Chapter 2: Sociological Research Why is Sociological Research Necessary? The Sociological Research Process Research Methods Ethical Issues in Sociological Research Why is Sociological Research Necessary? Commonsense v. sociological research Assumptions v. factual data and methodology We need to evaluate the (massive amounts) of information we receive, not just suppose Look beyond our daily experience, carefully evaluate data we get from media, especially look beyond sensationalism Sociology & Scientific Evidence: Debunking fallacies: showing false or mistaken beliefs to be what they are 2 approaches: normative and empirical Normative: uses religion, customs, habits, traditions and law to answer important questions Empirical: attempts to answer questions through systematic collection and analysis of data (conventional or scientific method 1
More on empirical approach: 2 basic standards to this approach 1) Scientific beliefs should be supported by good evidence or information 2) These beliefs should be open to public debate and critiques from other scholars, with alternative interpretations being considered 2 types of empirical studies: Descriptive studies: attempt to describe social reality or provide facts about some group, practice or event (to find out what is happening to whom, where & when--should be objective, but can be biased) Explanatory studies: attempt to explain cause-and-effect relationships and to provide information on why certain events do or do not occur Theory and Research Cycle: The relationship between theory and research is a continuous cycle Theory: a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events Research: the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one 2
Theory & Research Cycle, continued: Deductive approach: researcher begins with a theory and uses research to test the theory Theories generate hypotheses Hypotheses lead to observations (data gathering) Observations lead to the formation of generalizations Generalizations are used to support the theory, to suggest modifications to it, or, to refute it Theory & Research Cycle, continued: Inductive approach: the researcher collects information or data (facts or evidence) and then generates theories from the analysis of that data Specific observations suggest generalizations Generalizations produce a tentative theory The theory is tested through the formation of hypotheses Hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional observations Theory & Research Cycle, continued: Theory give meaning to research Research helps support theory Data alone does not explain why Theories that are not supported by data lack validity Research helps us question assumptions about social concerns, helps us retain a healthy skepticism, and helps keep our minds open to alternative explanations 3
The Sociological Research Process: 2 basic kinds of research: Quantitative and Qualitative Quantitative: goal is scientific objectivity, focus is on data that can be measured numerically Also emphasizes complex statistical techniques Qualitative: interpretive description rather than statistics is used to analyze the underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships And your text compares these as: Quantitative: focus on numbers, so in a study of suicide, this approach would look at rates of suicide in terms of every variable (race, age, ethnicity, gender, education, etc.) Qualitative: focus is on words, would systematically analyze the contents of notes left by suicide victims, to look for recurring themes (despair, failure) to look for patterns Conventional Research Model: Quantitative research 1. Select and define the research problem 2. Review previous research 3. Formulate the hypothesis if applicable (Hypothesis: a statement of the relationships between two or more concepts) Variables: any concept with measurable traits or characteristics Independent variable is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable Dependent variable is assumed to depend on or be caused by the independent variable 4
Conventional Research Model: Quantitative research 4. Develop the research design (including units of analysis and time frame of the study) Unit of analysis is what or whom is being studied Time frame would be cross-sectional (many observations that take place at the same time) or longitudinal (observations that take place over a period of time at several points in time) Conventional Research Model: Quantitative research 5. Collect and analyze the data In data collection, the sampling matters-- getting data from an entire population of interest is usually not possible Random sampling: every member of an entire population being studies has an equal chance of being selected Probability sampling: participants are deliberately chosen because they have specific characteristics (to reflect these in the general population) Conventional Research Model: Quantitative research Validity: the extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure Reliability: the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results (as when applied to different individuals at different times or the same individuals at different times) 5
Conventional Research Model: Quantitative research Analysis: the process through which data are organized so that comparisons can be made and conclusions drawn Many different techniques are used to analyze data Reliability and validity are both affected by techniques used to obtain and analyze data Conventional Research Model: Quantitative research 6. Draw conclusions and report the findings Return to the hypothesis or research objective--did your data support it or not? What were the limitations of the study? Report on your findings to offer them for further analysis, comment, and replication A Qualitative Research Model: Qualitative research models are typically used when the research question does not easily lend itself to numbers and statistical methods Often uses a smaller number of cases and a different type of research question May involve problem formulation (to clarify problems, to develop questions for research participants) 6
A Qualitative Research Model: 1. The researcher begins with a general approach rather than a highly detailed plan (how or what might be answered, but not why--a flexible approach) 2. The researcher decides when the literature review and theory application should take place (early or late in the process) A Qualitative Research Model: 3. The study presents a detailed view of the topic (smaller number of cases but more variables than in quantitative research--larger number of cases but fewer variables) 4. Access to people or other researchers that can provide necessary data is crucial (doesn t use existing databases, must be generated by the researcher) A Qualitative Research Model: 5. Appropriate research method(s) are important for acquiring useful qualitative data Often is based on field research such as observation, participant observation, case studies, ethnography, and unstructured interviews 7
Research Methods: Specific strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research Must be acceptable to those academic and non-academics who regularly engage in research Qualitative researcher try to view the social world from the point of view of the people they are studying Quantitative researchers generally use survey, secondary analyses of existing statistical data, and experimental designs Survey Research: A poll in which the researcher gathers facts or attempts to determine the relationships among facts Often done when the researcher wants to describe, compare, and predict knowledge, attitudes and behaviors Select a representative sample-- cannot survey all of a population Survey Research: Respondents: persons who provide data for analysis through interviews or questionnaires Representative sample has characteristics in proportion to those of the larger population of interest Harris Poll, US Census, Gallup Poll all rely on these methods Have you been surveyed lately? 8
Survey Research: Types Questionnaires: a printed research instrument containing a series of items to which subjects respond May be administered by the surveyor (face-to-face) or self-administered May be interviewed on the telephone Strengths: simple, inexpensive, allow respondents to remain anonymous Weaknesses: low response rate, lack of honesty Survey Research: Types Interview: a data-collection encounter in which an interviewer asks the respondent questions and records responses Usually structured interviews Questions may be open-ended or closedended Advantages: usually more effective in dealing with complicated issues, are faceto-face, helps the researcher gain perspective But costly and time-consuming Survey Research: Telephone Survey Increasingly popular Quick Saves time and money as compared to traditional pencil & paper surveys Often computer assisted Gives greater control over data collection and provides for greater personal safety for respondents But answering machines, voice mail, and caller ID limit this technique 9
Survey Research: + and - Positives: useful in describing characteristics of large populations without surveying all Allows researchers to do multivariate data analysis (more than two independent variables) And useful in analysis of social change over time Negatives: standard questions force respondents into categories, validity is a problem, may lead researcher to over- or - underestimate extent of problems Secondary analysis of existing data Researchers use existing material and analyze data that were originally collected by others That is, public records, official reports of organizations, surveys by universities and corporations Unobtrusive research--has no impact on those being studied Secondary analysis of existing data: Analyzing existing statistics: usually is of aggregate, not individual Often can demonstrate correlations Analyzing content: systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract thematic data and draw conclusions about social life Cultural artifacts are the written records that result from the activities of individuals and groups, as well as movies and other entertainment, art, even garbage Categorized, arranged by patterns 10
Secondary analysis of existing data: Positives: readily available, inexpensive, reduced chance of bias because the researcher doesn t do the collecting, lends itself to longitudinal analysis Negatives: data may be incomplete, unauthentic, or inaccurate, may not be strictly comparable with other data, and coding may be difficult Field Research: The study of social life in its natural setting: observing and interviewing people where they live, work and play Gives a fuller understanding via face-toface interactions Often used to glean qualitative data that is expressed verbally instead of numerically Usually less structured than previous methods, places more demands on the researcher Field Research: Participant Observation: the process of collecting data while being part of the activities of the group that the researcher is studying Give more inside information But requires more time, effort, and expertise on the part of the researcher 11
Field Research: Case Studies: an in-depth, multifaceted investigation of a single event, person, or social grouping May also involve multiple cases (a collective case study) Quite detailed, use multiple sources of data from documents, records, interviews, life histories, etc. Often begin as indefinite topics, refined as they go along Researcher must decide whether to let people know they are being studied Field Research: Ethnography: a detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years A famous ethnographic study was Middletown, done in the 1920s, was replicated in the 1970s and found very stable attitudes about religion, hard work, self-reliance and civic pride Field Research: Unstructured Interviews: an extended, open-ended interaction between and interviewer and an interviewee Has few predetermined questions or procedures, but does require a high level of skill for the interviewer to direct the interview once underway Essentially are conversations with openended questions, flexible, allow for more questioning ( anything else? ) 12
Field Research: Before interviewing and sampling, the people to be interviewed must be selected Snowball sampling: researcher interviews a few individuals with specific characteristics, then they recruit more, process continues until no new information is obtainable More decisions: do you repeat interview? Specific questions or order of questions? Where? How to code information? Who does the interviewing & who should be there during the interview? Strengths & Weakness of Field Research Allows for inside view Useful when attitudes & behaviors can be better understood within their natural setting or for observations over time Provide a wealth of information, better to generate theories Best for studies of race, ethnicity, gender because they often include those previously excluded Strengths & Weakness of Field Research But often cannot be generalized to other populations Descriptive and often not readily quantifiable Less preferred by quantifiable researchers Often cannot demonstrate any cause & effect relationships Cannot (generally) use computerized data analysis programs (CAQDA) 13
Experiments: A carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects attitudes or behavior 2 groups in conventional experiments, experimental & control Experimental group contains the subjects who are exposed to an independent variable to study its effect on them Control group subjects do not get this exposure to the independent variable Experiments: In the simplest experimental design, there is a pretest to measure the dependant variable in the hypothesis, then the experimental treatment--the independent variable--is presented, then there is a post test to measure the dependant variable Then the experimental and control groups are compared in terms of results Laboratory (more controlled setting) Natural (real life settings) Natural setting experiments can t be replicated due to their unique nature Experiments: Demonstrating cause-and-effect relationships: only an experiment can show cause and effect Correlations exist when two variables are associated more frequently than can be expected by chance You must show a correlation exists between 2 or more variables, must ensure that the independent variable preceded the dependent variable, and that any change in the dependent variable wasn t due to an extraneous variable 14
Experiments: Strenghts & Weaknesses Biggest advantage is the control over the environment and variables Usually require little time, money or number of participants More easily replicable Replication strengthens generalization of conclusions But are artificial, rigid constraints mean less communal approach to data collection, bias can be a problem, lab can have negative effects on participants Reactivity--changes in responses given due to being observed (Hawthorne effect) Multiple Methods: Triangulation Triangulation is combining methods in a given study Allows for better accuracy when studying complex problems Better understanding, too Qualitative and quantitative methods can also be combined Ethical issues in Sociological Research: US governemnt set up regulatiosn for the protection of humand subjects back in the 1960s Researchers must weigh the societal benefits of research against the potential physical and emotional costs to the participants Written informed consent must be obtained 15
ASA Code of Ethics: Researches must try to maintain objectivity and integrity, must fully disclose results Must safeguard participants right to privacy and dignity Must protect confidential information provided by participants, even when it is considered privileged information Must acknowledge collaboration and financial supporters Cases in Textbook: Zellner: single-car crashes and suicides-- did not disclose actual reasons for his research Humphreys: tearooms and license plate numbers--no informed consent, outright subterfuge Scarce: refused to breach confidentiality agreements, acted according to ASA codes, but jailed anyway 16