towards the maintenance of sewage and water infrastructure. Both projects focussed on operational issues for the sewerage network with one aimed at assisting with odour control and the other with sewer pipe physical failure detection. Both these issues are major operating issues within the wastewater industry and as such the research was relevant both for Finland and internationally. 3. Treatment and disposal of wastewater and sludges The disposal of wastewater and sludges from the treatment of wastewater is a major area of concern for the water industry. Therefore, it was logical that the largest number of applied research projects was directed towards these issues. Two of the projects were, in a sense strategic, as they were directed towards how Finland s wastewater industry could prepare for the emerging EU wastewater discharge directives that are anticipated to tighten phosphorus and nitrogen discharge limits. In a similar way, another project was aimed at improving the disinfection of treated wastewaters before they were discharged to Finnish receiving waterways. Two additional projects were directed towards issues related to sludge treatment and disposal. Both aimed at reducing the costs of sludge processing. 4. Meeting the water service needs of rural areas Research directed towards meeting the water service needs of rural communities covered both the provision of safe drinking water supplies and the identification of appropriate systems for wastewater 88

disposal in these communities. Problems of radionuclides, arsenic, iron and manganese in well water used as domestic water supplies in rural areas of Finland are of major health concern to a significant proportion of the Finnish population. These issues were the subject of at least three of the research projects and led to the development of technological solutions that were appropriate for individual household use. The disposal of wastewater from rural properties can be a major source of pollution of inland waterways in Finland. A major project was supported in part by this programme and successfully demonstrated a range of technologies that could be adopted by individual households or small communities for the safe management of their wastewater streams. 5. Control of local pollution sources that impact community or rural water services Projects aimed at the control of point source pollution issues addressed only two main pollution sources, these were the heavy metals from the metal finishing industry and contaminants from land-fill leachate. Both areas demonstrated an ability to improve the quality of wastewater coming from both these point sources of pollution but it was not clear whether this would have made a major impact to the quality of water and/or environment in Finland. Relevance to the international community In general, the problems that were tackled were ostensibly ones of direct interest to Finnish water suppliers or to the Finnish environment. However, all the issues that were researched had components that are of direct interest outside Finland in many other countries. For instance, although Finland (and Sweden) may be unique in the use of esker type aquifers for the provision of drinking water, the processes that occur within these aquifers were well researched and it is this aspect that will be of significant international interest. For each project, the aspects of potential international interest have been highlighted in the individual project reviews. As mentioned before, the ability to enhance Finland s international reputation in all these areas of research is limited by the lack of publications written in English that present the research outcomes in an internationally accessible form. The industrial (commercial) relevance Almost all of the applied research projects had some commercial or industrial relevance identified by the research team associated with the project. Only two of the nineteen projects reviewed had no obvious commercialisation potential, however, these two projects were worth doing from a strategic point of view. One of these projects was aimed at assessing the export potential of Finnish water services and technology The other was developing LCA techniques as a general tool for the whole water industry and planners to use to make sensible decisions about long term investment Approximately 50 % of the projects developed knowledge that was of direct use to consultants in the water services sector and would lead to increased business for existing consultancies or the creation of new consulting businesses. As most of the issues tackled were of potential international relevance, the outcomes from the research programme should provide Finnish consultants a greater potential for exporting their expertise. Over 50 % of the projects developed knowledge, products or processes that had the potential to assist Finnish businesses develop new or modified processes or products that would allow them to better meet the needs of the water services sector. At the time of the review, many of the programme outcomes were in the process of being commercialised with the industrial research partners. This strong commercial benefit from the research programme is in part attributable to the emphasis Tekes put on the research projects to include commercial and water industry members in their research teams or in the project steering groups. 89

The scientific quality Generally the research team found that most of the projects were of very high quality, with some being leading, world-class scientific research, such as for example the landfill leachate project by the Jyväskylä group (project 7.1), the artificial recharge of groundwater by the TEMU-group (project 2.1) and the BNR process design by the HUT-group (project 5.1). Other projects were very good applied projects with an important impact on Finland s Water Services and a very good commercial potential, such as for example the on-site wastewater treatment project by the Hajasampo group (project 6.1) and the smart digital sewer pipe diagnosis project by the VTT-group (project 3.3). Scientific originality There was a high level of originality in the research programme despite the fact that over 40 % of the projects were more directed towards technology transfer than towards developing new knowledge. The overall level of scientific innovation was limited though with only a very few of the projects developing new research directions or understanding. This was most apparent in projects which only involved one research institution and that had limited collaboration with the Finnish academic community. The notable examples of this were the projects that were performed exclusively by VTT or the FEI. In a similar way, projects that were based solely within academic institutions suffered from too narrow an academic focus and could have benefited from stronger links to industry or other research institutes. Scientific production Generally the review team felt that many of the projects should have been more extensively published internationally. A characteristic of the best projects was that they were well published. We believe that this is a very important issue to focus on in future programmes. It is not only that publication is a requirement of quality research, but also that international publication leads to quality research outcomes since the researcher is forced to be more focused in an internationally reviewed publication than in a national report. Collaboration with other universities/ industrial research group etc Considering the broad field that this research programme has covered and the vast amount of research that is going on in the world in the same fields, the review panel feels that the links to research groups outside Finland should have been stronger. Some projects had good links and were well aware of the state of the art in the particular project area, but in some others (especially projects performed by the institutes for instance VTT and FEI) it was felt that a proper up-to-date literature review was lacking as well as an active search for international collaborators. Postgraduate students, who used the research outcomes towards either their MSc or PhD qualifications, contributed to over 50 % of the projects; 14 MSc theses and 9 PhD theses were a direct result of the Water Services Technology Programme. This is quite a good academic output. The best of the projects managed to develop an understanding of the water industry issues that then led to the identification of where research effort was best directed whilst recognising the need to develop commercially viable outcomes. These projects were usually multi-disciplinary and involved researchers from a number of research institutions and the water industry. 90

General evaluation/achievements The Water Services Technology Programme was a well-funded and supported endeavour that proved to be a worthwhile catalyst for encouraging collaboration between various research institutions and with the water industry. The positive outcomes of the programme reflect that this multi-disciplinary approach was justified. The selection of projects to be funded by the Water Services Technology Programme was not entirely clear. It appeared that there were some key issues that had been identified by the programme administrators, in collaboration with a panel of experts from the water industry and that then there was a call for projects to address these issues. This top down approach has proved successful in that all the projects fit within the programme structure. However, the risk is that there were other areas of research that were missed by this top down approach and that an element of researcher driven (bottom up) research would be beneficial in the long term. The projects with the best outcomes tended to be those with multidisciplinary research groups and that had excellent collaboration between the research partners. In all of these elite projects, the most striking feature was the excellence of the project management that ensured the project team stayed focussed and together over the life of the project a recipe for success. In many instances, researchers with a non-conventional water industry background led these successful high profile projects, this aspect should be viewed positively when considering future project planning and management. The multi-disciplinary and/or close industry collaboration that was encouraged by Tekes had been approached with apprehension by a number of the research institutions; however, all of these reported to the review panel that the benefits of this forced collaboration far outweighed any perceived drawbacks. 91

Conclusions The objectives of the Water Services Technology Programme appear to have been met by the suite of applied technical research projects performed within the programme. The body of research performed represents a large investment in the future of Finland s water industry. The use of public money to encourage multi-disciplinary and industry collaborative projects appears to have been a worthwhile investment. Groups that would not normally have collaborated with each other did so with the result that improved project outcomes were achieved. The few projects where collaboration was not as pronounced would have benefited from a more cooperative approach. The constituent projects that made up the water services technology programme covered most areas of concern affecting the Finnish water industry and included provision of quality drinking water, maintenance of water and sewerage infrastructure, treatment and disposal of wastewater and sludges, meeting the water service needs of rural areas and control of local pollution sources that impact community or rural water services. There were also a group of other projects that did not fall into each category but attempted to address common issues for both water and wastewater services. There was a strong emphasis on commercialisation of the outcomes from this research programme. Up to 90 % of the research projects identified areas where commercialisation of know-how, products or processes may be possible and a number of the projects were actively seeking commercialisation partners at the time of this review. The scientific output of the programme was consistent with a research program aimed at improving the access of the water industry to technology. As such the program tended towards technology transfer rather than the development of basic or new knowledge. This technology transfer function appears to have been well progressed, however, feedback from the industry partners to this research effort would have enabled a clearer view of the actual impact this research has made or will make in the future. There is no doubt that the quality of most of the research performed under this programme was world class. However, the profile of Finnish water and wastewater research could be raised internationally if more of the research groups were prepared to publish the results of their work in English, outside Finland in respected international water journals. 93

Appendix Evaluation of Individual Projects Project 2.1 Artificial recharge of groundwater: infiltration techniques, soil processes and water quality (TEMU) Finnish Forest Research Institute, National Public Health Institute, Finnish Environment Institute and Central Finland Regional Environment Centre 1.3.1998 to 31.12.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The main goal of this project was to determine the optimal levels at which the infiltration techniques and the recharge processes can operate in relation to the quantity, quality and environmental effects of artificial groundwater. The results of the project will be used for; a) developing infiltration techniques, b) planning artificial groundwater plants, their use and monitoring, c) optimising the purification process in the soil and d) estimating the relative benefit and environmental effects of artificial groundwater recharge plants. The researchers responsible for the project: The main researchers of the project were: Heljä-Sisko Helmisaari, leading project coordinator (Finnish Forest Research Institute) Ilkka Miettinen, project co-ordinator and Markku Lehtola (National Public Health Institute) Kari Lehtinen (project co-ordinator), Kari Illmer, Kaj Granberg (Central Finland Regional Environment Centre) Tuomo Hatva (project co-ordinator), Tuulikki Suokko (Finnish Environment Institute). The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The project was one of cooperation between several institutes and the main sponsors were Tekes and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Additional sponsors were several waterworks. The institutes involved were: Finnish Forest Research Institute, National Public Health Institute, Finnish Environment Institute, Central Finland Regional Environment Centre and Southwest Finland Regional Environment Centre. The artificial recharge of groundwater was studied in several artificial recharge plants. Special attention was given to studying the effects of the following factors in the treatment of infiltrated surface water; a) the quality of raw water and the need for pre-treatment, b) infiltration technology, c) the treatment of raw water in the soil surface layer, the percolation water layer, and the groundwater layer. As for the latter, the effects of physico-chemical and microbiological soil processes of the recharge area, retention time, soil characteristics, aquifer measurement ratios, and hydraulic properties for the treatment of different soil layers were specifically studied. Water and soil samples from surface and percolation water layers (using a lysimeter) and from the groundwater layer (using a stem pipe) were taken and analysed in all sites according to the joint plan. The presentation of the project during the hearing: During the hearing the project was presented by: Heljä-Sisko Helmisaari (Finnish Forest Research Institute), Ilkka Miettinen (National Public Health Institute) and Risto Reijonen (Finnish Groundwater Technics Ltd). The project was very well presented during the hearing. 95

Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results The objectives of the project were all achieved. Most significant results obtained The most important achievements were the determination of where and how the organic compounds are removed during the passage of water through the soil. This has great importance in the design and planning of waterworks based on artificial recharge. A guidebook for waterworks and designers will be compiled based on the results. Progress according to plan delays The project has progressed according to plans. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme The project is very relevant to the Water Services 2001 programme. Water supply in Finland is shifting towards using groundwater instead of surface water. The aim of the artificial recharge of groundwater is to produce groundwater that is similar to natural groundwater by using as few chemicals as possible and by infiltrating the surface water collected from the water bodies into the soil either by basin infiltration or sprinkling infiltration. Relevance to Finland The method of artificial recharge of groundwater has a great potential in Finland and the use of artificial groundwater is expected to increase significantly over the next 10 years. Especially the results regarding sprinkling irrigation are important and demonstrate that this can be a very promising method for many communities. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The main beneficiaries on the industrial side are those companies that were involved in the groundwater modelling. This is a competence that can also be commercialised for the international markets. It is not quite clear whether or not and possibly how other consulting companies can benefit regarding the mathematical modelling. They will definitely be benefiting from the guidebook that will be produced. External support from industry Two companies were involved in the project. And especially Risto Reijonen, Finnish Groundwater Technics Ltd played an important role in the groundwater modelling part of the project. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality The review team found that this project was of very high scientific quality. The research brought forward new perspectives that had not been taken into account in previous research. The study of the quality of organic matter by using several methods has been innovative and especially important in terms of research work. Procedures that have not been used in similar conditions before were introduced during the study. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) This project produced a number of high quality papers both in highly recognized journals as well as in proceedings from international conferences. During the meeting it was clear that even more papers than those cited in the summary report had been produced. Several Finnish-written publications have also come out of the programme of which the Guidebook will be the most important one. This and the final report were not finalised at the time of this review, but the Contents List of the final report was presented at the review. 4 Master theses have been produced based on the project. Invitations to international meetings Results from the Temu project have been presented at many (8) international conferences and meetings to which researchers from the project have been invited. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students There has been Nordic cooperation within the project, especially with Sweden and Denmark. Excursions have been organised to both countries. One of the MSc-theses was written by a student from Wye College, London. 96

General evaluation of project/ achievements The review team found that this was a very good project in every respect. The work done was of very high scientific quality, the scientific production was good, and the mix of science, engineering and natural sciences was very beneficial to all parties. The knowledge of artificial groundwater quality changes has significantly improved in the course of the project. It was felt by the review team that this project has produced considerable competence in the area of groundwater recharge and that one should consider publishing the guidebook internationally. Project 2.2 Optimisation of nanofiltration for drinking water production Helsinki University of Technology, Laboratory of Environmental Engineering 1.2.1998 to 31.12.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The aim of this project was quite general: To study the alternatives for optimising the nanofiltration process used as a refining unit in surface water treatment. The researchers responsible for the project: The main researchers in the project have been: Jukka Yli-Kuivila, who is presently working at Plancenter Ltd Riina Liikanen, who is working at HUT as researcher They are both aiming at a doctoral degree as result of their work on this project. The project coordinators have been: Adjunct Prof. Heikki Kiuru, HUT, project co-ordinator 1.9.2000 31.12.2001 Prof. Risto Laukkanen, project co-ordinator 1.2.1998 31.8.2000. The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The research was conducted during the years 1999 2000 in Dämman surface waterworks in Espoo by using two experimental nanofiltration devices. In the first phase of the project traditional coagulation-based water treatment processes, rapid filtration, and microfiltration were compared as pre-treatment method of nanofiltration. In the second phase of the project optimal operation of the nanofiltration process was studied The study aimed at finding parameters, which would ensure good quality of the produced water as well as a competitive cost of the process. During the third phase of studies conducted in 2001, problems concerning nanofiltration membrane fouling and quality of chemically treated surface waters were under more specific evaluation by the use of laboratory nanofiltration equipment. Real and model waters were used to determine what kind of substances occurring in feed water that would be most harmful in terms of operation of the nanofiltration process. The presentation of the project during the hearing: During the hearing the project was presented by: Jukka Yli-Kuivila, Plancenter Ltd and Riina Liikanen, HUT. The project was well presented during the hearing and many points were well explained and discussed. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results Since the objective of the process was quite general: To study the alternatives to optimise the nanofiltration process used as a refining unit in surface water treatment, it must be assumed that the main aim was to increase competence in this area in Finland. In that perspective we believe that the group has obtained interesting results and competence in the area to the benefit 97

for the drinking water treatment sector in Finland. We also think, however, that this result may lead to development of nanofiltration equipment by companies involved (especially HOH Separtec Oy) directed towards the Finnish market. Most significant results obtained The most significant result is probably that the research has lead to the identification of the most critical issues as well as optimisation criteria for the process. In particular it was of importance to the advancement of science in the area, that it was shown that there was still a microbial growth potential in the water even after nanofiltration but that something happened suddenly to the growth in pipes after a given time (10 weeks). Progress according to plan delays The project has been progressing according to plans and is in fact continued in the PhD-study of R. Liikanen. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme The relevance of this project to the programme is very good. There is a need to build competence in this area in Finland as it seems likely that membrane processes will be used more in the future. Relevance to Finland It is not clear, though, whether the preferred route in Finland is the add-on strategy that the project analyses or the replacement strategy, i.e. to replace the chemical pre-treatment by microfiltration. This issue should be studied more thoroughly before large scale implementation of the results are carried out. Relevance to the international community The research is very relevant to the international community and is a very valuable contribution. Therefore it is important that it is widely published internationally. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation It does not seem that the project has had a specific Finnish product in sight. Finnish companies (i.e. HOH Separtec Oy) has however, benefited considerably from the research. External support from industry HOH Separtec Oy has supported the project financially by building the pilot plants. There has not been much support/collaboration from other companies. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality We cannot say that the project is profiled as being especially original in the technical or scientific sense. Similar studies have been carried out by other groups. However, the study of the microbial growth downstream is not commonly found and is of particular value. Scientific production (review papers, other papers The project is well published. There are 4 scientific papers (including international conference papers) and 4 papers in Finnish journals. 2 seminars have been organised on the subject and altogether 7 presentations have been made. 5 Msctheses and 2 PhD-theses will come out of it. This is very good compared to most of the projects in the programme. Invitations to international meetings The project researchers have 3 times been invited to give presentations at international conferences. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students There has not been much collaboration with other research groups outside Finland, however, we think that the work would have benefited from this sort of collaboration. There has, however, been cooperation with the group headed by Prof. Marianne Nyström at the Lappeenranta University of Technology. General evaluation of project/ achievements Generally we consider this to be a very good project in every respect. It may be that the project lacks a little bit in originality. It is doing more or less the same as others have done, but we appreciate that it is of specific value to carry out such a 98

project in Finland. We believe, however, that the project could have benefited from closer contact with other research groups abroad and that the special cooperation with HOH Separtec Oy may have limited the choice of membranes as well as procedures to clean the membranes, to those normally used by Filmtec (membrane producer of the HOH Separtec plants). Nevertheless we rate the quality of the project to be very good. Project 2.3 Treatment of humic groundwater University of Oulu, Laboratory of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering 1.2.1998 to 31.12.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The goal of this project was to develop and improve water treatment methods that would be suitable for small and medium-sized water treatment plants that treat humic groundwater also containing iron and manganese. The researchers responsible for the project: The researchers of the project were (all at University of Oulu, Laboratory of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering): Esko Lakso, project co-ordinator Jarmo Sallanko, head researcher Mika Sillanpää, professor at the same department took also part at least in publications. Sallanko has been working for his PhD based on results from this project. The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: In the start phase of the research project the main emphasis was laid on ozonation and bromide formation during ozonation. However, according to new data obtained, the research project changed its course and its new goals included the development of alkalising wet filtration, hydrogen peroxide, and microfiltration. Several experiments were performed at sites where there was an actual problem. It seems to the review team, that a structured research programme to a certain extent followed on from the solving of a specific problem of the particular water works. In fact it was admitted that theoretical approaches to humus-iron chemistry proved to be very difficult and the research team felt that they did not reach their objectives in this respect. This may be the reason for the quite practical approach that was chosen. The presentation of the project during the hearing: During the hearing the project was presented by Jarmo Sallanko, head researcher. The lack of structure in the project was to a certain extent also reflected in the presentation. The interesting results from the different tests were presented, but no systematic comparison of the different methods was done, leaving the review team with the feeling that a final conclusion was not reached. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results There is no doubt that the project has arrived at some very interesting and important results with respect to what kind of treatment methods may be used for treating humic groundwater containing iron and manganese. It is also true that the project found suitable solutions at some of the plants that had problems. The review team is in doubt, however, whether or not the group have arrived at clear recommendations based on their research. Most significant results obtained The most significant results obtained were probably the development of the alkalising wet filter as this may lead to relatively simple and cheap solutions for small water works with actual problems. Important is also the build-up of knowledge around the use of various oxidation techniques (O 3,H 2 O 2 ) in combination with floc 99

separation (flotation, filtration, and membrane (ultra) filtration). Progress according to plan delays As far as the review team could see, the project has been carried out without any particular delays. The PhD-thesis of Jarmo Sallanko is not yet published, however, and it might be that such an academic treatise of the data from the project is needed in order to get full scientific value of the work. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme The project is highly relevant for the programme since 42 % of the groundwater plants in Ostrobotnia exceed the iron limit and 27 % of the plants exceed the manganese limit. Relevance to Finland Problems caused by iron and manganese are quite common in Finland. It has been estimated that there are at least three hundred ground water plants where the Fe- and Mn-concentrations exceed the maximum levels from time to time. Relevance to the international community The particular problem that was dealt with in this research project is very well known internationally, not because the problem is so frequent but rather because the problem is difficult to solve. The review team believes that the research from this project should, therefore be published internationally to a larger extent than what has happened so far. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation It is a bit difficult to see specific processes or products that can be the outcome of this research (which was not intended anyway). The processes used are more or less based on existing technology that to a certain extent is used in new ways. External support from industry Four different companies have been involved in the project mostly, it seems as suppliers of chemicals or pilot-plants. It is not evident from the description of the project or from the presentation whether or not any of these companies will commercialise any of the findings from the project. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality The project does not have a high scientific profile. It is more development than science that has been carried out. As mentioned above the review team found a lack of a systematic approach to the problem. Nevertheless, the findings of the project resulted in good solutions for many of the water works involved and competence and knowledge about how to deal with the problem of treating humic groundwater containing iron and manganese. Scientific production (review papers, other papers A final report and several (9) Finnish-written sub-reports have been produced. In addition Sallanko has published three papers in a Finnish water journal (Vesitalous). Only one international publication (a poster at the winter city conference in Luleå, 2000) seems to have come out of the project so far. This is far too little for a project of this size and ambition. As mentioned, however, the PhD-thesis of Sallanko is still to come, and with this some international publications will be expected. Invitations to international meetings None, except the poster at the winter conference in Luleå, as far as we can see Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students As far as we can see, there has not been any active cooperation with other research groups either inside or outside Finland. This is a pity since there are other groups around the world that have worked on the same problem. General evaluation of project/ achievements Even though there is no doubt about the fact that this project has resulted in valuable knowledge and experience and has solved the problems of several water works, the review team feel that a lack of a systematic and structured research plan has hampered this project somewhat. It is appreciated that the final report will be of good value 100

for many, but we believe that a more comprehensive scientific outcome would have been the result of more structure in the execution of the project. Project 3.1 Procedures and instructions for controlling sewage odour VTT Chemical Technology 1.11.1998 to 30.9.2000 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The aim of this project was to study the formation of odour in sewers, to find solutions for the reduction of sewer odours and to evaluate different control approaches in field tests. A sub-objective was to use the results of the research to produce a manual of guidelines for odour control in sewers. The researchers responsible for the project: Staff from VTT performed most of the research with some field-testing work performed by staff from Plancenter Ltd. Tuula Vahlman Project Leader, VTT Chemical Technology Jaakko Räsänen, VTT Chemical Technology Torsti Siltanen, VTT Chemical Technology Jorma Pääkkönen, Plancenter Ltd Heimo Ojanen, Plancenter Ltd The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The project execution followed the objectives quite closely. Initially the research was aimed at developing procedures that would allow VTT s commercial FTIR gas analysis equipment to be adapted to the measurement of sulphur compounds in the gas phase. Although not part of the initial aims and understated by the research team, this portable gas analysis technology allowed the research team to develop an advantage in sewer gas analysis through their ability to finger-print sewer odours and thus assist in source identification. Before the project started, a small market survey was performed to assist the research team to identify the Finnish companies actively marketing or developing odour control technology and to identify priority areas for further study. The research then focussed on a series of case studies where it was known sewer odour problems existed; this was done in close collaboration with a variety of Finnish water works and municipalities. At each test site, monitoring and/or odour control technology was set up and evaluated. The results of the study were used to prepare and publish a manual that developed guidelines for the prevention, management and control of sewage odours. The presentation of the project during the hearing: The project leader, Tuula Vahlman (VTT), presented the project. Jaakko Räsänen (VTT) was also present and participated in the discussion session of the presentation. The presentation was professionally done and there was good opportunity for open discussion with these two researchers. A copy of the manual (in Finnish) was given to the evaluation team. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results The aim was to develop an understanding of sewer odour formation and to evaluate technologies for its control. This was done for a limited number of possible techniques, possibly limited by the types of approaches marketed by the commercial partners to the project. We felt that a more thorough review of international approaches for the control of sewer odour could have added value to the project. The use of case studies, for the evaluation of odour control approaches, led the research team toward the evaluation of a number of very site-specific practical solutions. Although this was undoubtedly useful for the individual water works it was not clear how the results from some of the case studies could be applied generally. 101

Most significant results obtained The ability to be able to use some good gas analysis technology (VTT s FTIR technology) to fingerprint odours and thus identify sources of odour is a valuable outcome from the work. The research team appear to have developed quite a considerable knowledge base of odour problems, their cause and control. Progress according to plan delays The project was executed according to the plan, however, a more comprehensive review of possible alternative control approaches would have added value to the project. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme The generation of odours from sewer systems can be a major source of community complaints and thus will be a major operating problem for water companies and municipalities if it is not managed correctly. As such, the research was relevant to the technology programme. Relevance to Finland Most water companies and municipalities will have first hand experience with sewer related odour problems and generally will need assistance in managing them. Relevance to the international community The international water industry faces similar problems, Finland is no exception, and so this research should be relevant globally. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The commercial partner involved in a peat based system for odour scrubbing (Vapo Oy) was able to adapt current technology to suit the purposes of sewer odour control. The VTT FTIR gas analysis and odour fingerprinting technology is commercially available through an existing Finnish company who markets the technology under licence to VTT. Additionally, VTT is in a strong position to develop their sewer odour expertise, gained during this project, into a substantial consulting business. External support from industry Good support from equipment manufacturers and the water industry was demonstrated. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality The control approaches tested were not particularly innovative and in some case were so site specific to be of limited general value to the water industry. However, the FTIR odour analysis technology does represent a significant advantage and could form the basis of new business for this group and its commercial partner. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) A number of internal VTT research notes were produced and had a limited distribution to the research participants and the collaborating industry partners. A manual was written that gives guidelines on how to control sewer odours this is available to the wider water industry and municipalities Invitations to international meetings None identified except possibly in the FTIR gas analysis area. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students There was some collaboration with Cranfield University, in the UK, on the application of FTIR for gas analysis, as part of an MSc thesis performed by a student at Cranfield. General evaluation of project/ achievements Although the project was a case oriented study, it developed a manual with good applicability to the water industry in Finland. There is significant scope to develop new research and business opportunities both within the water industry and other industry groups (eg. biotechnology) based on VTT s gas analysis and fingerprinting technology that was refined during this project. 102

Project 3.3 Smart digital sewer pipe diagnosis system feasibility study VTT Building and Transport 1.1.2000 to 31.1.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The aim of this project was to develop image analysis software that could be used to transform video imaging of sewers into a tool for automatic detection of cracks in sewers. The researchers responsible for the project: The research was performed solely by research staff from VTT Building and Transport Hannu Maula Project Leader Juhani Korkealaakso Tuomas Pantsar The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The project was initiated by VTT after they had shown that a Japanese sewer-scanning robot (OYO Corporation, Japan) could obtain high quality digital image data. VTT has extensive experience in the science of artificial intelligence and decided to apply this to the analysis of video images to automate crack detection in sewers. The initial phase of the project was aimed at using the sewer-scanning robot to obtain the basic data needed to develop the image analysis software. A theoretical basis for the analysis of the digital data was then developed. This was combined with data manipulation and screening protocols to develop the image analysis technology. This image analysis technology was then applied to the data from the sewer-scanning robot to detect crack formation in sewers and corroborate the predictions against human operators. The presentation of the project during the hearing: The project was extremely well presented with a clear concise explanation of the problem, the approach taken, results and future research planned for the development of the technology. Tuomas Pantsar presented the project as Hannu Maula was away on business at the time. A copy of MSc thesis, which was based on this project, was distributed to the review panel. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results The scanning and image analysis software were developed as planned and have demonstrated a capability for crack detection of 95 % of that of a fully alert human operator. All that was planned for the project was achieved and through strong linkages to industry, future research has been identified and initiated that will enable this technology to evolve into a very powerful system for pipe inspection and maintenance prediction. Most significant results obtained The research demonstrated that it was possible to detect and measure cracks automatically at rates of up to 3.6 metres of pipe per minute. The software can determine the absolute 3D shape of pipes in-situ and can track crack development and pipe deformation with time. Progress according to plan delays The project has progressed well beyond the original scope and has successfully been extended, aided by additional funds from Tekes. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme The project meets the need of the water industry as it has developed a significant advance in pipe inspection technology. The technology has the potential to develop new business for Finnish companies active in the area of both pipe inspection technology and pipe repair and maintenance programmes. Relevance to Finland Sewer inspection and maintenance is a major operating cost for the water industry and techniques for improving the reliability of fault detection and/or prediction will be of major interest to the water industry. 103

Relevance to the international community The technology is applicable to the inspection of concrete and plastic pipe materials and as such will be relevant internationally as most countries are moving towards increased use of these materials. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation There is a high potential for commercialisation both within Finland and internationally. VTT own the image analysis software while the Japanese company (OYO) own the scanning-robot camera technology. External support from industry There has been good support from the Japanese scanning-robot company and through this partnership there have been developments in the imaging hardware to meet the expected needs of the image analysis software, in order to expand the versatility of the technology. Currently the research team are negotiating with a number of Finnish companies for commercialisation of the technology. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality The application of artificial intelligence science to image analysis for pipe fault detection is an original concept. It has led to the development of some innovative technology that should make a significant impact on pipe fault detection and maintenance prediction. Tuomas Pantsar has completed an MSc at HUT, based on this work, and is now engaged in continuing the research towards a PhD. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) A number of review papers have been submitted to Finnish journals. An article in the EU journal Water 21 was published and the researchers presented their work at the No Dig Conference in Nashville, USA. Invitations to international meetings Invited to present the research results at the No Dig Conference in Nashville, USA. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students As a result of presenting the research in the USA, the researchers have established links to research at Purdue University in the USA in order to link the Finnish crack detection technology with US failure prediction models in order to develop the next generation of software. It is hoped that this collaboration will yield software than can take scanned pipe images and GIS data to develop rehabilitation plans based on failure rates and cost etc. General evaluation of project/ achievements This was an extremely well planned and executed project that has linked excellent science and innovative technology to develop a total technology package that should be highly relevant to the water industry and attractive to Finnish technology companies. The planned forward thinking strategic linkages to other relevant research groups should ensure an ongoing progression of new technology being developed by this group in the future. Project 5.1 BNR process design based on measured characteristics of influent wastewater and sludge Helsinki University of Technology, Laboratory of Environmental Engineering 1.3.1998 to 31.12.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The aim of the project was to obtain results that would help operation of biological wastewater treatment plants based on the Bio-P method. This method is not currently much in use in Finland (P-precipitation dominates), so it is fair to say that one result/goal of the project would be to increase the competence of biological P-removal in Finland. 104

The researchers responsible for the project: The main researchers in the project have been (all working in HUT, Laboratory of Environmental Engineering as researchers): Hannes Melasniemi (senior researcher) Anne-Mari Aurola Kristian Sahlstedt Ritva Laitala Anna Calonius Melasniemi has received his doctoral degree within the topic of the project, Aurola her licensiate thesis and Sahlstedt and Calonius their MSc-theses. Aurola, Sahlstedt, Laitala and Calonius are all working towards their doctoral theses. The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: As the ultimate aim of this project was to control the whole process, the project was divided between research groups as follows: waste water characterization (Laitala); microbiology (Melasniemi); accumulation polymers (Aurola); simulation/modelling (Sahlstedt). Wastewater characterization The aim of the research was to map the quality of the organic matter in the wastewater of Finland to find out whether wastewater is suitable for the removal of organic nutrients, i.e to map the contents of the readily biodegradable organic matter (RBCOD). The effectiveness of fermentation of slowly biodegradable organic matter towards readily biodegradable organic matter was researched by the fatty acid potential method, through which it was found that with the help of fermentation it was possible to increase the content of organic matter suitable for biological removal. Wastewater was analysed from eight locations: Espoo (Suomenoja), Helsinki (Viikinmäki wastewater treatment plant), Turku, Kaarina, Pori, Kitee, Lapua, and Tallinn, and also the wastewater from Jämsänkoski UPM-Kymmene works. The results of the research indicate that the average RBCOD content of the wastewater in Finland was slightly below the world s average. Nevertheless it was concluded that there is potential for the biological removal of nutrients using the process of fermentation. Microbiology For more than twenty years it has been scientifically accepted that the organism responsible for enhanced P-uptake in bio-p processes was an akinete microbe (i.e. Acinetobacter), but it had not been successfully isolated or identified. In the course of earlier tests conducted by the Laboratory of Environmental Engineering it was found that a similar organism was dominant in the bio-p process at the Suomenoja wastewater treatment plant. Tests proved that the Suomenoja bio-p process was accumulating P by spores of fungi and not bacteria. This revolutionary achievement was reached by studying the surface of PAO. It was found that the PAO cells transformed into considerably larger yeast-like cells in the presence of an anti-bacterial antibiotic. In this research the new fungus-pao has been isolated and identified. At the same time it has been discovered how it is possible to reverse the fungi back to the stated PAO-appearance in situ in the sludge. Accumulating polymers According to the prevailing theory, in anaerobic conditions the poly-p organisms that are important in the process of biological phosphorus removal accumulate the fatty acids as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA). Under aerobic conditions PHA is used as an intracellular energy supply, where microbes take phosphates from the wastewater and tie it as polyphosphates. It is presumed that upon the accumulation of easily degradable matter into PHA, glycogen is an important source of reduction potential for these organisms. In the research of this project, however, it was found that the accumulating polymers were not so abundant and important as one may presume on the basis of the models of biological phosphorus removal. This corresponds with the discovery in the previous part of the project, that the most important micro-organisms in the process of phosphorus removal appear to be the spores of fungi and not polyphosphate bacteria. Simulation The laboratory intended to integrate modelling into the research in order to reduce the dependence on existing modelling concepts. A simulation device was created in the Matlab/SIMULINK envi- 105

ronment. The MSc-thesis of Sahlstedt (2000) is the first comprehensive scientific analysis conducted in Finland on the mathematical modelling of biological wastewater treatment. The goal of the continued research in this project is to give a mathematical form to the new Bio-P theory and to use it in full-scale processes in Finland and elsewhere. The presentation of the project during the hearing: During the hearing the project was presented by: A. Järvinen (lab. eng.), Hannes Melasniemi (senior researcher), Anne-Mari Aurola (researcher and PhD-student), Kristian Sahlstedt (researcher and PhD-student) and Anna Calonius (researcher and PhD-student). Aurola, Melasniemi and Sahlstedt presented their parts of the project. The project was well presented during the hearing and many points were well explained and resulted in a very interesting discussion. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results This project deals primarily with basic research. Even if the objective is to find tools to help Finnish bio-p plants operate better, it is quite clear that the approach taken is very fundamental. But this is necessary in order to be relevant to practical applications, so we do not criticize the approach. We see, however, this project as part of an on-going competence build-up at the university and therefore it is a bit untypical compared to the other projects of the programme. It is quite clear that very interesting (and partly controversial) results are emerging from this project that will increase the awareness of Finnish research in the area. Most significant results obtained The most significant result of the project is probably that the methods developed for analysing the important wastewater characteristics for BNRplant evaluation have been commercialised. The most significant finding (even though it is still scientifically questioned) is the discovery of the fact that the microorganism primarily responsible for enhanced P-uptake is a fungus (found in soils) and not a bacteria (i.e. Acinetobacter). Progress according to plan delays As far as we could understand, the progress is according to plans (or what one could expect) The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme As mentioned above, this project does not have any strong links to the commercial sector - no particular process/product is being developed. Nevertheless the project is highly relevant as there is a growing interest in BNR-plants for the wastewater services sector all over the world. Relevance to Finland Because of this it is also relevant to Finland as there is a growing interest, especially among Finnish consultants that operate on the international market, to learn more about BNR-processes. We would have thought it beneficial, however, if a relevance study for Finland in particular, had been carried out as we cannot immediately see why bio-p removal should be more suitable/sustainable for the Finnish wastewater treatment plants than the P-precipitation approaches currently used. Relevance to the international community The work is definitely relevant for the international community as there is a huge amount of research carried out all over the world into this topic. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The potential for commercialisation is not particularly high with exception of the analysis package mentioned above. On the other hand, Finnish consultants will benefit considerably from the project, especially in their current endeavours to do business in the Eastern European market. The modelling part of the project will probably be important in implementing modelling in design and operation of biological treatment plants in Finland. 106

External support from industry The external support from industry has been modest. However, six Finnish wastewater treatment plants have benefited from having their water analysed with respect to BNR process suitability. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality Generally we find the scientific quality of the work very good. There is no doubt about the high level of originality in the approach as well as in the results. Scientific production The scientific production is very good. Several international papers in review journals have been published and some are in press. Invitations to international meetings The work has also been published at several international conferences. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students There has been a lot of collaboration with other EU-groups through a COST project (DTU, Delft, Ghent, La Sapienza) as well a contact with EAWAG/ ETH (prof. Gujer). A MSc-student from Lisbon has participated. General evaluation of project/ achievements We got a clear feeling that the group that performs this project is a highly qualified one, with considerable self-confidence. In our opinion this is a very good project with high scientific quality even though it is not totally in the format of the technology programme. We believe, however, that it definitely has been worth financing and hope that the valuable competence that is built up in this group at HUT will be maintained by continued financing of the group somehow. Project 5.2 Biological nutrients removal from municipal wastewater (BIRRA II) Finnish Environment Institute 1.2.1998 to 30.6.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The main objective of the project was to find methods that would make biological phosphorus removal from wastewater more effective using smaller quantities of chemicals in order to meet the ever increasingly strict requirements for phosphorus removal. A sub-goal was to reduce effluent P to the environmentally acceptable level of between 50-100 µg/l. Another objective was to evaluate methods that could enhance nitrogen removal to meet >70% removal. Finally it was presented as an objective during the presentation, to develop design guidelines for a) partial simultaneous precipitation and b) biological/chemical filtration The researchers responsible for the project: The researchers in the project have been (all working in the Finnish Environment Institute): Pirjo Rantanen, head researcher Matti Valve, project co-ordinator Johanna Autti Riikka Vilpas Ari Niemelä, PhD has also been involved. There does not seem to have been any active link to the group at HUT working on similar problems (biological P-removal) (see previous project). The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The review team expects the BIRRA II project to be a continuation of BIRRA I an earlier project on biological nutrient removal, as it is known that this kind of research has been going on in Finland 107

since the early nineties. BIRRA II was divided in two sub-projects: 1. Enhancing biological P-removal with partial simultaneous precipitation (1998-99) 2. Enhancing biological nutrient removal with tertiary filtration (1999-2000) A very central part of the project has been the Suomenoja semi-technical scale plant. It seems to the review team that operation of this plant, which is appreciated to be extremely time- and manpower consuming, may have taken the focus a bit away from a structured plan in order to reach the objectives. When one has such a plant, the operation of the plant tends to move the direction of research into those operational solutions that work best at the plant. If a systematic experimental research plan is lacking, there is a danger that one will be looking at too many questions at the same time with the result that it is impossible to draw any clear conclusion to any of them. The review team does not claim that this has been the case in this project, but it was felt when going through the written documentation as well the presentation during the review, that the approach was a bit accidental. The presentation of the project during the hearing: During the hearing the project was presented by: Pirjo Rantanen, head researcher and Matti Valve, the project co-ordinator The project was well presented during the hearing but the review got the feeling during the presentation that the project was lacking some clear direction and that the Suomenoja plant was primarily used as a demonstration plant in which process problems were investigated as they turned up. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results The objectives of this project were not very specific. It was, therefore, not so easy to clearly say whether or not the objectives were met. The research team themselves found that the complexity of the project was underestimated and, even though this is one of the bigger projects within the programme, they found the resources insufficient. Some parts of the study, for instance, that of pre-fermentation, should have been studied for a longer period according the research team. Most significant results obtained The conclusions arrived at in sub-project 1 were not very surprising, considering the international published experiences at this time. The conclusions from sub-project 2 were more significant, seen from an international perspective. The research group also considered that developing calculation rules for the chemical-biological filter and the first successful preliminary filtration in Finland to be the biggest successes. Progress according to plan delays As far as we could understand, the progress is according to plans but more publications are expected. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme There is no doubt that the project is relevant to the programme. The review team was a bit surprised to find that that biological P-removal was so much in focus in a country where the experiences with chemical P-removal are so positive. One would expect more research into optimisation of biological/chemical treatment methods with the aim to reduce chemical cost and sludge production. Relevance to Finland Nutrient removal is very important to Finland and the project is highly relevant to the Finnish situation. It seems, however, that one of the major results of the project is that chemical treatment will represent the major P-removal process also in the future Relevance to the international community The work is definitely relevant for the international community as there is a huge amount of research carried out all over the world into this topic at this time. One cannot say, however, that this project has contributed significantly to new findings to the international state of the art knowledge in the area of biological nutrient removal 108

Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation It was stated by the research team that the biggest potential for commercialisation of the results from the project was to be expected from Finnish companies that competed for jobs in Russia and the Baltic states. The experiences from the project will be used by consulting companies in Finland, even though it was not expected by the research group that biological P-removal would play a major role in Finland. External support from industry The industrial companies involved in the project do not seem to have taken a very active role. It seems that they have primarily supplied the project with material resources (chemicals, hardware etc) Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality The project is not characterised by originality. The pilot plant has been run according to traditional process solutions with the exception of the trials with pre-fermentation to increase available carbon source which was suggested should be continued by the research team. It is interesting that the research team proposes a literature review to be carried out as a follow up of the programme. The review team thinks that such an extensive literature review ought to have been carried out before the project started. Scientific production The scientific production is not very extensive at this time but one or two more international papers are planned for by the research team. At this time the project has resulted in 1 international reviewed paper (Wat.Sci.Tech. in press) 1 conference paper (Nordic conference) 4 papers in Finnish journals 1 status report 1 final report Two MSc-students have carried out their work for the thesis within the framework of the project. Invitations to international meetings The work has been presented at the Nordic conference as well as at the 2nd IWA conference in Berlin 2001. The project has been orally presented in a number (8) of Finnish meetings. We feel, therefore, that the results of the project are well conveyed within Finland, but that the international publication is a bit limited. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students There does not seem to have been extensive collaboration with other groups, outside and inside Finland. The review group is aware of the fact that contacts with the HUT group existed, but they do not seem to have been extensive. General evaluation of project/ achievements It is felt by the review team that this was a very comprehensive (and quite costly) demonstration project in which demonstration of process solutions was more important than science and development of the processes. It is the experience of this review team that running such an extensive pilot plant is very expensive and that the cost/ benefit is lower with respect to general information collection at such large demonstration plants than what may be expected from a combination of lab-scale plants combined with fullscale demonstration. It is a possibility that the pilot-plant operation is the actual driving force in such projects and not the structured research plan. Even though we appreciate the project and its results, we have a feeling that the research team did not have a sufficient stringent plan to follow and that the approach towards the different objectives was a bit accidental. 109

Project 5.5 Polymer handling and enhancing the flocculation efficiency by ultrasonication VTT Energy 1.2.2001 to 31.12.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The aim of this project was to increase the dry solids content of sludge and the activity of polyelectrolytes used in sludge dewatering, through the application of ultrasonication. The researchers responsible for the project: The research was performed by VTT Energy staff: Pentti Pirkonen project coordinator Saara Isännäinen head researcher Kirsi Korpijärvi Hannu Mursunen There was collaboration with Kemira Chemicals Oy, some paper industry partners and Finnsonic Oy (a Finnish manufacturer of ultrasonication equipment). The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: A review of literature by the research group had identified that some researchers in Poland had shown that ultrasonication of polyelectrolytes and/or the flocculating sludge could increase dewaterability of sludge and reduce the polymer doses used. This project was a short duration feasibility study aimed at determining whether these published benefits could be repeated in sewage sludge and if so, determine some preliminary operating conditions. The experimental plan was as follows: 1. Study polyelectrolyte activation by power ultrasound by looking at: Effect of ultrasonic frequencies, power, treatment time and temperature on the polyelectrolyte characteristics 2. Determine whether there was intensification of flocculation by power ultrasound and to find out the right position for ultrasonic treatment Variables: ultrasonic power, frequency, treatment time, temperature and concentration of polyelectrolyte solution 3. Dewatering experiments Combining ultrasonically activated polyelectrolyte + ultrasonically assisted flocculation Dewatering experiments were performed with VTT s liquid filtration simulator 4. Feasibility Study To evaluate the benefits of the ultrasonication process relative to the savings achieved by reduced chemical consumption and/or the increased dry matter content of the sludge. The presentation of the project during the hearing: Kirsi Korpijärvi, gave the project presentation and Pentti Pirkonen was present to help answer questions. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results The results of the experimental programme were inconclusive with a series of the earlier experiments yielding significant improvements in sludge dewaterability with a parallel improvement in filtrate turbidity. However, repeatability was not good and there were significant differences seen, depending on the type of sludge tested. The planned program of experiments were completed within the time period, however, the lack of repeatable positive results required a number of repeat and exploratory experiments to be performed. Most significant results obtained After up to 3 minutes of ultrasonication of the forest industry sludge, there was a 66 % increase in the dry solids content of sludge when it was dewatered, but it required a higher polyelectrolyte dose. Sludge characteristics had a significant impact on the benefits of the ultrasonication process. Progress according to plan delays The aim of the project was to determine whether there was an effect of ultrasonication on sludge dewaterability. This was achieved in part but as 110

with most research of this type, a positive may not always be the result from the experiments. Further work at a fundamental level is recommended to further study this area to determine how the few good results can be explained and hopefully repeated. The project runs until the end of December 2001. The project team are now evaluating the process economics and are righting the final project reports and expect to have these completed by the end of the feasibility study period. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme Potentially if this project had been successful, there were big opportunities for new sludge dewatering technology to be developed from it and also benefits for the water industry through improved sludge handling and disposal options. Relevance to Finland Finland produces over two million cubic metres of sewage sludge each year. A typical wastewater treatment plant will consume close to 0,35 million Euros per annum just on polyelectrolyte used for sludge dewatering. So the benefits to both the water industry and the forest industry from improved dewaterability of sludge are large. Relevance to the international community All countries treating sewage and water will produce sludge that needs to be disposed of in some manner with similar per capita sludge production as Finland. Methods for improving sludge dewaterability will generate huge international interest. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation A positive result from the feasibility study would have meant that there was potential to develop ultrasonic technology and commercialise it for the sludge industry. However, Finnsonic had told the researchers that there was probably insufficient positive result from this study to encourage them in this direction. Similarly, if there had been a benefit seen, it would also be of commercial interest to the polyelectrolyte manufacturing industry. External support from industry There was good support from the paper industry, sewage treatment works, chemical suppliers and the ultrasonic equipment manufacturers. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality It was a good project that attempted to apply research in ultrasonics to a water industry problem. The approach taken by the research team was a valid one as it aimed to quickly identify whether there was a positive impact from sonication of sludge or polyelectrolyte. However, there is a need now to go back and take a more fundamental look at the problem to try to identify why there were a few positive results but a lack of repeatability. The empirical approach used to date should now be replaced by a scientific approach, only if the outcomes of the final feasibility stage of the project demonstrate that the technology is worth pursuing further. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) None to date, a final project report is planned for completion by the end of 2001 and will be distributed to the industry in 2002. Invitations to international meetings None identified. General evaluation of project/ achievements This project was an empirical feasibility study that, had it obtained positive results, would have had significant impacts on the economics of sludge handling for the water industry. Further research should be directed towards a more fundamental study of the mechanisms of ultrasonication on polyelectrolytes and sludges. 111

Project 5.7 Reduction of infective microorganisms in treated wastewater by sand filtration and UV irradiation University of Kuopio 1.5.2000 to 31.12.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The aim of this project was to improve the quality of treated wastewater by chemically assisted sand filtration in order to improve the effectiveness of UV disinfection. The researchers responsible for the project: Research staff from the University of Kuopio carried out the bulk of research for this project. Helvi Heinonen-Tanski project coordinator Ritva Rajala head researcher Merja Pulkkanen Matti Pessi The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The research aimed to treat secondary treated sewage effluent to produce a final treated wastewater containing a microbial population of below 200 CFU/100 ml. The impact of effluent suspended solids and colour on the efficiency of UV disinfection was determined and methods for achieving the optimal water quality characteristics determined. Research was undertaken using a pilot scale continuous sand filter (Dynasand licensed in Finland by Waterlink Oy) and UV disinfection system to treat the wastewater on site at four wastewater treatment plants, each over a 3-month period. The pilot scale tests looked at the impact of chemical pre-treatment and treatment chemical type before sand filtration on subsequent UV disinfection performance. The pilot scale tests were complimented by parallel laboratory scale experiments aimed at determining water quality in terms of microbial organism type after the range of treatments being explored in the field. An energy/cost benefit analysis was planned to allow evaluation and comparison of the various treatment approaches evaluated in the project and would form part of the final report on guidelines for UV disinfection of wastewaters. The presentation of the project during the hearing: The project was presented by the project coordinator, Helvi Heinonen-Tanski and supported during the question period by the head researcher, Ritva Rajala. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results Continuous rapid sand filtration of the secondary effluent was not an adequate technology for removal of microbes from the water and only improved the UV transmittance of the water by 1 to 3 %. Combining continuous filtration with coagulation (best was with PAC) improved microbe removal by up to 3 logs and improved UV transmittance by over 20 %. Combining the chemically assisted sand filtration with UV disinfection achieved a 5-log reduction in microbial populations and allowed the water to meet the final effluent quality aimed for. The UV doses used for disinfection were effective for virus removal (as determined by MS2 phage reduction) provided the UV transmittance of water was maintained at better than 70 %. The chemical coagulant type, doses and sand filter conditions necessary for effective removal of microbes were determined as were the operating conditions necessary for effective UV disinfection. Most significant results obtained Chemical precipitation is required in order for sand filtered secondary wastewater to be effectively disinfected using UV irradiation. Progress according to plan delays The planned research was achieved and the research team was writing the final report at the time of this review. The energy analysis and cost benefit study are still being performed but should be completed in time to be included in the final report. 112

The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme The project would probably not fit directly within the aims of the technology programme as it is evaluating technologies for the future of wastewater treatment in Finland. The aim was not to develop new technology but to evaluate whether combinations of existing technology would enable the Finnish water industry meet emerging water discharge quality requirements. Relevance to Finland Currently Finnish wastewater treatment plant operators discharge secondary quality effluent to the sea or rivers. Under emerging new EU regulations, these plants are likely to be expected to meet stricter discharge requirements. Therefore, the outcomes from this research will enable these plant operators to evaluate the options available to them in order to meet the new discharge guidelines, when they come into force. Relevance to the international community The levels of disinfection necessary for the safe discharge of wastewaters to prevent microbial contamination of bathing waters and shell fishing areas are currently being developed by the EU and in many other countries. In comparison to conventional chlorination processes, UV disinfection is seen as technology that produces minimal by-products in the wastewater stream and is a favoured technology in these applications. Improving the economics of UV disinfection through the application of good pre-treatment technology is essential for its widespread use. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The expertise of Finnish consultants in this area would be increased through this research. There are at present no Finnish manufacturers of UV equipment; the relevant industrial collaborators with this project were Finnish agents for imported UV disinfection equipment. External support from industry There was good support for this project from the water industry but minimal support, for the reasons stated above, from the UV disinfection equipment industry. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality UV disinfection of wastewater streams is well-established industry practice. However, this project addressed the needs of the water industry in improving the effectiveness of UV disinfection processes through development of understanding of how pre-treatment of the wastewater affects the effectiveness of UV disinfection for a range of microorganism types. The project was managed by microbiologists rather than engineers, and developed a better understanding of the effects of UV irradiation on specific micro-organisms in wastewater, leading to a valuable contribution in this area of research. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) There was minimal publication of the results from this work at the time of this review. The research team were completing the experimental stage of the research and just turning their attention to publication. The head researcher, Ritva Rajala, was using this work towards the research component of her PhD. Three MSc theses were also completed, based on this research. Invitations to international meetings None indicated at this stage although they hope to submit a paper for the forthcoming IWA conference in Melbourne 2002. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students There was some collaboration during this project with Project 5.2 BIRRA. There was some collaboration with researchers in Hungary (financed by the Ministry of Education) on methods for reducing infective micro-organisms in effluents. General evaluation of project/ achievements The project was well planned and executed, benefiting from the microbiological emphasis of the research group linked to the needs of the water industry. The outcomes from the project should 113

be of benefit to the water industry by developing a better understanding of the microbiological effectiveness of UV disinfection processes and how to improve the efficiency of these processes through appropriate levels of pre-treatment. Project 5.9 Granulation and utilization of wastewater sludge Helsinki Water, Rejlers Oy 1.8.1998 to 28.2.1999 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The objective of the project was to investigate the technical and economic aspects of the drying and granulation of sludge. The second part of the project that was evaluated was the environmental impact (EI) of the new waste disposal method and the comparison of the new method with the conventional alternative. The researchers responsible for the project: This project was found to be somewhat different from the other applied research projects and more similar to an Industrial R&D project. This is probably also reflected in the fact that the people responsible for the project are referred to as contact persons (as in the Industrial R&D projects) in the summary report and not as researchers (as in the Applied Technical Research projects) Timo Holmberg, Rejlers Oy, head researcher Yrjö Lundström, Helsinki Water, project co-ordinator The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: Basically this project was about knowledge and experience collection regarding thermal drying and granulation of sludge. A literature review was carried out and an excursion to Germany. An assessment of how and to what price and energy consumption thermal drying and granulation could be implemented in Finland was carried out. This led to the construction of a thermal drying and granulation plant in Joensuu. To our knowledge the project has not resulted in any data being collected from the Joensuu plant at this time at least nothing is published. The presentation of the project during the hearing: The person responsible for the project, Timo Holmberg, Rejlers Oy, was not available at the review meeting and, therefore, Riku Vahala presented the project briefly. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results As mentioned earlier this project had more the character of an Industrial R&D project than an Applied Technical Research Project. In fact the review team did not quite understand why it was categorized the way it was. It is clear that the very general objective: to investigate the technical and economic aspects of the drying and granulation of sludge was met. It is unclear whether the objective: evaluation of the environmental impact (EI) of the new waste disposal method and the comparison of the new method with the conventional alternative was fully met even though the review team was presented some data in that direction. No publication on the subject was available to the review team, though. Most significant results obtained The research team feels that the main achievement was the production of a full-size granulation machine, as only a full-size machine can provide reliable information regarding the efficiency of a method in practical use. This is another demonstration of the fact that this project should be regarded as an Industrial R&D project. Progress according to plan delays As far as we can know, there are no delays. But since we do not have any results in form of publications, this is difficult to know. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme In general there is a strong need to come up with economical and sustainable methods for sludge handling, and it was felt by the review team that 114

this topic should have had a broader space in the Water Services 2001 programme. We are surprised, for instance, that there were not any projects in the area of recovering fertilizer from wastewater sludge. Relevance to Finland In general there is increasing interest towards the drying of sludge in Finland, and therefore this project was both timely and relevant. Relevance to the international community Generally there is a strong activity in the sludge disposal issue all over the world. The review team feels that drying and granulation has to evaluated together with proper pre-treatment methods and proper final disposal methods. Drying as such is probably not sustainable, but combined with for instance biogas production as pre-treatment and for instance forestry fertilizing as post-disposal, it may be a good alternative. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation It is not coming quite clear out whether or not any new equipment was actually developed for the Joensuu plant or whether equipment available in the market today was used. There is no doubt that Rejlers Oy will have benefited immensely from the project. It is less clear how other consulting companies will benefit. External support from industry The main support came from Rejlers Oy. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality It is a bit difficult to evaluate the scientific quality of this project as it definitely had the profile of an Industrial R&D project and as there are no publications to evaluate. The originality would be, we suppose, the use of the granulated sludge in forestry and/or green construction, but we understand that this was not directly part of the present project. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) Two papers in Finnish written journals have been published. It is not clear whether a final report has been published or not. Invitations to international meetings None as far as we know Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students None as far as we know contact were, however, made through the excursion to Germany. General evaluation of project/ achievements As mentioned several times already, this project had more the character of an Industrial R&D project than an applied technical research project. In fact the review team did not quite understand why it was categorized the way it was. As an Industrial R&D project, we find it quite satisfactory. As an applied technical research project we feel that the scientific profile, execution and publication have been less than one would expect from a project of this category. Project 6.1 Improvement of wastewater treatment in rural areas (HAJASAMPO) Finnish Environment Institute 1.1.1998 to 31.5.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: Project Hajasampo was started near Pyhäjärvi at the initiative of the Finnish Environment Institute (FEI) to compensate for the lack of knowledge regarding wastewater treatment in rural areas. The project belongs to the programme Environment Cluster by the Ministry of the Environment. The project has two objectives: 1. to develop and improve on-site wastewater treatment methods 2. to develop guidelines, maintenance procedures and training relating to these aspects to ensure the efficiency and reliability of the on-site treatment systems. 115

The aim was to create an efficient model that could be used by both residential and business wastewater producers to facilitate their fulfilment of the requirements of the water protection programme. The researchers responsible for the project: The researchers of the project were all from Finnish Environment Institute: Erkki Santala, project co-ordinator Katriina Kujala-Räty, head researcher Lauri Etelämäki Toivo Lapinlampi Mari Ruuska Harri Mattila (Lake Pyhäjärvi Protection Fund, Häme Polytechnic) Mika Vainio (Town of Säkylä) Jami Aho (West Finland Regional Environment Centre) Two persons (Katriina Kujala-Räty and Erkki Santala) will use the work with the project as the basis for their PhD-theses, another for an MSc-thesis and 3 others for their BSc-theses. In addition several project students have been involved. Several Regional Environmental Centres have been involved and 6 companies have taken part, primarily by supplying equipment that has been tested during the project. The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: Compared to most of the projects within the Water Services 2001 programme, this is quite a big project and very many people have been involved. The project was divided in a number of sub-projects: methods of wastewater treatment design and construction of treatment plants sampling and field measurements in preliminary soil infiltration studies performance and efficiency of various wastewater treatment plants product development of products related to the project composting toilets - experience of usage, maintenance and running rehabilitation of old septic tanks responsibility and supervision of on-site treatment systems training and education related to on-site treatment systems co-operation with other projects both domestically and foreign. The presentation of the project during the hearing: The project was presented by Erkki Santala and Katriina Kujala-Räty. The presentation was very good and lead to several discussions between the research team and the review panel. Evaluation of the project This is a very comprehensive project in an area where it is not so easy to succeed. It was only natural then that it had to some extent the profile of a demonstration project. The review team liked the project very much and the approach that the researchers had taken for the project was very favourably appreciated. The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results As far as we can judge, the obtained results are in line with the objectives. Project HAJA- SAMPO has produced a great deal of new information, new ways of action, and new products. The results are useful for the general public in the rural areas, officials, and water supply and sewage companies. Significant public interest in the project has attracted more attention to the problems relating to on-site sewage treatment in rural areas and also at the local and state level. Most significant results obtained The research group believes that the most important achievements were the very diverse information about the sewage treatment methods used in rural areas that was obtained and the new, concrete action plans that were worked out for organising sewage treatment in these regions. The review group would add that the research has also led to the development of new products in this area. Progress according to plan delays As far as we can know, there were no major delays. The final report has been published even though it came a couple of months late. It is a pity that it is only written in Finnish (with an ex- 116

cellent English summary) as many people in several countries of the world would benefit from being able to read it. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme The project is highly relevant to the programme because a large proportion of the Finnish population live in rural areas where there are no central sewerage systems. Relevance to Finland The majority of the on-site treatment systems that serve more than one million Finns and more than one million holiday makers, will need major improvements in the coming years. Organic matter and phosphorus have to be improved in order to reduce the load on water bodies according to the Water Protection Objectives approved by the Finnish Government. Planning companies and constructors of sewage systems in settlements as well as the general public need comprehensive information about this problem and how to deal with it. Therefore, this project is both very relevant and very timely for Finland. Relevance to the international community The project is highly relevant to the international community, not only because a large proportion of the population in many countries live in rural areas where there is no central sewerage systems, but also because there is a growing tendency in the world to move away from large central wastewater systems in favour of smaller, decentralised ones. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The market for on-site system is quite big and growing. There is especially a need for treatment systems that can remove phosphorus efficiently in such small systems. External support from industry The project has been supported by altogether 6 companies. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment only one that could succeed. This is an area where there are no fixed solutions and one engineer was hired by the project to be in direct contact with the home-owners that had test-sites included in the project. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) Three international papers have been presented/ published one in a book on decentralised sanitation and reuse technology (DESAR), one poster at the 2nd IWA congress in Berlin this year and one recently published in an IWA conference in Japan. In addition 6 Finnish publications have been published out of which the final report is the most important. This one is written as a manual and will have a great positive impact on this area in Finland. As mentioned before, despite having an excellent English summary, the review team believes that the entire report should be translated into English. Invitations to international meetings As mentioned above there are three such invitations (DESAR conference, Wageningen, IWAcongress, Berlin and IWA-conference, Otsu, Japan). Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students There has been a lot of collaboration within Finland, but it seems that the collaboration outside the country has been meagre. Erkki Santala has, however, taken part in the CEN work on small wastewater treatment systems and has through this got many contacts. General evaluation of project/achievements The review team rates this project as a very good one. It is not a very scientific project and this should of course not be the main target for a project of this category. Most important is that the results of the project will definitely be very important in the coming years. Scientific originality The review team finds that the hands on approach that was chosen for this project was the 117

Project 6.2 Arsenic removal from drilled bedrock well water (ARPO) Finnish Environment Institute 1.8.1997 to 31.12.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The objective of this research was to investigate methods for arsenic removal from farm wells and to develop recommendations for effective, reliable and inexpensive equipment for arsenic removal at the domestic scale. The researchers responsible for the project: Staff at the Finnish Environment Institute (FEI) with Matti Valve, the project coordinator, performed this research. The head researcher changed during the project from Pauliina Kokkonen (from the start until 31.8.2000) to Pirjo Rantanen (from 1.9.2000 to the present). There was also research performed by Soile Heinonen at the Tampere University of Technology (TUT) and Hanna Kahelin of the Geological Survey of Finland (GSF). The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The project was executed in three main parts. The first two stages (ARPO 1 and 2) were performed between 1996 and 1997 and were aimed at the evaluation of commercially available technologies for arsenic removal. As both ARPO 1 and 2 did not find any particularly good results using the commercially available equipment, the final stage was directed towards the development of new point of use technology for arsenic removal, based on the outcomes of the first two stages. The final stage project commenced with laboratory experiments performed by the research staff at TUT, between 1998 and 1999, on some different adsorbent materials and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes that were felt would provide better arsenic removal than the commercially available systems. These tests were followed by the development and testing of point of use devices, based on the outcomes of the laboratory experiments. These were installed in a number of individual homes in arsenic affected areas in order to test their performance and acceptability. These field tests were followed up between 2000 and 2001 with a further series of tests to determine long-term performance and acceptability by the users. A final report is due to be completed by 31.12.2001. The presentation of the project during the hearing: The project was presented Matti Valve with support during discussions from Pirjo Rantanen. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results The project progressed well against the objectives with the development of both an adsorption and a reverse osmosis process, both of which were capable of removing arsenic to below the limit of 10 µg/l. The adsorption process was based on the use of activated alumina and this proved capable of continuous removal of arsenic to well below the limit concentration for a full years operation. The operating conditions and design criteria necessary for effective arsenic removal using this technology were defined. The reverse osmosis process proved less reliable, usually when there were elevated iron concentrations in the water, and only occasionally was able to achieve product water arsenic concentrations below the limit values. Development work did identify operating conditions and membrane types that would allow this RO process to meet the required performance goals, these included oxidation of As(III) to As(V) and the use of low RO operating pressures. 118

Most significant results obtained A technology for point of use arsenic removal was identified that proved suitable for the treatment of drinking water produced from individual household well water supplies. Progress according to plan delays Issues that were not addressed in the study and that need to be considered include: What can be done with the used adsorbent once it is loaded with arsenic. What are the long term maintenance issues. What operating practices and control strategies are required to ensure the end user operates and maintains the process correctly. Are there other adsorbents that could be used equally well instead of activated alumina. An economic assessment of the various approaches that the group are recommending. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme The initial research components of this project identified that there were no reliable commercially available technologies for arsenic removal at the small scale. The development of new technology that addressed these shortcomings is highly relevant to the needs of Finnish rural water consumers and to the development of Finland s technical competitiveness in water services. Relevance to Finland This project addresses the needs of Finnish water consumers that are dependent on drilled bedrock wells for their water supply. Over 3000, mainly rural, households in Finland are situated on groundwater sources that have levels of arsenic well above WHO guidelines for drinking water. Relevance to the international community Arsenic in groundwater is a major health issue in many other countries in the world, including Europe, the US, The Indian sub-continent, Africa and Australia. Low cost effective technologies are being developed in a number of countries to address these needs and the Finnish research fits well with this international work. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The market assessment identified the inability of commercially available technology to meet the needs of individual groundwater users. The development of new technology that meets these needs should have great potential commercial value for both the Finnish domestic market and international markets. The research group are currently negotiating with Oy WatMan Ab to commercialise the adsorption process. The US EPA has recently announced a tightening of standards for arsenic in drinking water supplies in the US; this should provide valuable international commercial opportunities for the Finnish companies associated with this research. External support from industry There was excellent industry support during this project from both Oy WatMan Ab and HOH Separtec Oy, both manufacturers of equipment for domestic point of use treatment of drinking water. There was also good cooperation from the City of Tampere and the community in Lempäälä where the field tests were performed. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality The use of activated alumina for arsenic removal is not new and has been studied before by other research groups outside Finland. However, this project identified a specific activated alumina that proved highly effective for arsenic removal in point of use devices. The application of this adsorption knowledge to the development of a reliable and effective product that was suitable for individual households was a worthwhile and relevant output from the project. The research would have benefited from a more thorough review of international research in this area, as the research team had not investigated some emerging technologies for arsenic removal that were known to the review panel. 119

Scientific production (review papers, other papers) Two articles were prepared for Finnish water journals. Poster presentations were given on this work at IWSA conferences in Buenos Aires and in San Diego. There were two oral presentations at national Finnish water seminars. An MSc thesis was prepared based on this research by Soile Heinonen at TUT. Information relating to arsenic removal arising from this research was disseminated to local Finnish health authorities. Invitations to international meetings None identified Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students None apart from the groups associated with the project. The growing demand for technology for arsenic removal worldwide and in the US should be used as a stimulus for this group to form strong international research links. General evaluation of project/ achievements This was a project with some potentially commercially valuable outcomes. It would have benefited from a deeper review of international trends in this area as the problem tackled is a common one globally. The output from the project should be more widely disseminated, especially in English to the international community, if the project partners are to benefit from the outcomes from this research. More work is required in order to fully develop a commercially viable product, this would best be supported by and performed in close collaboration with the equipment manufacturers. Project 6.3 Removal of radon from groundwater Finnish Environment Institute 1.8.97 to 29.2.98 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The objective of the project was to obtain new information in regard to the methods of radon removal from drilled wells and to work out working apparatuses for domestic use to reduce radon content in drinking water to a level that does not affect health. The researchers responsible for the project: The main researcher of the project was: Pauliina Kokkonen (earlier Myllymäki), FEI The project co-ordinator was: Tuomo Hatva, FEI The work was done in close co-operation with researchers at STUK, Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (see next project). The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The project began in spring 1995 as a joint research project between the Finnish Environment Institute (FEI), the Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK), and Helsinki University of Technology (HUT). The possibility of radon removal by aeration and filtration with activated charcoal filter was studied. At this stage three suppliers of equipment joined the project with the intentions of developing new apparatuses. Only the last stage of the research was financed by the Water Services 2001 programme. The presentation of the project during the hearing: During the hearing the project was presented by Pauliina Kokkonen (earlier Myllymäki). Present during the presentation and also active in the discussions were also Tuukka Turtiainen, STUK and Hannu Arvela, STUK. The project was well presented during the hearing. 120

Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results The project was simply aiming at gathering information in regards to the methods of radon removal and to test out apparatuses that could be used for this in private homes. These objectives were met even though the testing on the GAC filters could not be long-term tested within the project schedule. Most significant results obtained There were two major results: A manual on how such treatment plants are to be designed, purchased, installed, used and removed has been written, Several (4) companies brought products to the marketplace, out of which at least one is based on a new, competitive Finnish product. Progress according to plan delays The project progressed as planned and the work continued in another project (Safe use of device for removal of radionuclides) that also was linked to a larger EU-project (TENAWA) The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme Radon is a problem in groundwater from wells drilled in bedrock in Finland and since this influences a rather large number of people, it was very relevant to include this problem in this programme on water services in Finland. Relevance to Finland Based on what was said above, there was particular relevance to Finland from this project. Relevance to the international community It is probable that the problem of radon is more common in various countries than is currently known, simply because it is not monitored. Several countries will therefore benefit from this research done in Finland if the research is adequately published. The companies that have participated may use this advantage on the international market. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The fact that 3 companies were involved, one of which has produced a very competitive Finnish product, demonstrates that the ideas have already been commercialised well. This should be reflected in the international market. External support from industry Three companies were heavily involved in the project. At least one of them has made a good, promising product as a result of the initiatives taken in this project. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality The project does not have a high scientific profile. It is more development that science that has been carried out. Nevertheless, the findings of the project resulted in promising products and knowledge about how to deal with the radon problem an issue that was more scientifically studied in the follow-up project by STUK. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) Several Finnish-written publications came out the project of which the manual is probably the most valuable. One international conference paper came out of the project. Invitations to international meetings The conference paper mentioned above was presented at a conference in China. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students There was collaboration between FEI and STUK in the project but collaboration with groups outside Finland was first started when the follow-up in the EU-project TENAWA was started (1997). General evaluation of project/achievements We look at this project as primarily a pilot-project. It was very important for the other projects to follow, the project on Safe use of device for removal of radionuclides that also was linked to the larger EU-project (TENAWA). Probably this project was the door-opener to these other projects, that resulted in the fact that Finland today is one of the few countries with both research as well as commercial competence in this field. 121

Project 6.4 Safe use of radionuclide removal devices Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK) 1.2.2000 to 31.8.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The purpose of the research was to limit the negative impact of the radioactive substances in household water by investigating suitable equipment for this purpose. It was also an objective to produce an instruction manual for consumers and businesses operating in the field. The researchers responsible for the project: The main researcher of the project was (all from STUK): Pia Vesterbacka, Tuukka Turtiainen, Laina Salonen and Hannu Arvela. The latter one being the project co-ordinator. The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The research was divided into five different segments according to their subject. The first two parts were focussed on the removal of radon using various methods. The remaining three parts of the research dealt with the removal of long-lived radionuclides (uranium, radium, lead, and polonium). The third part concerned removal of these substances using ion exchange filters from different manufacturers. The fourth part dealt with simultaneous removal of several substances, and the fifth part researched binding of lead and polonium with particles of different sizes, and the impact of water treatment equipment on the distribution. A questionnaire was forwarded to the test locations where the water treatment equipment was installed. The questionnaires sought information on the experience of clients with the particular water treatment equipment. The purpose of this was to receive material for the subsequent instruction manual covering the entire range of subjects of the research. The research was carried out in the form of field research. The water treatment equipment was placed at locations with varying contents of radioactive substances, where there was also the presence of hazardous amounts of other substances like iron, manganese, humus, or fluoride in the water. The presentation of the project during the hearing: During the hearing the project was presented by Tuukka Turtiainen, STUK. Also present during the presentation and also active in the discussions were the project co-ordinator, Hannu Arvela, STUK, as well as Pauliina Kokkonen (earlier Myllymäki), FEI, who had presented the radon-project (project 6.3). The project was well presented during the hearing. Overheads presented and papers and reports produced in English were handed out. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results The aim of this project was to limit the negative impact of the radioactive substances in household water. This was achieved by partly investigating the problem as such and partly by investigating plants based on processes that had been investigated in the previous project. Even if not all aspects of the planned research could be carried out (for various reasons) one can say that the results obtained are very valuable and meet expectations. Most significant results obtained The most significant result is probably that one new, Finnish product for radon removal based on aeration was developed and one new and one improved device were developed for the simultaneous removal of radon, iron and manganese. 122

It is also significant that Finland has established itself as a competence centre on this issue. Progress according to plan delays The project has progressed more or less according to the plans. A new instruction manual for consumers and businesses is to be produced for 2002 and that may be a bit behind schedule. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme Radionucleides are a problem in groundwater from wells drilled in bedrock in Finland and since this influences a rather large number of people, it was very relevant to include this problem in this programme. Relevance to Finland Based on what was said above, the relevance for Finland is particularly high. Relevance to the international community The problem is also relevant to the international community because it is more frequent than probably thought. It is important for Finland in the marketing of products that competence has been built up in the country. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The potential for commercialisation of the aeration reactor primarily intended for radon removal seems to be very good. Also the adsorption devices intended for radon as well as removal of a combination of compounds seem to have a good market possibility External support from industry The support from industry seems to have been good. Six companies participated put of which at least four are in the market at this time. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) 2 scientific papers have been produced in a refereed journal (Journ. of Radioanal. and Nuclear Chem.) and another paper is on its way. This is a journal not frequently read by the scientific world of water treatment, so it is to be recommended that the work be also published in refereed water journals like Water Research. Invitations to international meetings There is no information on this, but the fact that the group took part in the European TENAWAproject together with 6 other European institutions from 5 other countries, indicate that international exchange has taken place to a large degree. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students See remark above regarding collaboration with other research groups. A MSc-thesis at HUT was connected to project. General evaluation of project/ achievements We look at this project as the more scientific follow-up of the project on Removal of radon from groundwater. The project holds good scientific quality. The benefits of having the project go along with the large EU-project (TENAWA) are appreciated. The best general result of the project is the fact that Finland today is one of the few countries with both research as well as commercial competence in this field. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality The scientific originality of this project is evaluated as being good. Not many researchers deal with these issues in the world and therefore it is of great interest in the scientific world of water treatment what has been done in this project. 123

Project 7.1 The effects of landfill leachate on the performance and capacity of a municipal wastewater treatment plant and the evaluation of the needs and methods for leachate pre-treatment (KAATO) University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences 1.3.1998 to 20.6.2000 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: 1. To develop procedures and methods in order to reduce leachate emission and environmental pollution from municipal solid waste landfills in the short and long run by Source management (e.g. waste segregation, landfill operation) On-site leachate treatment Off-site leachate treatment 2. To evaluate effects of landfill leachates on capability, performance, effluent quality and sludge quality in a sewage treatment plant The researchers responsible for the project: Jukka Rintala, University of Jyväskylä, project co-ordinator Riitta Kettunen, Tritonet Oy Sanna Marttinen, University of Jyväskylä Jari Jokela, University of Jyväskylä Kai Sormunen, University of Jyväskylä Pertti Keskitalo, Tritonet Oy Markus Soimasuo, Biomark Ky The project organisation shows an interesting cooperation with a university institute (University of Jyväskylä) and research oriented private company (Tritonet Oy) as well as a private research group Biomark Ky. Several (8) companies as well as 3 water and sewage works were involved. The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The project was carried out based on collaboration between several parties, 3 sewage treatment plant owners, 6 landfill operators, 4 associations, two consultants and the research team. The review team is very impressed by the fact that cooperation between such a diverse group has lead to such an excellent outcome from this project. This is proof of very good project management. The ambition of the project is similar to that of HAJASAMPO (project 6.1) to cover a broad, practical area of great importance to society. It is especially impressive that this project has managed to create very high quality research parallel to the practical task of improving Finland s competence in the handling of leachate area. Again this is proof of good project leadership. At the initial stage of the project several sizeable literature summaries on topics related to the formation and properties of landfill runoff water, as well as treatment of landfill runoff water, were prepared. The experimental part dealt with the properties of the landfill runoff water from currently used landfills, as well as the functioning of the initial treatment equipment for the landfill runoff water and treatment of such water at municipal wastewater treatment plants. Furthermore, laboratory and field tests related to the formation and treatment of landfill runoff water were carried out in the course of the project. In addition to full-scale plants, specific landfill runoff water treatment reactors and waste lysimeters simulating the landfill conditions were used in the tests. The tests related to treatment of landfill runoff water mainly monitored the highest pollution load factors of landfill runoff waters, i.e. organic matter (COD) and ammonia nitrogen. In order to achieve potential long-lasting purification results, and for the purpose of developing a process the researchers also monitored organic polluting compounds, metal, and toxicity determined in various ways (through algae, water flea and bacterial tests). 124

The presentation of the project during the hearing: During the hearing the project was presented by Riitta Kettunen, Tritonet Oy and Jukka Rintala, University of Jyväskylä, project co-ordinator. The project was extremely well presented. Overheads presented and papers and reports produced in English were handed out. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results As far as the review team can judge, all the objectives of the project were achieved. A handbook was written, source management as an option to reduce pollution from landfills was demonstrated, criteria and procedures for selection of a leachate treatment method was developed, sampling and analytical techniques were developed, an aquatic testing package was developed and an in-situ nitrification/denitrification system was developed. Most significant results obtained The most significant result is probably that a Handbook about formation and treatment of landfill leachate has been written (probably the most up-to-date reference book on this topic in the world today). The review team also identify as especially important, the development of an aquatic toxicity testing package for evaluation of leachate (and sewage) toxicity and treatment effectiveness. Progress according to plan delays The project has progressed according to the plans. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme Leachate from landfills represents a very serious source of water pollution both in Finland and in the rest of the world. This project is definitely very relevant to the Water Services 2001 programme. Relevance to Finland A new landfill leachate directive was launched in 1997 in Finland resulting in the fact that all landfill leachates have to be collected and treated from 2002 onwards. Therefore this project is of special relevance to Finland. Relevance to the international community This problem is also relevant to the international community. However, many countries have earlier been through a similar period of attention to leachate issues as is now happening in Finland. There is always development in an area such as this and therefore the Finnish research at this time can be expected to have an important influence, not only in Finland but also in the international community. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The approach of cooperation in this project is particularly recommendable. The fact that a private company has been so strongly involved will ensure that commercialisation will take place. Already the project has produced analytical methods as well as processes that can be commercialised. External support from industry The support from industry seems to have been good as 8 companies participated out of which at least 2 were directly involved in the research. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality The review team finds especially the scientific approach and the cooperation between members of the research team to be excellent. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) Riitta Kettunen used this project as the basis for her PhD-degree and two more PhD-students have been connected to the project. The research team has been very productive. At least 2 papers have been published/submitted to prestigious review journals and at least 3 papers have been presented at international conferences and probably will be published in review papers (Wat. Sci. Tech) at a later stage. 3 papers written in English have been presented at Finnish Conferences for Environmental Science. In addition to 125

this at least 8 Finnish written publications have been published. Invitations to international meetings Group members have been invited to present papers at the conferences mentioned above. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students While there has been strong collaboration, a similar collaboration with groups outside Finland is not evident. The research performed in this project has, however, led to a continued activity within an EU-project. General evaluation of project/ achievements The review team finds this project to be of the highest quality in all respects; science, methods, approaches, publications. It is a very impressive project the best in the whole Water Services 2001 Programme. It is quite interesting to note that the cost/benefit factor for this was particularly high as the cost was relatively low. Project 7.2 Reduction of the wastewater discharge in the electroplating industry (VESIPIN) VTT Manufacturing Technology 1.11.1997 to 31.12.1999 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The aim of this project was to investigate the scope and/or need for improvement in wastewater management in the electroplating industry and to develop procedures that would enable this industry sector meet current and emerging effluent discharge standards. The researchers responsible for the project: Staff from VTT Manufacturing Technology performed the research, with Amar Mahiout, the project leader, and Simo-Pekka Hannula, the project coordinator. The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The project was structured into two main components. The first component was aimed at reviewing wastewater treatment in the electroplating industries, encompassing literature and Finnish industrial practices, current and planned emission standards and the financial and economic background to this industry sector. The second stage of the project began with a survey of the project participants existing electroplating processes and wastewater treatment methods used. This was complimented by experimental work performed by the research team in collaboration with individual plating industry participants to develop solutions that met their specific needs. The presentation of the project during the hearing: The project was presented by Amar Mahiout, commencing with a brief overview of the activities of VTT and the VTT Manufacturing Technology division. He then followed with a project summary, concentrating on a few specific case studies that the research team had evaluated. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results A review of the Finnish electroplating industry was completed and represents a first for Finland. The literature review of technologies for treatment of wastewaters arising from the plating industry was well received by the electroplating industry with testimonials from some major electroplating equipment manufacturers attesting to its usefulness. Case by case studies with individual electroplating companies demonstrated that through the appropriate application of technology to their 126

waste streams discharge licence conditions could be met. Most significant results obtained VTT Manufacturing Technology established itself as a centre of excellence in the treatment of wastewater streams from the electroplating industry. Progress according to plan delays The project was executed according to plan to the satisfaction of the industry participants. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme This project was more related to industrial waste treatment and it was not made clear to the review panel how this impacted the water services industry of Finland. Relevance to Finland The project represented the first analysis of wastewater treatment in the Finnish electroplating industry where there are more than 2,000 companies working in this field. The project enabled the Finnish electroplating industry to evaluate how they could move their industry towards meeting current and future effluent discharge standards but it was not enumerated what impact this would have on general water and sludge qualities in Finland. Relevance to the international community Not of particular international relevance Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The execution of this project has enabled VTT Manufacturing Technology them to develop themselves into a centre of excellence for the Finnish electroplating industry. This puts VTT in a strong position to compete for consultancies with the plating industry to assist in managing the wastes from that industry sector. A major Finnish equipment supplier to the electroplating industry (Oy Galvatek Ab) was reportedly interested in developing new treatment technology, as a spin-off from this project, that may meet some of the needs of the plating industry in Finland and internationally. External support from industry There was good support from chemical and equipment suppliers to the electroplating industry. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality There was minimal scientific originality demonstrated in this project. Rather it applied knowledge of existing processes and practices into the development of tailor made solutions for individual plating industry members. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) All the output from this project was in Finnish, which is reasonable as it was intended to service the needs of the Finnish electroplating industry. A BSc thesis was prepared based on this project. There were a number of articles written for Finnish metal industry journals and also presentations to this industry sector. Invitations to international meetings The research group were invited to participate in the REWAS 99 Global Symposium on Recycling, Waste Treatment and Clean Technology, Spain, 1999 Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students There was collaboration with the Chemical Technology group at Helsinki University of Technology. Future collaboration is being developed with a number EU research initiatives that are directed towards solving various wastewater treatment and metals recovery and reuse issues in the European metal plating industry. General evaluation of project/ achievements This project addressed the needs of the electroplating industry and was of major importance to that industry in helping it develop solutions in wastewater management. It would have benefited from an analysis of how, by fixing the wastewater discharges from this industry sector, there may be follow on benefits to the wider water services sector in Finland. VTT Manufacturing Technology has positioned itself nicely through the execution of this project to become a centre of excellence for the electroplating industry in 127

Finland. The project budget 68 % was supported by funds from Tekes which, when the output is considered, makes it quite an expensive project. The cost benefit to Finland of public funds being directed towards assisting individual companies solve their waste problems was not enumerated. Project 7.3 Separation of heavy metal ions from effluent streams of plating lines using filter media made of recycled fibres VTT Manufacturing Technology 1.2.2000 to 31.12.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: The aim of this project was to develop an economical filtration process for the separation of heavy metal ions from metal plating wastewater streams, utilising a novel filter media developed from recycled newsprint. The researchers responsible for the project: The project was led by Jari Koskinen of VTT Manufacturing Technology and performed by other research staff from VTT which included Reima Lahtinen (VTT Manufacturing Technology) and Juha Heikkinen (VTT Energy). The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: The research progressed from initial laboratory experiments that were aimed at developing a filter precoat type material from recycled newsprint cellulose fibre that was capable of separating heavy metal ions from metal plating wastewater streams. Pilot filtration equipment was designed and built that would be able to utilise the novel fibre filtration media and this was then assembled into a filtration process pilot plant to enable testing of the concept. The pilot plant was then located at a number of participating plating companies to test the applicability of the system on these wastewater streams and to assess the process performance and economics. These pilot plant tests were followed by an analysis of how the filtration process could be applied generally within the plating industry. The presentation of the project during the hearing: Reima Lahtinen of VTT Manufacturing Technology presented the research project to the review panel. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results A filter media was developed from recycled newsprint fibre and was shown to be effective for the separation of copper, zinc, nickel and tin complexes from metal plating wastewaters. The effect of ph on the separation was determined and demonstrated that neutral ph gave the best performance; leading the research team to the conclusion that separation was by simple filtration of metal hydroxide floc particles. The optimum conditions for the use of the filter media in practice were determined. The removal efficiency of the pilot scale filter process was not as high as that achieved in the initial laboratory tests; the research team determined that this was more to do with the design of the filter equipment rather than the filter media and have developed suggested improvements to filter design to overcome these problems. Some options for the disposal and/or reuse of the used filter media were explored with data developed on dewaterability and regeneration. A method of acid regeneration of the media was developed but this produces another liquid waste stream that needs to be disposed of. Most significant results obtained A novel filter precoat material was developed from recycled newsprint and gave excellent removal efficiencies for heavy metal complex separation from metal plating wastewater streams. The filter media was produced from a waste product of the newsprint recycling industry and as such, reusing it in this manner not only assists the metal plating industry s wastewater treatment problems but helps solve a waste problem in the newsprint industry. 128

Progress according to plan delays The project had proceeded according to plan, however, the economic evaluation of the process had not been undertaken at the time of this review. The research team admitted that the step up from laboratory to pilot plant scale was too large and this resulted in mechanical problems with filter equipment that hampered the research effort. It resulted in the development of incidental problems that needed to be fixed before the filter media could be properly evaluated and caused some delay in evaluating the novel filter media with the metal plating industry. An analysis of how this technology compares to current technologies for metal plating waste clean up was not performed and would have been a valuable addition to this project. Also the results that were presented to the review panel did not demonstrate that this technique will allow the plating industry to meet current wastewater discharge requirements. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme This project is an industrial wastewater treatment project that aims to help solve the waste problems in the metal plating industry. It was not made clear to the review panel how this impacted the water services industry of Finland. Relevance to Finland The project addressed the wastewater treatment needs of the Finnish electroplating industry that comprises more than 2,000 companies. The project could lead to the development of technology that would enable the metal plating industry to meet discharge requirements although this was not enumerated. The use of a waste product from the recycling of newsprint and developing a new product based on this will be of value to the Finnish newsprint recycling industry. Relevance to the international community The treatment of wastewaters from metal plating is an international problem and this technology should be widely applicable. Also the recovery of a valuable product from what was a waste product of the newsprint recycling industry will be of interest to numerous counties where newsprint recycling is performed. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The recycled newsprint filter media is a commercially valuable product and the research team have applied for a Finnish patent to protect this idea. VTT and newsprint recyclers in Finland are currently negotiating how to commercialise this idea. A suitable commercial filter equipment manufacturer is being sought by VTT to partner them in commercialising the developments made in the filter system used in this process. External support from industry There was good support from the participating industry partners to this project. This included the recycled paper industry, filter equipment manufacturers and the metal plating industry. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality The development of the use of recycled newsprint fibre for the production of a precoat for filters used in the treatment of metal waste streams was a valuable contribution. It represents an original concept applied to the solution of a practical problem and hassled to the development of patentable new products and technology. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) There were three papers published in the international water and filtration fields. There was also a presentation made at the 7th Nordic Filtration Symposium in Copenhagen, August 2001. A VTT internal publication is currently being prepared (in Finnish) that summarises the outcomes of the project. Samuel Otava used elements of this research towards a thesis for a degree in engineering. A Finnish patent application has been filed (FI 20010635) based on the use of recycled cellulose fibres. Invitations to international meetings None identified. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students None identified. 129

General evaluation of project/ achievements This was a well-planned and executed project that was entirely performed by staff from VTT. It was an expensive project with an overall budget of over 340,000 EUR for a 23-month project, 64 % of the funds for the project were from Tekes. The project would have benefited from an initial feasibility study that would have looked at the technical and economic feasibility of this approach maybe performed at the end of the initial laboratory studies. The decision to proceed with the latter pilot plant trials should have been after a successful conclusion to the feasibility stage a critical milestone maybe. Under this model, the level of Tekes support would have been justified in the initial feasibility stage and then industry support should have been increased significantly for the latter development stage, as it was they who stood to benefit most from the outcomes. Project 8.1 Life cycle assessment and eco-efficiency of water and wastewater works Finnish Environment Institute 1.1.1998 to 2.5.2001 Presentation of the project The goals and objectives of the project: This research project was divided into two discrete but connected components. The first component aimed to use life cycle assessment (LCA) procedures to determine what overall impact water and wastewater services have on the environment. The second component of the project aimed to develop a systematic analytical method that could be used to measure the eco-efficiency of water and wastewater works. The researchers responsible for the project: The research was based at the Finnish Environment Institute (FEI) and included the following staff: Jyrki Tenhunen head researcher and project coordinator from 29.9.1998 Veli-Matti Tiainen project coordinator from 1.9.1998 to 29.9.1998 Jyri Seppälä Tiina-Kaisa Lohi The project also involved some research performed at the Tampere University of Technology by Jaana Oinonen. The execution of the project and division into sub-projects: As mentioned earlier, the project was divided into two discrete component parts. Part 1 was concerned with the use of LCA techniques to evaluate the impact of water and wastewater services on the environment. To achieve this aim, the researchers used the City of Tampere s water supply and sewage plants as a case study upon which to perform their analysis. This proceeded through an initial inventory analysis that was directed towards setting the system boundaries and collecting the necessary data for the LCA. Environmental impact categories were identified and included climate change, acidification, ozone formation, ecotoxicology, eutrophication and oxygen depletion. These categories were then weighted according to importance by surveying over 150 Finnish experts in environmental issues. This was followed by an impact assessment that focussed on the potential influences emissions and environmental loads had on the environment. The impacts of wastewater discharges were then compared to other environmental impacts that were relevant in Tampere, such as energy production, industry and road traffic. Part 2 was aimed at developing a methodology for assessing the ecological efficiency of operations and practices in the water industry. The method would be used to allow quantitative assessment of the ecological nature, economic feasibility and ser- 130

vice levels for water and sewage plants. It began through the development of the procedure based on established theories such as simple multi-attribute rating techniques (SMART). The attributes of ecoefficiency of water and wastewater systems were chosen and included improving the quality of products and services, decreasing emissions, decreasing consumption of natural resources and improving economy. There was then an identification of some specific sub-attributes of water and wastewater systems and corresponding indicators that could be used to measure the eco-efficiency. The eco-efficiency index was then calculated using a simple additive model that allowed for the relative weighting of each sub-attribute. The weighting of the sub-attributes were determined using a panel method with the panel comprising 17 experts working in the water and wastewater works in Tampere, Helsinki and Turku and 11 specialists who work in the environmental field. The eco-efficiency model was then applied to the water and wastewater works of Helsinki, Tampere and Turku. The presentation of the project during the hearing: The project was presented by Jyrki Tenhunen of the FEI and assisted during discussion by Jyri Seppälä also from the FEI. Evaluation of the project The extent to which the objectives of the project were achieved: Obtained results versus planned results In Part 1, a LCA technique was developed and utilised effectively to analyse the environmental impact of Tampere Waterworks. It was used to identify the major impacts that water and wastewater services put on the environment and to compare these impacts with those of other sectors of the economy. In Part 2, an eco-efficiency model was developed and used to quantify and analyse changes in eco-efficiency with time for the water and wastewater works of the cities of Helsinki, Tampere and Turku. It enabled the relative changes in efficiency of the component attributes to be determined and compared. Most significant results obtained In Part 1, the LCA for Tampere Waterworks gave important information for decision-makers developing environmental policy. Based on the analysis it was possible for the researchers to demonstrate that the overall benefits of wastewater treatment in Tampere far outweighed the hazards associated with that treatment. The study also demonstrated that 70 % of the environmental impact of Tampere Waterworks is as a result of eutrophication caused by wastewater discharges. Recovery of useful products such as energy and fertiliser from the wastewater treatment plant greatly reduces the environmental impact of wastewater treatment. In Part 2, the eco-efficiency model showed that there had been a steady improvement in eco-efficiency of the water and sewage plants with time for the cities of Helsinki and Tampere whereas a similar trend for Turku was not seen. The model demonstrated the benefit of such an approach for examining the relative merits of various development alternatives, based not just on economics but also ecological impacts. Progress according to plan delays The project was well planned and the stated objectives were achieved in a timely manner. The influence of social factors and consumer attitudes was not included in this analysis but would be necessary if this approach were to be used to identify truly sustainable solutions for water and wastewater services. The technological relevance of the project: Relevance in relation to programme The project in both its component parts is highly relevant for the water services industry as it provides a methodology for analysing not just the economic merit of development alternatives but also the relative ecological impact of alternatives. Relevance to Finland This analysis has proved a useful tool for evaluating the water and wastewater plants in three of Finland s cities. It will be of value throughout Finland by the water sector when planning future investments, whether they are to meet the current or future needs of this industry. It pro- 131

vides essential information by which current and alternative approaches can be measured and thus should be of value to all stakeholders in the Finnish water industry, including consumers, the water industry, regulators and financiers. Relevance to the international community Research into this approach for analysing developments in the water services sector is being performed internationally. This study adds a valuable contribution to the development of these analytical tools and should raise the profile of Finnish research internationally. Industrial (commercial) relevance: Potential for commercialisation The aim of this work was not to develop a commercially valuable product or process but rather to develop tools for analysing and assessing development alternatives and for developing environmental policy in the water services sector. It may be that the methodology could form the basis of software or expert systems that may be of some commercial value. The development of skills that enable consultancy in this area by the FEI or its research partners may be another commercial outcome from this research. External support from industry The support of the water industry in Helsinki, Tampere and Turku was very good and enabled the project to develop realistic tools that are relevant to the water industry. Scientific quality/quality of the scientific environment Scientific originality This is a fertile area of work internationally and these researchers have applied the outcomes of the most appropriate international research to the needs of Finland s water industry and environment. In as much as it addresses the needs of Finland, it is original, as no other such work has been attempted in Finland for the local conditions that exist here. Scientific production (review papers, other papers) There have been numerous publications relating to the outcomes of this work written in Finnish for the local water industry and environmental groups. The LCA study was presented at the Paris IWA Conference in 2000 and the eco-efficiency model results at the IWA conference in Berlin, 2001. Invitations to international meetings Researchers attended the SETAC workshop, which is an international organisation, aimed at developing cooperation in the use of LCA techniques. Collaboration with other research groups/ visiting scientists/students None was undertaken supposedly because of a lack of time. General evaluation of project/achievements This was a well-executed and thorough project that will have long-term ramifications for the way development alternatives and environmental policy is evaluated. Transfer of the knowledge and techniques used during the project to other environmental professionals, active in this area in Finland, would have been greatly facilitated if there had been better cooperation with other research institutions during the project. It is important if the outcomes of this work are to become adopted that this transfer of knowledge is encouraged to occur to as wide an audience as possible, including environmental research institutions and activist groups, the water industry, consultants, regulators and policy makers. 132

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