Running head: DISSERTATION PROPOSAL MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHER CERTIFICATION

Middle School Teacher Certification 1 Running head: DISSERTATION PROPOSAL MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHER CERTIFICATION AN EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TYPE OF TEACHER CERTIFICATION OF MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHERS AND STUDENT READING, WRITING, AND MATH ACHIEVEMENT A PROPOSAL In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education

Middle School Teacher Certification 2 ABSTRACT The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between middle school certification requirements and student achievement of eighth graders on the Alaska State Benchmark Exams in reading, writing, and math. The impact of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) requirement to have a highly qualified teacher in every classroom, by the 2005-06 school year, is significant to the research project. Also pertinent to this research are the areas of teacher quality and teacher certification and the relationship to middle school student achievement. Results are interpreted relative to student s social economic status, teacher experience, teacher preparation and the opportunity for student learning. INTRODUCTION The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) amends the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) by making significant changes in federal programs that support schools (USDOE, 2002b). A major objective of NCLB is to ensure high quality teachers for all students, regardless of race, ethnicity or income. The premise of identifying highly qualified teachers is based on research that demonstrates the connection between student academic achievement and teacher quality (Darling- Hammond & Sykes, 2003; Whitehurst, 2002a). Other studies indicate that many classrooms, particularly those with disadvantaged students have a disproportionate number of teachers who are not considered highly qualified (Darling-Hammond, Berry & Thoreson, 2001; Ingersoll, 1999).

Middle School Teacher Certification 3 NCLB requires that teachers meet three requirements: (a) hold a bachelor s degree; (b) obtain a full state certification (alternative certification included) and (c) demonstrate subject matter competency in core subjects the teacher teaches (USDOE, 2002b). Full state certification is determined in accordance with state policy. States may include alternative routes to certification via programs that allow candidates to teach while they are meeting the state certification requirements or create their own alternative route such as an assessment of competence. The law also emphasizes core subjects which include English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign language, civics and government, economics, arts, history and geography. Beginning with the 2002-03 school year, teachers in core academic subjects in Title I programs must meet all requirements. By the end of the 2005-06 school year, all teachers of core academic subjects must meet all the requirements in any state receiving federal funds. States are working intensely to put into place support systems to help teachers demonstrate they are highly qualified. The demonstration is clear and straightforward, for those teachers holding a certification in a core content area with a corresponding college major. For other teachers, the need to demonstrate core content knowledge comes through a test or Highly Objective Uniform State System of Evaluation (HOUSSE) process to be developed by states (USDOE, 2002b). One area of considerable consternation in school districts is the middle school teacher. Generally, a middle school teacher can hold a K-8 elementary (generalist) or a 7-12 core area certification. This certification flexibility reflects the middle school teacher preparation debate. The National Middle School Association, (NMSA)(1995) argues that middle school is transitional and the students need a holistic, caring approach versus the

Middle School Teacher Certification 4 approach that educators must prepare the students academically for high school and beyond, the core content approach (Goldharber & Brewer, 1998). NCLB legislation promotes the latter certification as the most beneficial to students. The study examines the relationship between teacher certification and student achievement at the middle school level. The research question is: Does the type of teacher certification held by middle school teachers influence middle school student performance on 8 th grade state benchmark tests in reading, writing, and math? LITERATURE REVIEW The review of the literature provides the context and rationale for the study. First, the literature review establishes the connection of teacher quality to student achievement. Secondly, the review discusses teacher certification as the regulatory standard for determining qualified teachers. And finally, the discussion covers middle school teacher qualifications and student achievement. All of these topics are influenced by the NCLB mandates for highly qualified teachers in the classrooms and, as a result, NCLB information is integrated throughout the literature review. Teacher Quality A strong connection between teacher quality and students achievement is emerging as a key linkage in defining quality teaching (Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003). It is a reflection of how critical a teacher is to student learning. In fact, Darling- Hammond and Sykes (2003) indicate that the majority of parents and the public believe that having well qualified teachers in the classroom is the best way to improve schools. In

Middle School Teacher Certification 5 a like manner, professional educational organizations are addressing teacher quality and student achievement in public discussion. The National Board for Professional Teacher Standards (NBPTS), the Interstate New Teachers Assessment Support Consortium, (INTASC), and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) all reflect in their standards teacher quality in light of student achievement (Mitchell, Robinson, Plake & Knowles, 2001). In 1987, the NBPTS was established as a method to challenge and reward quality teachers (NBTS, 2003). Teachers submit performance-based assessments, student worksamples, videotapes, and complete an analysis of classroom teaching and student learning. Teachers submissions are peer reviewed against established criteria. The goal is to establish the characteristics and reinforce those teaching practices of quality teachers. In the first effort to evaluate the program, Goldhaber (2003) completed a study of 200,000 North Carolina teachers from 1997-2000. He analyzed data on race, gender, age, standardized test scores and job placement. Of those teachers, 4,000 had applied for NBPTS certification. He found that African-American teachers were more likely than their white counterparts to apply for National Board certification and less likely to receive the credential. Black teachers made up 13 percent of the applicant pool but only had a four percent success rate. Educators that did receive approval had higher standardized test scores and worked in higher performing schools located in more affluent communities. On the positive side, the study shows that the NBPTS system can identify and reward teachers who perform well on such tests as Praxis II and SAT and Graduate Record Exams, all predictors of teacher knowledge. In an effort to raise teacher quality, the NBPTS study confirms the need for additional research. As the demographics of our schools shift, the

Middle School Teacher Certification 6 importance of ethnically diverse teachers is essential. It is important to have a certification system that is equitable for all. While the connection between teacher quality and student achievement is relatively new, the federal government, as well as, the public has quickly embraced the concept (Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003; Education Week, 2003). Because teacher certification has been established as the methodology to ensure teacher quality over the years, researchers and practitioners are rethinking what role teacher certification plays in the effort to have a highly qualified teacher in every classroom. In response to various proposals and opinions on the necessity and effectiveness of teacher certification, Hirsch (2003) states, it is not that licensing and qualifications do not matter; it is that they must be meaningfully tied to knowledge, skills and actual classroom performance if they are to have demonstrable connection to student results (p. 4). Teacher Certification Teacher certification is a regulatory practice employed by the states to ensure that schools have a quality professional in every classroom. Teacher Certification is defined as the formal approval to teach in a public school. Approval is based on candidates meeting specific requirements established by state regulation and reviewed by the state agency to verify that teacher preparation requirements have been fulfilled. All 50 states have a certification process in place for certifying teachers (Education Week, 2003). In general, certification requires the completion of coursework (usually an undergraduate degree) in education and the subject matter they intend to teach (Wang, Coleman, Coley & Phelps, 2003; Lackzo-Kerr & Berliner, 2002; Walsh, 2001). Twenty-three states require at least 30 credits in a subject area or subject major in addition to completion of other specified

Middle School Teacher Certification 7 course work. In addition, 37 states require teachers pass a basic skills test in reading, writing, and mathematics to obtain certification and 29 states require a subject specific pedagogy exam (Wang, Coleman, Coley & Phelps, 2003). The certification process itself is over 150 years old. During that time the debate over who certifies teachers and how certification is done has been and continues to be hotly debated (Lackzo-Kerr & Berliner, 2002). As an example, Education Secretary Rod Paige recently stirred the pot when he suggested a revamping of the certification system for licensing teachers (O Neill, 2003). He dismissed the value of education coursework and called for new ways for college graduates to enter the teaching profession. In the United States Department of Education (USDOE) report on Title II, Meeting the Highly Qualified Teachers Challenge, the secretary makes four claims (2002a). First, rigorous research indicates that verbal ability and content knowledge are the most important attributes of highly qualified teachers. Secondly, there is little evidence that education school course work leads to improved student achievement. Thirdly, today s certification system discourages some of the most talented candidates from entering the profession while allowing too many poorly qualified individuals to teach. Finally, alternative routes to certification demonstrate that streamlined systems can boost the quantity of teachers while maintaining or even improving their quality (USDOE, 2002). The research in the report has been criticized regarding the lack of peer review and the quality and rigor of the research (Darling-Hammond & Youngs, 2002; Heap, 2002). The assertions have added fuel to a heated debate among leading researchers in the field of teacher preparation (Darling-Hammond & Youngs, 2002; Walsh, 2001; Ballou & Podgursky, 2000; Darling Hammond, 2000; Ballou & Podgursky, 1999). Laczko-Kerr & Berliner (2002) report in a

Middle School Teacher Certification 8 literature review that (a) subject matter is an important, but not sufficient factor in certified teacher s success with mathematics and science students in upper grades, (b) teachers who have training in pedagogy out perform teachers without such training and (c) traditionally certified teachers teaching in their area of certification out perform both certified teachers teaching out of field and alternatively certified teachers. They also indicate that to each of these conclusions there are prominent dissenters (Walsh, 2001; Ballou & Podgursky, 1999; Miller, McKenna, & McKenna, 1998). It is apparent that the research is not conclusive and that agreement does not exist about what constitutes a highly qualified teacher or what constitutes an effective certification system. As a result, additional field studies are needed to confirm or disconfirm the importance of teacher certification on student achievement. In a review of research on teacher certification and student achievement, three areas of research emerge. First, research relative to a teacher s subject matter knowledge, particularly in math and science, has been investigated as a foundation for teacher quality (Fetler, 1999; TIMSS, 1999; Goldharber & Brewer, 1996). Second, research on teacher certification and pedagogy has focused on the skills teachers need to teach (Wilson, Floden, Ferrini-Mundy, 2002; Darling Hammond, 2000). Third, research on traditional certification and alternatives to it has become a key factor in the teacher preparation debate (Wang. Coleman, Coley & Phelps, 2003; Darling-Hammond, Berry & Thorenson, 2001). All three areas have importance in the debate but none have a clear direction defined by research. Teachers subject matter knowledge

Middle School Teacher Certification 9 As indicated earlier, NCLB favors those that assert that subject matter knowledge is a foundation for teacher quality and discounts the need to balance teacher preparation with education classes. The demonstration of highly qualified is manifested in the requirement that teachers have a major in a core content subject. The National Commission on Teaching and America s Future (NCTAF, 2002) published criteria to help states define highly qualified teacher. First on their list of criteria is that teachers possess a deep knowledge of the subjects they teach (p. 1). In a study by Ferguson (1991), a positive relationship was found between teacher expertise and student s reading and mathematic achievement gains. Monk (1994) also reported a positive relationship between gains in student performance and teachers course work in their subject matter. In addition, the 1999 Trends in International Math and Science Study (TIMSS) report analyzed the majors of 8 th grade mathematics teachers to determine what type of teacher preparation they had in an effort to determine why students in the United States are low performing in comparison to other countries. The report found that 8 th grade students in the United States were less likely than those in other countries surveyed to have teachers with mathematics or mathematics education as a major of study. In fact, only 61% of students in the United States were taught by teachers with mathematic majors (TIMSS, 1999). The research in this area is more consistent and generally indicates that high school math and science teachers with a major have higher achieving students than teachers who are teaching out of field (Whitehurst, 2002; Golhaber & Brewer, 1998; Monk, 1994; Monk & King, 1994). However, that position is not without contradiction. The 2000 NAEP found no relationship between math scores at 4 th grade and teachers major (NCES, 2001). Rowan (2002) also found no relationship between a math or

Middle School Teacher Certification 10 English major and student achievement scores in math and reading at the elementary level. The implication is that teacher subject matter knowledge may not be directly linked to achievement in elementary classrooms. One of the criticisms of teacher certification is that graduates of traditional teacher preparation programs are weak in subject matter. In a landmark study conducted by Educational Testing Service on scores on its Praxis II exam (used by 23 states to measure content knowledge of teachers), 91percent of graduates from colleges accredited by the National Council of Accreditation of Teachers Education (NCATE) passed the content exam, compared with 73 percent who did not study teacher preparation (Gitomer & Latham, 1999). The study contradicts those critical of teacher preparation programs by asserting that the programs are not adequately preparing teachers in science and math (Walsh, 2001;Ballou & Podgursky, 2000). Other researchers discount the value of subject matter alone as the critical ingredient to quality teaching (Hirsch, 2003; Darling-Hammond, 2000). Hirsch, in a critical reflection, states, qualifications, in terms of licensing, have been used by states to set one basic, minimal level of competence largely in the area of content knowledge as it is the easiest and most cost efficient to assess and not much more (p.4). Proponents, such as Hirsch, advocate for the importance of teacher pedagogy as a mandatory part of teacher preparation. Teacher certification and pedagogy Pedagogy is defined as the art or practice of teaching, especially systemized learning or instruction concerning the principals and methods of teaching (Webster, 2002). Teachers must have the knowledge and skills they need to teach so that all children can

Middle School Teacher Certification 11 learn (NCTAF, 2000). Pedagogical knowledge incorporates knowledge of the students understanding and misconceptions about the subject, pedagogical strategies pertinent to the subject, curricular materials and what it means to teach (Ringstasff & Sandholtz, 2002). Teachers acquire pedagogical expertise through teacher education programs, experience and professional development activities. As a result, increased attention is focused on how teachers are prepared. NCTAF (2000) recommends that teacher preparation should include both content and pedagogy. Stronge (2003), in a meta-analysis reports that teachers with traditional education preparation are better able to recognize individual student differences; those without educational coursework frequently have difficulties with classroom management, student motivation, and using specific teaching strategies. Similarly, Monk (1994) concluded that coursework in subject matter pedagogy appears to contribute more to student performance than the academic courses in the subject taught. The value of pedagogical preparation and the link to student performance plays an important role in the discussion to follow on teacher certification and alternate routes of teacher preparation. Teacher certification and alternatives An ongoing debate revolves around the issue of teacher certification, itself. There are commonly three types of teacher certificates, traditional, alternative, and emergency (provisional) (Qu & Becker, 2003; Lackzo-Kerr & Berliner, 2002). Traditional certificates require a bachelor s degree in education, successful completion of student teaching under supervision of a mentor teacher and in most states a basic skills exam. Alternate certificates, often, require a bachelor s degree, but the degree does not have to be in education. It allows individuals to teach while meeting supervised teaching practice

Middle School Teacher Certification 12 requirements through on the job experiences or similar opportunities (Darling-Hammond, Berry & Thoreson, 2001). Forty-five states and the District of Columbia offer alternative teacher certification programs. The programs are increasing in popularity, particularly, to help resolve the shortage of under-represented cultural groups, help staff urban and high poverty schools, and aid mid-career professionals transition to a teaching career (Wang, Coleman, Coley & Phelps, 2003). An emergency certificate has minimal requirements and is used primarily to cover hard to fill classrooms when a shortage of candidates emerges (Wang, Coleman, Coley and Phelps, 2003). Forty-six states grant emergency licenses to untrained applicants (Darling-Hammond and Cobb, 1996). In some instances, a provisional certificate may be issued under similar or modified conditions in lieu of an emergency certificate (Qu & Becker, 2003). The purpose of certification is to validate the quality of teachers (Lackzo-Kerr & Berliner, 2002). However, inconsistencies make it difficult to determine the relationship of teacher certification to other factors such as student achievement. Researchers have not consistently found a relationship between teacher certification and student achievement (Qu & Becker, 2003). As stated previously, states require some sort of certification in order for teachers to work in public schools. Many states have a provisional certificate awarded to entry level teachers that may still need to meet some state requirement for full certification (Qu & Becker, 2003; Education Week, 2004) In this case, a provisional certificate is a temporary pass and teachers holding the certificate are non-certified until the requirements are filled. As a result, teachers without full certification are often the least experienced teachers. This leads to difficulty in comparing student achievement of certified and non-certified teachers because of age and

Middle School Teacher Certification 13 experience bias (Whitehurst, 2002b). However, in a widely cited study, Darling- Hammond (1999) completed research using the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) at the state level and compared it to the percentage of fully certified teachers. She reported that teacher qualifications accounted for a 40 to 60 percent variance across states in average achievement levels on the NAEP 4 th and 8 th grade reading and mathematics assessment. Supporters of teacher certification claim that certification is necessary to maintain quality of the profession. Stronge (2003) in a recent meta-analysis of research states that the proportion of well-qualified and certified teachers within a state is one of the most consistent predictors of student test scores in reading and math. In another major study, Lackzo-Kerr and Berliner (2002) focused on 293 teachers in grades 3-8 in five Arizona school Districts. The schools were urban and enrolled a high percentage of poor students. The teachers were divided into certified and under-certified groups (emergency or provisional licenses or participating in an alternative certification route, Teach For America). The researchers matched the unlicensed teachers with licensed teachers at the same grade level, same school and with similar years of experience. The standardized tests of the students were compared. Students with certified teachers performed 20 percent better on the tests than the students with non-certified teachers. The findings of a comparison of alternative route teachers with certified teachers found similar results. A second issue is alternative certification. As a result of a shortage of qualified teacher applicants in some core content areas, alternative routes to certification have emerged (Wang, Coleman, Coley & Phelps, 2003). Prominent alternative route programs

Middle School Teacher Certification 14 such as Teach America (Walsh, 2001) and Troops to Teachers (Whitehurst, 2002) are examples of alternative routes to certification. Qu & Becker (2003), in a meta-analysis, found that traditional teacher training is at least as effective as alternate-route training and more effective than minimal (emergency) certification (p. 40). They report that an important predictor of differences in teacher preparation effectiveness was the location where teachers studied. Researchers also are interested in comparing student achievement of certified teachers versus alternative certified teachers or provisionally certified teachers and alternative certified teachers. Goldhaber and Brewer (1998) analyzed data from students that participated in the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988. They found that teacher certification for 10 th grade students and student test scores were not significantly related. Likewise, Miller, McKenna and McKenna (1998) matched 41 alternative teachers with 41 traditionally trained teachers within the same school. The results reported found no significant differences in student achievement. A third area of concern is out-of-field teaching. Out-of-field teaching is defined as a certified teacher in one core content area that is actually teaching in another area (Qu & Becker, 2003). For example, an individual with a degree and certification in mathematics is teaching English. It is important to consider the impact of out-of-field teaching on student achievement as part of the certification discussion. The impact of out-of-field teachers seems to vary depending on school and class organization at the elementary, middle and high school levels. The National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES, 2002) reports that the impact at the elementary level is minimal as a result of limited class rotations or instruction by department. In contrast, the

Middle School Teacher Certification 15 middle schools have a higher rate than either high school or elementary students of out-offield teachers. Even though the rate of out-of-field teachers is lower at the high school, the potential for out-of-field teaching is high. The instructional content is more demanding and a wider variety of content is offered. For the school year 1999-2000, NCES reports between 11 and 22 percent of the students enrolled in English, mathematics, science, foreign language, social science and history were taught by teachers without a major, minor or certification in the subject taught. At the same time, 29 to 40 percent of middle school students enrolled in the sciences and ESL/bilingual classes had teachers who did not have a major, minor or certification in the subject taught. In a further analysis of the middle grades, 73 percent of the students in mathematics, 58 percent in English, 61 percent in foreign language and 57 percent in science had teachers without a major or certification in the subject taught (when the minor qualification is removed). Similarly, Ingersoll (1999) found a high incidence rate of teachers teaching subject matter outside their areas of preparation, particularly in classrooms of low-income students. Finally, Qu & Becker (2003) compared fully qualified teachers and provisionally qualified teachers to out of field teachers. The main finding between the two comparisons is that experienced teachers with full certification have more impact on student achievement than teachers with less experience. When a teacher is assigned to teach out of field, the lack of experience in the new area seems to make a difference. The last issue related to teacher certification is the variation of state licensure requirements. This makes the comparison of aggregate data across states is very difficult. The use of aggregate data is one of the strong criticisms of the previously mentioned 1999 Darling-Hammond study (Walsh, 2001; Whitehurst, 2002b). The criticism is related to

Middle School Teacher Certification 16 aggregation bias. Students do not experience an average level of certification, they experience a teacher who is or is not certified. The review of the literature is based on an assumption that meeting licensing or certification requirements results in a quality teacher that reflects the standards sought through NCLB legislation. Because teacher certification has been established as the methodology to ensure teacher quality over the years, researchers and practitioners are rethinking what role teacher certification plays in the effort to have a highly qualified teacher in every classroom. The emphasis on teacher quality has been driven by the recognition of researchers, parents and the public that teachers are critical to a student s learning (Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003). As the above discussion indicates, researchers are in conflict about teacher certification. Indeed, three major areas of certification research (subject matter, pedagogy and alternative certification) are hotly debated. However, a few observations can be made. First, in the areas of math and science, subject matter preparation seems to make a difference in student achievement. Second, it does appear that the least qualified teachers teach low-income, disabled and bilingual students. Third, the experience level of out-of-field teachers influences the performance of their students. Fourth, it appears that middle school students are at highest risk for out-of-field teachers, The next part of the literature review will address, in particular, the relationship between teacher certification and student achievement in middle school. Middle School Under NCLB, middle schools are treated differently depending on whether they are designated as an elementary or high school (USDOE, 2002). Middle Schools share the

Middle School Teacher Certification 17 same testing or adequate yearly progress requirements as elementary schools. The NCLB standards for teacher quality may differ, however, if a middle school is in a K-12 institution, but considered a separate school with in a school. Teacher quality designated for high schools demand that teachers hold a major in each subject taught. This standard applies to middle schools with a secondary designation (Alliance for Educational Excellence, 2003). Middle schools will likely be hit the hardest as they struggle with teachers particularly in sixth grade, on elementary licenses who will now have to become highly qualified using the secondary definition. (Hirsch, 2003). In a study of 60 new middle school teachers in Philadelphia, Useem, (2000) found that: Sixty-five percent of new teachers held an elementary certificate (K-6) Eight percent had a secondary certificate (7-12) Twenty-seven percent were apprentice teachers with an emergency credential, two thirds of whom were studying for an elementary certificate. Only 14 percent of the new teachers had done their student teaching in the seventh or eighth grade; Seventy-four percent student taught in grades K-5. Six of the 60 teachers said they preferred to teach middle grades more than any other school level. Only 10-17 percent (depending on the field) were well qualified to teach in the subject areas to which they had been assigned, meaning a college major or minor or at least four academic courses in that area. More than a third appeared to be poorly prepared (as high as 42 percent in Reading/Language Arts) for teaching in their subject area.

Middle School Teacher Certification 18 It is evident the Philadelphia school system has hired a majority of non-qualified teachers for middle schools. One of the mantras often heard is that teacher quality is the most important factor explaining growth in student achievement (Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003; Goldhaber, 2002). An assumption that could be made is that school districts with an under-qualified work force similar to Philadelphia s would result in lower student achievement. For example, Cooney (2000) reported that only 20% of eighth graders in the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) states reached proficiency in mathematics and fewer than one third reached proficiency in reading. SREB also surveyed nearly 1100 SREB middle grade teachers in 28 schools and 13 states and found 30 percent have subject matter majors and 43 percent had elementary majors (Cooney, 2000). In a further analysis of teacher certification and eighth grade achievement on the NAEP mathematics exam, a difference in achievement was found in every mathematics course, especially the most advanced courses (algebra and geometry). Perhaps, middle school achievement results such as Cooney and SREB report are related to teacher quality as defined by NCLB. Cooney prompts educators to ask: Why aren t students learning more in middle grades? Are middle grade teachers prepared to teach the necessary content? Do we need a special certification and preparation requirements specifically for middle school teachers? (p.1) METHODOLOGY Setting and Participants The research project will use extant data available through a large northwest school district. The participants will be the 8 th grade math and language arts teachers at

Middle School Teacher Certification 19 the middle school level that currently hold a valid teacher certificate to teach at that level and their students test scores from the 8 th grade state benchmark tests in math, reading and writing. Procedures The teachers will be divided into two groups, math and language arts (LA). Each major group will be divided into two further subgroups: Language Arts Group A will be those teachers that hold a K-8 or similar certificate that indicates a generalist background and Language Arts Group B will be those that hold a 7-12 or similar language arts certificate (see Table 1). Likewise, two math groups will be determined using the same criteria. Table 1 Types of certification assigned to K-8 and 7-12 groups K-8 Elementary Certification 7-12 Subject Matter Certification Elementary Education K-8 Elementary Education 5-8 Elementary Education Middle 5-9 Integrated Studies Middle 5-9 Special Education w/o subject ESL w/o subject Math Secondary 7-12 Math Middle School 6-9 English Secondary 7-12 English Middle 6-9 Language Arts Secondary 7-12 Language Arts Middle 6-9 Reading K-12 Special Education w/ subject ESL w/ subject

Middle School Teacher Certification 20 Two years of academic data will be used because the state benchmark test in math was revised prior to the 2002 school year so earlier data would not be consistent with current test results. While the data is already available for the 2002-03 school year, the 2003-04 data will not be available until spring of 2004. Teacher certification by cell size is noted in Table 2 for the 2002-03 school year. Data for 2003-04 is estimated to be similar in size. Table 2 Number of teachers by certification type during the 2002-2003 school year Type of certification Math LA K-8 Elementary Certification 13 14 7-12 Subject Matter Certification 10 14 Each participant will be analyzed through the use of district or state identification numbers. Actual names will be omitted to provide confidentiality for students and teachers. The student data available for 2002-03 school year will be based on class lists as of June 6, 2003. The student data for 2003-04 will be based on class lists as of February 17, 2004, the actual date of the administration of the test. As a result, there may be some discrepancies of class assignment between the testing dates in March of 2003 and the final class list. Some students will have transferred teachers, as an example. The categorical data available are reflected in Table 3.

Middle School Teacher Certification 21 Table 3 Data Category Teacher Information District ID Number Gender Assignment Code School Location Certification and Endorsements Class List College Major Years of Experience Ethnicity Student information State/District ID Gender Course Enrolled School Location Benchmark Test Scores, Math, Reading and Writing Grade Level SES (Free and Reduced lunch) Ethnicity Measures (Alaska Benchmark Tests) The Alaska Benchmark Test is a scaled test. Results are reported both in numerical fashion and in one of four rating categories with cutoff scores: advanced (4), proficient (3), below proficient (2) and not proficient (1). The State Department of Education and Early Development (DEED) establishes the cutoff scores for each level. Both types of student scores are available for the research project. The data for identifying socio-economic status (SES) students has some limitations. Free and reduced lunch qualifiers and high school waivers are the markers used by the district to identify SES. District policy has very strict guidelines on the release of information regarding these

Middle School Teacher Certification 22 students identities. In this case, identification numbers are not available. However, the district is willing to give the children s scores and the teacher s names for the student registered for math or language arts classes. This will allow an indirect identification of a group of students for further analysis. In addition, information will be gathered from the State of Alaska, Department of Education and Early Development about the standards for issuance of a teacher certificate, particularly the standards required for teacher preparation. A review of the state university systems in Alaska, Washington, and Oregon for teacher certification will also be conducted. Specifically, the requirements for preparation in reading, writing and math will be collected. The majority of teacher applicants are trained through Alaska, Washington, and Oregon systems. Finally, information will be collected from the district about curriculum requirements for middle school students. RESULTS As stated earlier, the research question for this dissertation is: Does the type of teacher certification held by middle school teachers influence middle school student performance on 8 th grade state benchmark tests in language arts and mathematics? The independent variable is the type of teacher certification, K-8 elementary or 7-12 math or language arts certification. The dependent variables are the Alaska Benchmark Scores in reading, writing and math of students in the respective classrooms. Potential confounding variables are (a) social economic status of the students, (b) the number of years of teaching experience, (c) teacher preparation requirements and (d) the opportunity students had to learn. Information regarding SES and teacher experience will be included in the demographic information obtained from the district. An analysis of the preparation

Middle School Teacher Certification 23 teachers received, particularly reading and writing as a component of language arts preparation, will be conducted via a review of teacher certification standards, transcript analysis and university requirements for teacher education programs. A post hoc analysis of the students opportunity to learn (OTL) will be done by analyzing transcripts and other student data. The process will include an analysis of how the district places students into classrooms (placement tests, previous test data, grades, teacher interviews, and an analysis of the courses appearing in their transcripts). The analysis will focus on those students who failed the test, particularly in classrooms of the subject matter certificated teachers. Confirmatory analyses also are planned for those students who passed the test to ensure the only variable that differs is teacher certification (and not any of the possible confounding variables). Means, standard deviations and t-tests for each group will be calculated to examine the relationships that may exist between teacher certification and student achievement. An analysis of the relationship between the four teacher groups and their students achievement scores will be analyzed, controlling for the effects of SES, years of teaching experience, teacher preparation and the opportunity to learn. An analysis of variance or ANOVA will be the statistical method applied.

Middle School Teacher Certification 24 References Alliance for Excellent Education (2003). NCLB and Middle Schools: Confronting the Challenges. Retrieved Feb 6, 2003 from www.all4ed.org Ballou, D. & Podgursky, M. (1999). Reforming teacher preparation and licensing: What is the evidence? Retrieved January 9, 2004 from www.tcrecord.org/printcontent.asp?contentid=10434 Ballou, D. & Podgursky, M. (2000). Reforming teacher preparation and licensing: Continuing the debate. Retrieved January 29, 2004 from www.tcrecord.org/printcontent.asp?contentid= 10524 Cooney, S. (2000). A middle grades message: A well qualified teacher in every classroom matters. Southern Regional Education Board: Atlanta Georgia Darling-Hammond, L. (1999). Teaching and Knowledge: policy issues posed by alternate certification issues for teachers. Seattle, Washington: Center for Study of Teaching and Policy, University of Washington. Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Reforming teacher preparation and licensing: Debating the evidence. Retrieved January 29, 2004 from www.tcrecord.org/printcontent.asp?contentid=10419 Darling-Hammond, L., Berry, B. & Thoreson, A (2001). Does teacher certification matter? Evaluating the evidence. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(1), 57-77 Darling-Hammond, L., & Cobb, V.L. (1996). The changing context of teacher education, In F.B. Murray (ED), The Teacher Educators Handbook: Building A Knowledge Base For The Preparation Of Teachers (PP. 14-62). San Francisco;

Middle School Teacher Certification 25 Jossey-Bass. Darling-Hammond, L. & Sykes, G. (2003). Wanted: A national teacher supply policy for education: The right way to meet the highly qualified teacher challenge. Education Policy Analysis Archives 11(33). Retrieved January 29, 2004 from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v11n33 Darling-Hammond, L. & Youngs, P. (2002). Defining highly qualified teachers : What does scientifically based research actually tell us? Education Researcher. December, 2002 Education Week (2003). Quality Counts: 2003: The teacher gap Retrieved February 6, 2004 from www.edweek.org/reports/qc03/reports/17quality-t1b.cfm Education Week, Quality Counts: 2004: Count me in: Special education in an era of standards. Retrieved February 6, 2004 from http:// www.edweek.org/sreports/qc04/reports/quality-t1.cfm Ferguson, R. (1991). Paying for public education: New evidence on how and why money matters. Harvard Journal on Legislation 28: 465-498 Fetler, M. (1999). High school staff characteristics and mathematics test results. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 7(9). Retrieved January 29, 2004 from http://epa.asu.edu/epaa/v7n9.html. Gitomer, D.H. & Latham, A. S. (1999). The academic quality of prospective teachers: The impact of admissions and licensure testing. Retrieved February 3, 2004 from http://www.ets.org/research/reseacher/rr0335.htm Goldhaber, D. (2002). The mystery of good teaching: Surveying the evidence on student achievement and teacher characteristics. Education Next, 2(1), 50-55.

Middle School Teacher Certification 26 Goldhaber, D. (2003). NBPTS Certification: Who applies and what factors are associated with success? Retrieved February 10, 2004 from www.evans.washington.edu/fac/golhaber/index.html. Golhaber, D.D. & Brewer, D. (1996). Evaluating the effect of teacher degree level. Rockville, MD: Westat, Inc. Goldhaber, D., & Brewer, D. (1998). Evaluating the effect of teacher degree level educational performance. In W. Fowler (ed.) Developments in school finance, Washington D. C.: US Dept. of Ed., National Center for Educational Statistics, 199-210 Heap, J. (2002). An educator s perspective on: Meeting the highly qualified teachers challenge. National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education: Ohio Hirsch, E. (2003). Can highly qualified teachers be high quality too? Retrieved Jan 28, 2004 from http://www.headfirstcolorado.org/adm/view_article.php?story_id37 Ingersoll, R. (1999). The problem of under-qualified teachers in American secondary schools. Educational Researcher, 28(2: 26-37 Laczko-Kerr, I & Berliner, D.C. (2002). The effectiveness of Teach for America and other under-certified teachers on student academic achievement: A case of harmful policy. Education Policy Analysis Archives: 10 (37) 1-56 McLaughlin, M.W. (1994). Somebody knows my name. Issues in restructuring schools ( Report No. 7). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison, Center on Organization and Restructuring of Schools Miller, J., McKenna, M., & McKenna, B. (1998). A comparison of alternatively and Traditionally prepared teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 49, 165-176

Middle School Teacher Certification 27 Miriam-Webster (2000). Webster s New Collegiate Dictionary, Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Co Mitchell, K.J., Robinson, D. Z., Plake, B.S. & Knowles K.T. (Eds.) (2001). Testing teacher candidates: The role of licensure tests in improving teacher quality. National Research council, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Monk, D.H. (1994). Subject area preparation of secondary mathematics and science teachers and student achievement. Economics of Education Review, 13(2): 125-145 Monk, D., & King, J. (1994). Multilevel teacher resource effects on pupil performance in secondary mathematics and science. In Ronald G. Ehrenberg (ed.), Choices and Consequences. Ithaca NY: ILR Press. National Middle School Association (1995). This we believe: Developmentally responsive middle level schools. Columbus, OH: Author. National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2003). About NBTS. Retrieved from http://www.nbpts.org/about/index.cfm National Middle School Association (2003). Highly qualified and balanced approach. Retrieved Jan. 26, 2003 from http://www.nmsa.org/research/rmle/article.html National Center for Educational Statistics (2001). The condition of education, 2001. Washington, D.C.: US Department of Education. National Center for Educational Statistics (2002). Qualifications of the public school teacher workforce: Prevalence of out-of-field teaching 1987-88 to 1999-2000. Washington, D.C.: US Department of Education. National Commission on Teaching and America s Future, (2002). News Bulletin. Press Release October 23, 2903, Washington D.C.

Middle School Teacher Certification 28 National Commission on Teaching and America s Future (2000). What matters most?: Teachers for America s future. Teachers College: Columbia University Retrieved January 29, 2004 from http://www.tcrecord.org/printcontent.asp?contentid+10420. O Neil, J. (2003). Credentials count. NEA Today, 21(4): p. 21 Qu, Y & Becker, B.J. (2003). Does traditional teacher certification imply quality? A meta-analysis. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, April 21-25, 2003 Ringstaff, C & Sandholtz, J.H. (2002). Out-of-field assignments: Case studies of two beginning teachers.. Teachers College Record, 104(4): pp. 812-841 Rowan, B. (2002). What large scale, survey research tells us about effects on student achievement: Insights from prospects study of elementary schools. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Stronge, J. H. (2003). Qualities of effective teachers. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.orrg/frameworks.html Stronge, J.H. & Hindman, J. L. (2003). Hiring the Best Teachers, Retrieved 2/6/04 from http://0web22.epnet.com.janus.uoregon.edu/citation.asp?tb=1&_ug+dbs+aph+sid Trends in International Math and Science Study (1999). TIMSS 1999 international mathematics report. International Study Center: Boston College: Boston, MA. United States Department of Education (USDOE) (2002). Meeting the highly qualified teachers challenge: The Secretary s annual report on teacher quality. Washington D.C.: US Department of Education Office of Policy, Planning and Innovation.

Middle School Teacher Certification 29 United States Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (2002). No child left behind: A desktop Reference. Washington D.C. Useem, S. (2000). New teacher staffing and comprehensive middle school reform: Philadelphia s experience. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual meeting. April 2000. Retrieved January 28, 2004 from http://www.philaedfund.org Wang, A.H., Coleman, A.B., Coley, R.J., Phelps, R.P., ETS (2003). Preparing teachers around the world. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Retrieved on February 6, 2004 from http://www.ets.org/research/picprepteach.pdf Walsh, K. (2001). Teacher certification reconsidered: Stumbling for quality. Baltimore, MD: Abell Foundation. Whitehurst, G.J. (2002a). Improving teacher quality. Spectrum Journal of State Government: 75(3) p12 Whitehurst, G. J. (2002b). Research on Teacher Preparation and Professional Development. Presented at the White House Conference on Preparing Tomorrow s Teachers. Retrieved 2/3/04 from http:// www.nctq.org/press/whitehurst.html Wilson, S.M., Floden, R.E., & Ferrini-Mundy, J. (2002). Teacher preparation research: An insider s view from the outside. Journal Of Teacher Education, 53(3), 190-204.

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