History GCSE Revision Booklet Paper 1 Book 6 - The Collapse of Communism and the Post Cold War World 1980 2000
Key issue: Why did communism collapse in Central and Eastern Europe? http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/ir2/endofthecoldwarrev1.shtml Reagan and the renewal of the Cold War: attitudes to Communism; development of new weapons; SDI In 1981 Ronald Reagan became President. He hated communism and during his time there was deterioration in the USSR-USA relationship. Reagan had promised a hard-line approach to communism and promised peace through strength and increased the spending on arms. It appears he thought the best way to beat the USSR was to get so far ahead of them that they would have to back down. Reagan saw about a massive increase in military spending ($325 billion - $456 billion). He also re-started the development of the neutron bomb and invested funds in the building of two new bombers. He also speeded up the development of the Peacekeeper missiles, installed cruise missiles in Europe and announced the Strategic Defense Initiative (lasers designed to destroy incoming missiles. www.youtube.com/watch?v=so0oywlkb_q
Solidarity in Poland: conditions in Poland; Lech Walesa; aims and suppression. In the 1970 s the people of Poland were unhappy with the standard of life. In 1970 a series of price increases led to strikes and marches and the deaths of ordinary workers. Further price rises and a shortage of basic foods caused more disaffection with the Polish government in 1976. This led to the formation of the first independent trade union, Solidarity (Trade unions were not allowed in communist countries). Solidarity encouraged the population to challenge the communist government in an attempt to raise the standard of living. The Polish people were becoming more aware that their standard of life was a long way behind that of workers in the West. Opposition showed itself in the Gdansk shipyard in 1980, two outspoken workers had been dismissed and when the government raised the price of meat and allowed no wage increase the workers protested. They locked themselves in the shipyard and issued 21 demands, these included the right to form independent trade unions, the end of censorship, more freedom for the church and improvements in the national health system. News of the strike spread through Poland and strikes started in to happen in other ports and factories, the government was forced to accept the demands and Solidarity was recognised by the government and by 1981 had over 9 million members. Results Working conditions improved and Solidarity s popularity increased. Lech Walesa (the leader of Solidarity) became an international figure. The USSR began to fear that Solidarity was becoming a political party. In December 1981 Soviet troops began to gather at the Polish border. The new Polish leader declared Martial Law and overnight he arrested 5,000 members of Solidarity, including Walesa. Strikes were dealt with by riot police and in 1982 Solidarity was declared illegal.
Soviet failure in Afghanistan and its political and economic effects on the USSR After the first few months of 1980, Soviet troops controlled the towns in which they were based, but the Mujihadeen controlled the countryside. The Mujihadeen were not just fighting to get rid of Soviet troops; they were fighting to turn Afghanistan into an Islamic state. The rebels were well equipped because the USA and China had been providing them with weapons and funds. The Soviets in Afghanistan found themselves in a situation where, although they were a superpower with all the advantages of modern technology, they were unable to win a guerrilla war. The Mujihadeen attacked Soviet supply routes and shot down Soviet helicopters. The Soviets suffered increasing amounts of casualties, but succeeded only in propping up the unpopular Communist government in Kabul. Although there were 125,000 Soviet troops in Afghanistan by the early 1980s, they found it impossible to defeat the Afghan rebels. In 1982, they tried to launch a massive attack on the Mujahideen in Panjahir Valley, but this failed. To compound these issues, the Soviet Union was also facing hostility from other Islamic states, such as Pakistan. The Soviets thus became increasingly worried that some of the 30million Muslims living within the borders of the Soviet Union may revolt in support of the Mujihadeen. By 1985, the USSR had a new Premier, Mikhail Gorbachev. He realised that the USSR could never win this war, and in 1987 he began talks with the USA. He and President Reagan reached an agreement at Geneva in 1988. The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan in February 1989.,Afghanistan was a disaster for the Soviet Union. Even the Soviet leaders could see the scale of their mis-step. In addition to the cost in men and materials, the decade-long war of attrition was an extended international humiliation An extract from A History of Europe since 1945 (2005), by Tony Judt, a respected British historian
Gorbachev and Reagan: changing attitudes: Glasnost and Perestroika; changes in domestic and foreign policy and their effects; the collapse of the USSR By the 1980s, the Soviet leadership was weak. Brezhnev had been ill for some time before he had died in 1982. The next two leaders, Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko suffered from ill health, and by 1985 the USSR had no leader. Mikhail Gorbachev became the youngest leader to hold power since Stalin, at the age of 54. Gorbachev appeared to be open to new ideas and was keen to see progress both within the Soviet Union and also in international relations. Problems When he came to power Gorbachev was facing many problems within the USSR. By 1985 the war in Afghanistan was costly and was draining the economy, trade and industry were outdated and the output was falling and of poor quality, the USSR couldn t keep up with the technological advances of the West. The communist system also guaranteed everyone a job and home so people were becoming lazy in regards to their work, people no longer feared the state and had no incentive to work. People were losing faith in the government due to their inability to change and were starting to turn to drink and this led to growing crime and people missing work. Furthermore, the USSR was still in a costly arms race with the USA that they could not afford.
Gorbachev realised that change was needed. He was also aware that he would have to be careful so he didn t upset the rest of the communist party. Solutions Gorbachev tried to tackle the problem of alcoholism first. He raised the price of alcohol, banned drinking in public places and he removed all drinking from films. This had little effect. He began to reform the Soviet system by allowing perestroika (competition in business) and glasnost (freedom). Perestroika Perestroika introduced private profit into the USSR and was designed to accelerate the Soviet economy. Glasnost Glasnost was a method to try and eliminate corruption in the Soviet government. It included an increase in free speech and a reduction in censorship. Opposition towards the government was allowed and non-communists could stand for election. Gorbachev realised that he couldn t compete with the USA, and he announced he would reduce Soviet spending on arms. Reagan met with Gorbachev and realised he was trying to change Soviet attitudes to the Cold War. Further meetings happened where both countries tried to negotiate. They agreed in a reduction of nuclear arms, they banned midrange nuclear missiles and the USA agreed to stop the Strategic Defense Initiative. Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. Washington, December 1987. Eliminated all nuclear missiles with a range of 500-5500km. First treaty to reduce the amount of nuclear missiles that the superpowers possessed. Went further than SALT I which only limited the stockpiling of weapons.
The end of Soviet control in Eastern Europe: the success of Solidarity; the end of the Berlin Wall; Czechoslovakia and Hungary; the fate of Gorbachev; the end of the Cold War. Poor living standards had led to the criticism of communist leaders, most people wanted glasnost and perestroika like the USSR. The problem however, was with the communist leaders, who didn t want change. Gorbachev realised that the USSR could no longer support the governments in Eastern Europe. He thought that a relaxation over control would lead to a better relationship with the USA; it would also make the USSR more attractive to trade with. In 1988 he abandoned the Brezhnev Doctrine and told leaders they couldn t rely on the Soviet army to support them. This meant that the rulers of Eastern Europe would have to relax their rule and listen to the demands of their people. This led to great changes. Countries in Eastern Europe started to leave the Soviet Union. Poland Free elections were held in 1988 and Lech Walesa s party won all of the seats that were open to them. The communist government tried to form a coalition with them, but Walesa refused. In 1989 the first non-communist government was set up in a Soviet satellite state. In 1990 Lech Walesa became President of Poland. Hungary Hungary s change was smoother than other countries. From 1956-1988 Hungary was led by Kadar, he had managed to gain some independence from the USSR and he traded with the West, but remained loyal to the Warsaw Pact. In 1989 Hungary opened its border to Austria, in October other parties were allowed to stand for election and in 1990 the Hungarian Republic was declared. The last Soviet troops left in 1991. Czechoslovakia After the Prague Spring in 1968 Czechoslovakia had been ruled less harsh-
ly than other countries. In 1987 the government announced reforms similar to those of Gorbachev. Changes were slow and there were demonstrations in 1988 and 1989. In 1989 the communist government collapsed. Elections were held in 1990 where there was a massive victory for democratic parties. East Germany The leader of East Germany refused to put Gorbachev s reforms into effect. Many East Germans took advantage of Hungary opening its border with the West and fled through Hungary, others showed their opposition with protests. The communist government was forced to resign in 1989 and on November 9th the border with West Germany was opened. In Berlin, people marched to the Berlin Wall and started pulling it down. Free elections were held in 1990, the old East Germany collapsed and Germany was reunited. The End Gorbachev s reforms led to an improvement in relations with the USA and the collapse of the Berlin Wall meant the end of the Iron Curtain. After this the Gorbachev and Bush met at a meeting in Malta, although no agreements were actually signed both leaders made statements regarded as the end of the Cold War. Gorbachev became popular in the West but soon lost support in the USSR, his reforms didn t work because the old structures acted against them. Many communists thought that Gorbachev had betrayed communism and saw the end of Soviet rule in Eastern Europe as a disaster. Some thought that Gorbachev was moving too slowly and that reforms should happen quicker. They wanted more political democracy and more power passed to the separate Soviet states. The people began to lose faith in the government and demonstrations started. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/ir2/endofthecoldwar_video.shtml www.youtube.com/watch?v=wfbyic9pnoo www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8ppqiyydli
Key issue: What problems face the USA and UN following the end of the Cold War? The role of USA in the Post Cold War World: USA as a global power; military supremacy; the sole superpower; the champion of democracy in the world; US relations in Europe. The fall of the Berlin Wall, and the collapse of the USSR led to the emergence of a new world. GDR/FRG reunified for the first time in 41 years. Elections were held and Kohl, the West German leader was elected as Chancellor of a united Germany. Berlin was unified as the capital city. The USSR ceased to exist in December 1991, and split into several independent states, the largest of which was the Russian Federation with Boris Yeltsin as President. Yeltsin remained in power until 1999, when Vladimir Putin replaced him. Russia took the place of the USSR in the UN. Germany took a while to recover from the GDR s problems following reunification, and the 1990s saw a series of economic problems. Similarly, the Russian Federation with its 83 federal territories spent much of the 1990s in transition. This meant the USA was the only major superpower with any global influence. The development of the WWW in the 1990s led to a revolution in global communications. This rapid spread of ideas and information led to challenges to injustice and advances in campaigns for Human Rights and democracy, as well as an increase in global crime. With no competitors after the collapse of the USSR, the USA had a military and economic strength that allowed them to dominate the world.
The question was, how should they use their might? Work with European allies to create a peaceful and democratic Europe? Act as the world s police force, protecting underdeveloped countries against aggression? Lead the world in technological developments? Advance Human Rights globally? Secure US economic interests? Promote stability in the Middle East? Working with the UN to make sure their actions were in line with International Law, the USA became involved in the First Gulf War and in the Balkan Peninsular after the break-up of Yugoslavia. They also intervened unsuccessfully in Somalia in 1992/3 to support the internationally-recognised government against rebel. Also involved in Haiti in 1994, where US troops helped to restore democratically-elected president after a coup against him. Meanwhile, the USA financed research which led to them playing a key role in the development of the internet The power and activities of the USA made it a target for terrorist attacks, who blamed the USA for their problems. This included the attach on the WTC in 1993, the bombing of the Khobar Towers in Saudi Arabia which resulted in the death of 19 American servicemen who were accommodated there, and the bombing of the American Embassy in Tanzania in 1998. In spite of this, the general feeling was that the USA s role internationally was a positive one (83% of Britons, 77% of Moroccans, 75% Indonesians, 62% Turks and 37% of Russians). The UN The purpose of the United Nations is to bring all nations of the world together to work for peace and development, based on the principles of justice, human dignity and the well-being of all people. It affords the opportunity for countries to balance global interdependence and national interests when addressing international problems
The UN: case studies of UN action in Kuwait, Iraq and Kosovo; success and failure of the UN www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmv_0itk1qs The invasion of Kuwait, 1990. On 2nd August 1990, over 50,000 Iraqi troops supported by tanks and air strikes, crossed the border and entered the territory of its oil-rich neighbour Kuwait. The force soon increased to 150,000, and Kuwaiti resistance was crushed within 2 days. Possible causes: In 1980, Saddam Hussein had invaded Iran. Some suggest that the invasion of Kuwait was a continuation of Saddam s quest to strengthen his position in the Arab world. Kuwait had supported Iraq against Iran in a war that took place in the 1980s and had loaned them money. Saddam wanted the debt cancelled, but Kuwait refused. Iraq was financially ruined by the war with Iran, and the oil in Kuwait could solve some of their debts.
Iraq accused Kuwait of stealing their oil by drilling under Iraqi territory (slant drilling) Kuwait was accused of flooding the oil market and keeping prices low, when Iraq wanted them high to make more profit. Saddam claimed Iraq was supporting a planned uprising in Kuwait against the ruler. Iraq had never accepted Kuwait as a separate state and thought it should still be part of Iraqi territory. Iraq thought the USA would not interfere. UN Reaction to the invasion Condemned it immediately passed Resolution 660 on 2 August. Condemned Iraq, demanded immediate removal of troops, and that the dispute was solved diplomatically (by negotiation) 6 August UN imposes global trade embargo because they hadn t withdrawn. 29 November Ultimatum (Resolution 678) which threatened military action if no withdrawal by 15 January 1991. The USA took the lead in acting on the UN s resolutions. USA interested in the area fears re: Saudi oil fields, as well as those of Kuwait. Iraq supported USSR in CW so atmosphere of hostility anyway. USA felt Iraq sponsored terrorism. 2 August 1990 President Bush (Snr) organised Operation Desert Shield which involved an increase in US troops in the Persian Gulf region. Made it clear the US was prepared to support UN actions against Iraq. What happened next? Iraq did not withdraw 17 January 1991 Resolution 678 carried out American-led coalition of 30+ countries (incl. Britain, France, Saudi, Egypt) launched Operation Desert Storm against Iraqi invaders American General Norman Schwarzkopf was put in charge of the campaign which began with air-strikes, supported by naval action. Iraq responded by launching Scud missiles which hit towns in Israel. Saddam appeared to be hoping that Israel would respond, which could lead to Arab countries supporting him against to coalition, but the Americans persuaded the Arab countries to keep out, and used missiles to intercept other Scud missiles bound for Israel.
UN coalition soon had control of the air, and destroyed the Iraqi navy. 24 February 1991 coalition forces entered Kuwait and within 4 days had driven out the Iraqis and liberated Kuwait. Iraqi army set fire to oil wells as they retreated. 28 February most of the Iraqi army surrendered or fled, ceasefire declared. The UN and Kosovo - Background The six states that made up Yugoslavia were culturally, ethnically and religiously different. (Serbs, Orthodox Christian; Bosnians, Muslim; Slovenes and Croats, Catholic) In addition, Kosovo province populated mostly by Albanians.After WWII Yugoslavia communist, defected from Soviet control under Tito. Autocratic ruler kept tensions under control until his death in 1980. Collapse of communism - USA/Europe encouraged free elections. This led to the break-up of Yugoslavia; Croatia and Slovenia declared independence in 1991. Yugoslav army resisted, but after 10 days of fighting in Slovenia, the army withdrew.
Serbs living in Croatia (500,000), with the support of the Yugoslav army, rebelled and set up their own republic in Croatia and began process of ethnic cleansing. Area won back by Croats in 1995, who carried out their own ethnic cleansing so that there were very few Serbs left in Croatia. Events in Bosnia-Herzegovina followed a similar pattern; independence in 1991, Serb opposition & republic, ethnic cleansing. UN protection force sent to prevent violence but achieved very little. 1995 NATO Implementation Force took over the UN s peacekeeping role in the Balkans. NATO bombing campaign- ended Serbian siege of Sarajevo and peace was restored at the end of 1995 at the Dayton Peace Accords. Dayton Peace Accords set up two self-governing states within Bosnia- Herzegovina, the Bosnian Serb Republic and the Bosnian Croat Federation as shown on the second map. Supervision of this done by multinational military forces under the command of NATO, acting on behalf of the UN. The UN and Kosovo Kosovo separate province within Serbia, occupied mostly by Albanians. Death of Tito opportunity for change and independence. Serbs small minority population regarded Kosovo as integral part of their identity. Serb nationalism championed by Slobodan Milosevic, who became president of Yugo. In 1989 and began to reduce Kosovo s powers of autonomy. Kosovars passive resistance failed to gain any rights. 1996 Albanian rebels (KLA) began a series of terrorist attacks on Serbian targets (police stations/yugoslav govt. officers) Protests escalated 1998 SM sent in Serbian reinforcements extra police and army. Serbian army began ethnic cleansing resulted in massacres of Kosovo Albanians as well as over 100k refugees fleeing Kosovo. After months of fighting and over 250,000 people displaced from their homes, UN announced their concern at the conflict in September 1998. They adopted
Resolution 1199 which demanded both sides hold a ceasefire When this did not happen NATO got involved, and began preparing for ACTWARN (activation warning). Continued victimisation of Kosovars led to NATO beginning bombing campaign against Serbs 11 weeks Serbs withdrew. Milosevic charged with war crimes. UN commission established to demilitarise the area, organise protection and return of refugees and ensure peace, and supporting work of Kosovar police force in keeping order. On June 10, 1999, the UN Security Council passed UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration ( UNMIK) and authorised KFOR, a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The majority of the Serb population left when the Serbian forces left. There was also some looting of Serb properties and even violence against some of those Serbs and Roma who remained. Many displaced Serbs are afraid to return to their homes, even with UNMIK protection. Around 120,000-150,000 Serbs remain in Kosovo, but are subject to ongoing harassment and discrimination due to physical threats for their safety. According to resolution 1244 (which is still in force), UNMIK is to: perform basic civilian administrative functions; promote the establishment of substantial autonomy and self-government in Kosovo; facilitate a political process to determine Kosovo's future status; coordinate humanitarian and disaster relief of all international agencies; support the reconstruction of key infrastructure; maintain civil law and order; promote human rights; and assure the safe and unimpeded return of all refugees and displaced persons to their homes in Kosovo.