Chapter 1: History and Approaches Key Terms, Concepts, and People Psychology Behavior Mind Eclectic approach Dualism Empiricism Materialism Structuralism Introspection Structuralism Functionalism Gestalt Biological Behaviorism Classical conditioning Stimuli Responses Operant conditioning Reinforcement Behavior modification Cognitive Humanistic Self-actualization Unconditional positive regard Psychodynamic approach Unconscious mind Conscious mind Repressed Dream analysis Free association Sociocultural approach Evolutionary Natural selection Biopsychosocial approach Clinical Counseling Developmental Educational Experimental Human factors Industrial-organizational Personality Psychometric Social Key People: Mary Whiton Calkins, Charles Darwin, Dorothea Dix, Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, William James, Ivan Pavlov, Jean Piaget, Carl Rogers, B.F. Skinner, Margaret Floy Washburn, John B. Watson, Wilhelm Wundt Chapter 1: History and Approaches 15
Overview Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. Behavior refers to the way in which a person acts and can be observed. The mind refers to that part of an individual that consists of their cognitions, memories, sensations, emotions, motives, and perceptions. The mind is what enables individuals to think and reason. It consists of conscious and unconscious mental processes. Psychology attempts to explain and describe behavior and the cognitive processes behind behavior. Psychology is a science based on experimentation and systematic observation, enabling psychologists to form assumptions about behavior, the mind, and human functioning. These assumptions lead to the development of theories that attempt to explain aspects of human behavior or mental processes. As with all sciences, knowledge about general laws and patterns are obtained through experimentation and observation. The field of consists of several different theoretical perspectives, and most psychologists closely adhere to the theoretical approach that most closely fits their perspective. However, many psychologists see value in different theories, and an eclectic approach to the study of. These psychologists believe that no single theory perfectly explains human thoughts and behavior, but rather attempt to explain behavior and cognitive processes by drawing upon different theoretical perspectives. History of Psychology Early Greek Philosophers Throughout history, humankind has been interested in the nature of the mind and the factors affecting behavior. Many ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle presented differing perspectives on human thought and behavior. Aristotle s beliefs about logic, reasoning, and careful observation of the world formed the underpinnings of the scientific method. These philosophers believed the world, and by extension, human nature, could be divided into two parts: the body and the spirit. This concept is known as dualism. The debate over which aspect of a person is more powerful in determining behavior and cognitions is still relevant today as the field of continues to expand. The Scientific Revolution During the scientific revolution, a great philosophical shift occurred. Whereas religion had asserted that the spirit of a person could not be studied using scientific means, a new generation of philosophers and scientists challenged these religious beliefs. Advances in astronomy, biology, and other areas demonstrated that human behavior could be scientifically studied. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) believed that the physical world behaved according to patterns and natural laws. However, Descartes did not believe the human mind and its processes could be observed or predicted, because the mind does not follow natural laws. He envisioned an interaction between the mind and body, with the mind controlling the body and the body constantly supplying sensory information to the mind. Descartes 16 AP Psychology
believed that some parts of the body, such as reflexes, are not under the control of the mind but are simply reactions to external stimuli. Descartes s ideas were expanded upon by John Locke (1632-1704). Locke believed that even the mind is subject to natural laws. Locke s perspective that truth and knowledge can be acquired through experiences and observations is referred to as empiricism. Locke is perhaps best known for his concept of tabula rasa, a term that refers to the belief that humans are born knowing nothing, or are essentially blank slates. According to this perspective, no knowledge is innate; everything a person knows must be learned from experience. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) rejected the idea of a soul and spirit. He believed that matter and energy are the only things that exist, a philosophy referred to as materialism. Everything experienced in a person s conscious awareness is a result of processes of the brain. The field of behaviorism was greatly impacted by Hobbes s philosophy. Theory of Natural Selection Discoveries in medicine and biology strongly influenced the field of during the nineteenth century. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) proposed the idea of natural selection. This evolutionary theory asserted that all living things evolved over a period of millions of years. Natural selection assumes that variations among humans naturally exist, and the individuals most likely to survive and reproduce are those that are the strongest and fittest, or those that have adapted to their environment. Through the process of natural selection, the characteristics that ensure a species survival are the ones selected. Evolutionary theory is one way that differences between species can be understood and explained. The Science of Psychology Begins Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is considered to be the founder of the science of in the year 1879. Wundt hoped to use the process of introspection, in which individuals observe and record their mental states, including thoughts and feelings, in response to various stimuli, in order to understand more about basic cognitive processes. From this experiment, Wundt and his mentee, Edward Titchener (1867-1927), developed the theory of structuralism, in which the mind can be broken down into its simplest components and then those components can be combined in order to make up the sum total of the individual s experiences. Titchener is credited for bringing the science of to the United States. William James (1842-1910), an American psychologist, disagreed with the idea of structuralism and offered the view that the function and uses of cognitive processes, or the mind, is more important than the structures of the mind, an approach known as functionalism. James is also the author of the first textbook. One of James s students, Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930), became the first female president of the American Psychological Association. Calkins is also credited with starting the first women s lab. She is noted for her studies of memory, which led to the development of the paired association technique. She was a highly influential professor of and philosophy. Another female pioneer in the field of is Margaret Floy Washburn Chapter 1: History and Approaches 17
(1871-1939). Washburn was the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in. She is noted for her work in animal behavior development and for motor theory. G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924), who also studied under William James, is considered to be the founder of child and educational ; he was also interested in evolutionary. Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) was one of the three founders of Gestalt. He believed that thinking moves from the whole to the parts, and focused on the total experiences of an individual. Gestalt takes a holistic approach to understanding the individual, and this approach rejects the idea that human thought and behavior can be separated. Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) was a social activist and reformer who advocated for mentally insane, indigent people. After visiting hospitals and noting the terrible ways the mentally ill were treated and abused, she successfully lobbied for the establishment and expansion of state hospitals for the mentally ill. Theoretical Approaches The theoretical perspectives above show an evolution of thinking in science that gradually moves away from using reason and logic alone, to become more and more scientific in nature. There are ten main schools of thought in contemporary. It is absolutely essential that you understand each one, and know what distinguishes each approach. School of Psychology (starting year) Evolutionary 1850s Structuralism 1880s Functionalism 1890s Description Process of natural selection determines behaviors and thoughts that promote survival. The behaviors, traits and thought processes that are most beneficial to survival will be passed to the next generation. Used introspection to identify basic elements or structures of psychological experience. To understand reading, for example, research participants would describe their experience while reading. First laboratory dedicated to psychological research, University of Leipzig, Germany 1879. Related to Darwinism, consciousness must have evolved because it was useful for something; it had a function. To understand the origins and purpose of psychological phenomenon we should ask what it is used for. Important contributors Charles Darwin Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener William James, Father of American Psy. 18 AP Psychology
School of Psychology (starting year) Psychodynamic 1890s Behaviorism early 1900s Cognitive late 1800s, 1960s, 1990s Sociocultural 1950s Humanistic 1950s Biological 1990s Biopsychosocial Description The unconscious mind determines thoughts and behaviors. The unconscious mind cannot easily be accessed, but influences our behavior. The conscious mind includes cognitive processes that we can access and for which we are aware. Early childhood experiences shape personality and determine behavior Not possible to objectively study the mind, therefore study should focus on observable behavior. Classical conditioning was the basis for learning by association. Operant conditioning refers to the effect of reinforcers (positive or negative) that strengthen or weaken the likelihood the behavior happens again. The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgments. Computer analogies guided research and have now evolved to include neuroimaging of the brain. Social situations and culture influence thinking and behavior. Explains variations in behavior and thoughts as influenced by different social environments, roles, norms and values among people of different cultural groups. Study of the person, the self-concept, self-esteem and an appreciation for the human condition. Takes a holistic approach to understanding human behavior and improving the growth of the individual person. Maslow s hierarchy of needs and Roger s concept of unconditional positive regard are central concepts. Attempts to understand how biology, physiology, and genes affect behavior. Cognitive processes, emotions, and behaviors are seen as direct results of biological factors. Human behavior is the result of an interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors. Each factor is equally important in determining thoughts and behavior. Important contributors Sigmund Freud Carl Jung Alfred Adler Erik Erickson Ivan Pavlov John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner Hermann Ebbinghaus, Albert Ellis Jean Piaget Fritz Heider Leon Festinger Stanley Milgram Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers No single researcher recognized George Engel Chapter 1: History and Approaches 19
Modern Subfields in Psychology The AP Psychology exam requires you to be familiar with the subfields of. Different schools of psychological thought have led to different subfields and professions in the 21 st century. The following is a list of the subfields and their definitions. Many universities offer masters or doctoral degrees in these subfields. Modern Subfields of Psychology Biological Examines the mind-body connection. Understand how biology, physiology, and genes affect behavior. Clinical Counseling Diagnose, assess, treat, and prevent emotional, behavioral, and psychological disorders Help individuals achieve and maintain healthy functioning. Includes social, vocational, educational, developmental, and healthy habits Developmental Cognitive Educational Studies how and why children/adults change over the lifespan. Can include various theoretical approaches. Examines mental processes involved in social settings, information processing and decision-making. Studies learning, motivation, instruction, and assessment in educational settings. Examines and improves the interaction between teaching and learning. Experimental Human factors I/O Studies humans and animals to understand sensation, perception, memory, learning and motivation. Design products, equipment and technology for human interaction. Often focused on performance and safety. How people act in organizations and the workplace. Goal is to increase performance, motivation, and job satisfaction. 20 AP Psychology
Personality Studies individual differences in emotions, cognitions, and behavior. How cultural factors influence personality development and expression. Psychometric Examines the design, administration and interpretation of tests. Measures variables such as aptitude, personality, abilities, and interests. Experimental Social Examines the way people relate to others using experimental methods. How attitudes are formed, changed, and affect the behavior of others. Practice Questions 1. Which approach deals with issues of self-concept and free choice? (Lower order) (A) sociocultural approach (B) biological approach (C) humanistic approach (D) functionalism (E) Gestalt The correct answer is C: humanistic approach Humanistic focuses on the study of free will, self-concept, awareness of the human condition and aspects of consciousness. The sociocultural approach studies how social and cultural factors influence thoughts and behavior. The biological approach views behavior as being a result of biological and genetic factors. Functionalism is a theory that states that the functions of the mind are more important than the actual components of the mind. Gestalt seeks to understand the individual in view of the person s total experiences. Although very similar to humanistic, gestalt does not focus on self-concept. Chapter 1: History and Approaches 21
2. Which early theoretical perspective had the greatest influence on the field of behavioral? (Higher order) (A) empiricism (B) dualism (C) natural selection (D) materialism (E) tabula rasa The correct answer is D: Materialism Materialism is the belief that matter and energy are the only things that exist. It rejects the idea of a soul and spirit and proposes that all things in a person s conscious awareness are results of processes of the brain. Since behavioral focuses only on what can be observed, no attention is given to cognitive processes, emotions, or any other part of the human experience, such as the soul and spirit. Empiricism refers to the belief that truth and knowledge can be acquired through experiences and observations. Dualism refers to the idea that the world and human nature can be divided into two parts, the body and the spirit. Natural selection is a theory proposed by Charles Darwin that states that only behaviors and thoughts that promote survival and adaptation are selected and passed down to other generations. Tabula rasa is the theory that all humans are born knowing nothing; they are essentially blank states. Knowledge is gained through experiences. Challenge Question: 3. Linda is seeing a therapist because she is having problems in her relationships. Linda reports being moody and grouchy due to a problem with her thyroid. She also states that she feels like she has no one to talk to because her family has never been one that talks about feelings. Linda expresses some negative and self-defeating thoughts. Which of the following statements best reflects the approach Linda s therapist should take? (A) The therapist needs to treat Linda from a cognitive approach because Linda s thoughts are the cause of her problems. (B) The therapist should use a sociocultural approach to help Linda understand how her family s views have caused her interpersonal difficulties. (C) The therapist should help Linda improve her self-concept and take responsibility for her choices. (D) The therapist should focus more on making sure Linda is treated for her thyroid problem since that is affecting her moods, which affect her relationships. (E) The therapist should take an approach that addresses Linda s medical issues, familial influences, and thought processes because they are all contributing to Linda s problems. 22 AP Psychology
The correct answer is. D: The therapist should take an approach that addresses Linda s medical issues, familial influences, and thought processes because they are all contributing to Linda s problems. The problem with Linda s thyroid affects her moods, which has a negative impact on her relationships. However, Linda s culture does not seem to value discussing feelings, but Linda needs to be able to talk about her feelings and how things are affecting her. Linda s thoughts are also negatively affecting her feelings and her relationships. Therefore, the therapist should not ignore any one of these areas because all of these areas are contributing to Linda s difficulties. Neither Linda s thoughts nor her family environment are solely responsible for contributing to her interpersonal problems. While there is nothing wrong with addressing self-concept issues with a client or working with a client to help the client accept responsibility for her problems, there is no indication that either of these scenarios is what is causing Linda s problems. Linda does need to be receiving treatment for her thyroid problem because it is affecting her moods, but focusing more on that issue will not address the cognitive or sociocultural factors that are also contributing to Linda s difficulties. Chapter 1: History and Approaches 23
Chapter 2: Research Methods Key Terms, Concepts, and People Descriptive Correlational Experimental Naturalistic Observational Archival Case study Longitudinal Cross-sectional Controlled Matched pairs Self-selection Confounding variables Internal validity Generalizability Sampling bias Sample characteristics Sample size Heterogeneous Homogeneous Response rate Correlation coefficient Predictor variable Criterion variable Scatterplot Statistical analysis Missing records Selective attrition Historical differences Experimental research Independent variable Dependent variable Control group Treatment group Operational definition Random Selection Random assignment Confound Participant Repeated measures Independent samples Demand characteristics Experimenter bias External validity P-value Sampling error Null hypothesis Statistical significance Frequency distribution Normal curve Standard deviation Skewness Positive skew Negative skew IQ distribution curve Z score Nuremberg trials Tuskegee study Informedconsent Confidentiality Deception Ethical guidelines Debriefing Chapter 2: Research Methods 25