Medicinal and Dietary Role of Moringa stenopetala (Bak.f.) Cuf. in South Ethiopia: A Review

African Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology (AJAST) Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 1-6. November, 2013 http://www.oceanicjournals.org/ajast Oceanic Academic Journals 2013 Review Paper Medicinal and Dietary Role of Moringa stenopetala (Bak.f.) Cuf. in South Ethiopia: A Review Mohammed Adefa Seid Department of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Arba Minch University, P.O.Box 21, Arba Minch, Ethiopia. *Corresponding author. E-mail: antemoha2008@yahoo.com Accepted 19 th July, 2013 Moringa stenopetala is a perennial tree having 6-12 m height and about 60 cm diameter at the breast height, and have smooth pale-gray bark. The species is endemic to east African countries mainly to Ethiopia (south) and Kenya (north) ranging from 390-2200 m above sea level covering west of rift valley lakes. The plant is used by traditional communities for multiple purposes such as source of food and medicine, and for water treatment. The nutritional and medicinal importance of M. stenopetala is tested and confirmed by several researchers in different scientific studies. Hence, M. stenopetala is the promising tree that can supplement the nutritional needs of malnourished peoples of all ages including children and women, especially in developing countries. The raw leaves of M. stenopetala are also reported to contain goitrogenic factor that can be detrimental to human s health. The purpose of this review paper is to acquaint the nutritional and therapeutic uses of M. stenopetala in southern Ethiopia native peoples, and disseminate the fact for scientific communication. Key words: Moringa, Nutritional value, anti-bacterial activity, anti-fungal activity, South Ethiopia. INTRODUCTION In Ethiopia, maize, sorghum, teff (Eragrostis tef) and wheat are among the main staple crops. People also exploit other indigenous plants including Enset (Ensete ventricosum), isolating and processing the starchcontaining pith of the stems, and Moringa trees, the leaves of which contain calcium, iron and other trace minerals, and are eaten as a supplement to the major staple foods (Mekonnen and Gessesse, 1998). Amongst 14 species of moringaceae, Moringa stenopetala (also known as Shiferaw (Amharic), Halako (Gamo Gofa), Shelaqta (Konso), Haleko (Derashe) and Cabbage Tree (English) among local communities in southern Ethiopia) has a variety of uses including dietary and medicinal application. So, the plant is a potential source of both nutritious food supplement and compounds for pharmaceutical product development. Moringa stenopetala is endemic to East Africa mainly present in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia. It is also reported to occur in Djibouti, Uganda and Sudan. M. stenopetala grows naturally in the Acacia tortilis-delonix elata-commiphora spp. vegetation-complex. This type of vegetation is often found in well-drained soils at altitudes of 900-1200 m above sea level. The species is quite drought resistant. In southern Ethiopia, it has been found in areas with annual rainfall ranging from 500-1400 mm. According to the Flora of Ethiopia, the species occurs in Gamo-Gofa, Kaffa and Sidamo, Bale, Borana and Debub Omo zones, and in Konso and Derashe special districts of Ethiopia having low to medium altitude agro-climatic conditions. The plant prefers sandy and well-drained soils where the ground water level is high, but cold temperatures are limiting factor for the cultivation of the species in Ethiopia because it does not tolerate frost (Edwards et al., 2000). Origin and characteristics of Moringa stenopetala M. stenopetala is endemic to East Africa, where it predominantly occurs in northern Kenya and in Ethiopia. M. stenopetala grows in the low lands of West of the Rift Valley lakes from arid to semi-humid areas in the

Afri. J. Agric. Sci. Technol. 2 altitudinal ranged from 390-2200 m above sea level. The coverage includes South Ethiopia, North Kenya and East Somalia from 1 7 N and 35-42 E in isofloric term (Mayer, 1990). M. stenopetala is often referred to as the African Moringa Tree because it is native only to southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya (Figure 1). Though, it grows in many other parts of the tropics, it is not as widely known as its close relative Moringa oleifera, but often considered generally more desirable than M. oleifera (Mark, 1998). According to Sutherland et al. (1994), the two most common English vernacular names for the tree are drumstick (describing the shape of its pods) and horseradish (describing the taste of its roots). M. stenopetala is a tree with 6-12 m tall having a diameter of 60 cm (DBH) with soft wood, and white to pale-gray (or silvery) and smooth bark (Table 1 and Figure 2). M. stenopetala differs from M. oleifera in that its leaves are made up of leaflets (3.3-6.5 cm) with a pointed rather than a rounded tip; its pods larger than those of M. oleifera are twisted when the fruit is fresh; its seeds are ellipsoidal and not spherical, and cream-coloured rather than dark brown (Jiru, 1995). Taxonomic position of Moringa stenopetala M. stenopetala belongs to family Moringaceae that is represented only by a single genus Moringa and 14 species. In fact, it is stated that the taxonomic position of the family is not clear. It has some features similar to those of Brassicaceae and Capparidaceae but the seed structure does not agree with either of the above families (Edwards et al., 2000). Pollen studies have not provided any other suggestions and recent molecular studies have pointed a relationship with the Carricaceae. These indicate that the taxonomic position of the family is not yet settled and is open for further studies. But, some literatures suggest and place the species in the following taxonomic distribution (Table 2). Nutritional role of Moringa stenopetala It is reported that the edible parts of M. stenopetala are exceptionally nutritious (Padayachee and Baijnath, 2012). The leaves are one of the best vegetable foods that can be found in the locality. In fact, all parts of the tree except the wood are edible, providing a highly nutritious food for both humans and animals. It was reported that Moringa foliage and fruit pods are rich sources of calcium and iron, and good sources of vitamins A, B, and C with good amounts of the sulphur-containing amino acids, methionine and cystine (Rams, 1994). Both young and older leaves are edible, though older ones are milder and tender, and can be either cooked in soups or boiled, while dried leaves can be stored as future soup or sauce supplements. Often, the green pods and surrounding white material can be removed from larger pods and cooked in various ways. Likewise, immature seeds are often cooked and eaten as a fresh vegetable, while mature seeds can be dried and roasted. Usually, edible oil can be extracted from its seeds. On the other hand, the flowers can be cooked or dried and steeped as tea. The roots are often used as flavouring in poultices. In southern Ethiopia, M. stenopetala is very widely grown for its edible leaves, especially in the Konso special district. Traditionally, the women prepare the dama (the main Konso dish prepared from leaves of M. stenopetala) in the evening time, after working in the fields (Table 3). Researchers tested leaves and pods of M. stenopetala and found extremely valuable nutritional value for people of all ages (Jiru et al., 2006; Richer et al., 1993). For a child aged 1-3, a 100 g serving of fresh leaves would provide all his daily requirements of calcium, about 75% of his iron and half protein needs of the child, as well as important supplies of potassium, vitamins-b complex, copper and all the essential amino acids. As little as 20 g of fresh leaves would provide a child with all the vitamins A and C needed. Similarly, one portion of leaves could provide a pregnant woman with over a third of her daily need of calcium and give her important quantities of iron, protein, copper, sulfur and vitamin B. The high concentration of iron, protein, copper, vitamins and essential amino acids present in Moringa leaves make them a virtually nutritional supplement (Yisehak et al., 2011). The chemical composition of different parts of M. stenopetala is presented in Table 4. If leaves are sun dried, an estimate of only 20-40% of vitamin A content will be retained, but 50-70% of vitamin A will be retained if leaves are dried in the shade (CWS, 2000). This powder can be used in place of fresh leaves to make leaf sauces, or a few spoonfuls of the powder can be added to other sauces to make the diet more nutritious. One rounded soup (table) spoon of leaf powder will satisfy about 14% of the protein, 40% of the calcium and 23% of the iron and nearly all vitamins needed for a child aged 1-3 years. Similarly, six rounded spoonfuls of leaf powder will satisfy nearly all of a woman's daily iron and calcium needs during pregnancy and breast-feeding (CWS, 2000; Yisehak et al., 2011). Therapeutic uses of M. stenopetala In many of its ecological areas, several parts of the plant have been used in medicinal preparations. The bittertasting water left over after cooking the leaves is consumed for several medicinal purposes by the traditional communities of Ethiopia. It is reported that the leaves and roots, mixed with the water are used to treat malaria, hypertension, stomach disorders, asthma and

Mohammed 3 Keys Map Legend Representing species Red dots Red x's Yellow dots Gray dots Pink dots Green dots Blue circles Turquoise dot M. stenopetala M peregrina M. pygmaea M. longtituba M. ruspoliana M. rivae M. borziana M. arborea Figure 1. Geographical distribution of M. stenopetala and other species of Moringaceae (Mark, 1999). a b c Figure 2. M. stenopetala. a: tree; b: leaves; and c: pods. Table 1. Summary of characteristic of M. stenopetala (Edwards et al., 2000). Plant part Leaves Flowers Seeds Pods Trunk Characteristic Up to 55cm long; Inflorescence: pubescentbi-or tri-pinnate, with about 5 pairs of pinnae and 3-9 elliptic to ovate leaflets per pinna. Very fragrant with cream flushed pink sepals, white, pale yellow or yellow-green petals, white filaments and yellow anthers. The ovary is ovoid and densely hairy, and dense many flowered panicles ca. 60 cm long. Elliptical and cream-coloured. Elongate reddish with grayish bloom having grooved valves. Up to 6-12 m tall with at least 60 cm in diameter at breast height, and crown strongly branched sometimes with several branches and thick at base. diabetes (Padayachee and Baijnath, 2012). In this regard, the Konso-speaking natives in southern Ethiopia use the leaves to prevent colds and anaemia, and the roots to treat epilepsy (Demeulenaere et al., 2001), and the Gidole and Burji communities use it for treating digestion problems and dysentery. There are claims that

Afri. J. Agric. Sci. Technol. 4 Table 2. Taxonomic distribution of M. stenopetala. Taxonomic rank Kingdom Division Class Order Family Genus Species Nomenclature Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Capparales Moringaceae Moringa stenopetala Table 3. Types and ways of preparation of common dishes in southern Ethiopia. Locality Name of dish Method of Preparation Konso Dama Moringa leaflets are boiled, and salt is added to the water to help the leaves to cook Flour of sorghum or maize or wheat is prepared, and knead and make into balls 2-5 cm in diameter, and tossed into the water and a gourd is placed over the mouth of the recipient After ten minutes or so, the boiling soup like cook is removed, and get ready for consumption. Fat (or butter) was added to make a dish rich and of good quality. Gomo Gofa/ Wollayta Fosesse Leaves of the M. stenopetala are cooked and mixed with flour of cereal dishes made of maize and sorghum. Cooking oil (or butter) is added to make the dish more palatable. the leaves, boiled in water, can cure malaria, hypertension and stomach pain, whereas the roots, chopped and mixed with water, are also used for treating severe malaria. In southern Ethiopia, M. stenopetala is used as herbal medicine in areas where visceral leishmaniasis or kala-azar (caused by the Leishmania parasite) prevails (Mekonnen and Dräger, 2003). Furthermore, M. stenopetala leaves are used to expel the retained placenta in women who have just given birth (Mekonnen and Gessesse, 1998). In Arba Minch area, the leaves are also used to treat hypertension and diabetes (Padayachee and Baijnath, 2012). In many areas of Ethiopia, the leaves and roots are also used to treat malaria, hypertension, colds, asthma stomach problems and diabetes (Bosch, 2004). In this regard, ethanol extracts of the leaves and roots of M. stenopetala have shown anti-fungal activity against Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania donovani. Furthermore, crude seed extracts have shown antimicrobial activity strongly inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Shigella species and Candida albicans due to the presence of benzyl isothiocyanate which is an active bactericide and fungicide (Bosch, 2004; Padayachee and Baijnath, 2012). The presence of glucosinolates determined by Eilert et al. (1981) as 4(á-lrhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate in the seeds of M. stenopetala found to exert many biological activities, such as anti-cancer activity due to their ability to kill cancer cells by inducing apoptosis, depleting ATP and leading the cells to oxidative stress (Padayachee and Baijnath, 2012). On the other hand, Bennett et al. (2003) analyzed the major secondary metabolites in the tissues of M. stenopetala and determined the presence of low amounts of 4- monoacetyl-4-(r-lrhamnopyranosyloxy)- benzylglucosinolate isomers, but significant amounts of 4-(R-L rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate and benzylglucosinolate are found in the stem tissue. The root tissues found to contained both 4-(R- Lrhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate and benzylglucosinolate. The leaves of M. stenopetala contained quercetin 3-O-rhamnosylglucoside (rutin) and traces of quercetin 3-O-glucoside. On the other hand, the raw leaves of M. stenopetala are also known to contain isothiocyanates (cyanogenic glucosides), which is a known goitrogenic factor that can be detrimental to humans. Previous studies conducted in Ethiopia have shown a significant correlation between the prevalence of goiter and the frequency of consumption of the leaves. For instance, Abuye et al. (2003) determined the presence of cyanogenic glucosides in the raw leaves (88.8 mg/100 g) and cooked leaves (79 mg/100 g) of M. stenopetala and suggested that significant and frequent consumption of the leaves may exacerbate hypothyroidism since it is widely consumed by populations living in areas of incidence of endemic goiter though these concentrations are less than what is expected to cause goiter.

Mohammed 5 Conclusion Moringa stenopetala is a native tree in arid and semi-arid regions in the southern rift valley of Ethiopia. The local farmers use the species as one of the major arable tree inter-cropped in multi-storey system especially in Konso and Gamo Gofa areas of southern Ethiopia. The plant provides multiple socioeconomic and ecological services Table 4. Chemical composition of Moringa leaves and pods. Chemical analytical parameter Pods Leaves Leaf powder Moisture (%) 86.90 75.00 7.50 Calories 26.00 92.00 205.00 Protein (g) 2.50 6.70 27.10 Fat (g) 0.10 1.70 2.30 Carbohydrate (g) 3.70 13.40 38.20 Fiber (g) 4.80 0.90 19.20 Minerals (g) 2.00 2.30 - Ca (mg) 30.00 440.00 20003.00 Mg (mg) 24.00 24.00 368.00 P (mg) 110.00 70.00 204.00 K (mg) 259.00 259.00 1324.00 Cu (mg) 3.10 1.10 0.60 Fe (mg) 5.30 7.00 28.20 S (mg) 137.00 137.00 870.00 Oxalic acid (mg) 10.00 101.00 0.00 Vitamin A B carotene(mg) 0.10 6.80 16.30 Vitamin B-choline (mg) 432.00 423.00 - Vitamin B 1 thamin (mg) 0.05 0.21 2.60 Vitamin B 2 riboflavin (mg) 0.07 0.05 20.50 Vitamin B 3 nicotinic acid (mg) 0.20 0.80 8.20 Vitamin C- ascorbic acid (mg) 120.00 220.00 17.30 Vitamin E-tocopherol acetate (mg) - - 113.00 Arginine (g/16 g N) 3.60 6.00 0.00 Histidine (g/16 g N) 1.10 2.10 0.00 Lysine (g/16 g N) 1.50 4.30 0.00 Tryptophan (g/16 g N) 0.80 1.90 0.00 Phenylanaline (g/16 g N) 4.30 6.40 0.00 Methionine (g/16 g N) 1.40 2.00 0.00 Threonine (g/16 g N) 3.90 4.90 0.00 Luecine (g/16 g N) 6.50 9.30 0.00 Isoluecine (g/16 g N) 4.40 6.30 0.00 Valine (g/16 g N) 5.40 7.10 0.00 including dietary, medicinal and water treatment. The plant is a staple food and good sources of balanced diet in southern Ethiopia. The entire plant parts, except the wood, are edible and provide large quantity of inorganic and organic nutrient material essential for maintenance of health care system human, and also of other animals. Leaves are especially the most important part cooked and mixed with flour of cereal crops that would fulfill the nutritional requirement that a given complete diet should have. The presence of significant amount of calcium, iron, several vitamins and sulfur containing amino acids make M. stenopetala the virtual nutritious plant that can supplement the daily dietary needs of people. In addition to its nutritional role, M. stenopetala is a good source of drug to treat many health problems. In southern Ethiopia, especially in Konso and Gamo Gofa areas, the plant is used treat malaria, hypertension, stomach disorder and dysentery, asthma, diabetes, epilepsy and visceral leishmaniasis. Hence, it is recommended that the plant should be propagated to other parts of the country where there exist frequent occurrence of drought and famine to supplement the shortage of other cereal crops.

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