Mridang. A view of the Siddha Yoga drum from the perspective of the Indian music system. Agostino De Marco

Mridang A view of the Siddha Yoga drum from the perspective of the Indian music system Agostino De Marco November 2000

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Contents 1 A brief Introduction to Indian music 1 1.1 Mythological origins............................... 2 1.2 Historical development.............................. 3 1.2.1 The early history............................. 3 1.2.2 The contribution of Amir Khusru.................... 4 1.2.3 The contribution of Tansen....................... 5 1.2.4 The last two centuries.......................... 6 1.3 The Sangeet: vocal music, instrumental music and dance.......... 6 1.4 The traditional pedagogy of music........................ 7 1.5 Aesthetics and the nine moods.......................... 8 1.6 Fundamental concepts associated to Rāga................... 9 1.7 The north Indian system of music Hindustani Sangeet............ 11 1.8 The south Indian system of music Carnatic Sangeet (an outline)...... 13 1.9 Relationship between Hindustani and Carnatic Sangeet............ 15 2 The Siddha Yoga drum 17 2.1 The mridang.................................... 17 2.2 The drum in the context of indian music.................... 19 2.2.1 Dhrupad and Dhammar.......................... 20 2.2.2 Bhajan and Kirtan............................ 20 2.3 Relation between pakhāwaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla and South Indian mridangam.................................... 22 i

ii CONTENTS 2.3.1 Construction............................... 22 2.3.2 Tone.................................... 23 2.3.3 Technique................................. 24 2.3.4 Philosophy................................. 25 2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants................... 25 3 Getting started 29 3.1 Acquiring a mridang............................... 29 3.2 Basic care and tuning............................... 31 3.3 Sitting position.................................. 35 3.4 Powder....................................... 35 4 Basic strokes 37 4.1 Fundamental one hand strokes......................... 37 4.1.1 The right hand open stroke Nā (na;a)................... 38 4.1.2 The left hand open stroke Gi (;a;ga).................... 38 4.1.3 The left hand closed stroke Ka (k)................... 39 4.1.4 The right hand closed stroke Te (.tea)................... 39 4.1.5 The right hand closed stroke Ti (;a;ta).................. 40 4.1.6 The bol TiṬa (;a;taf)............................ 40 4.1.7 The right hand open stroke Tin (;a;tma).................. 42 4.1.8 The right hand open stroke Tun (tmua)................... 43 4.2 Combined strokes................................. 44 4.2.1 The bol Dhā (;Da;a)............................. 44 4.2.2 The bol Dhin (;a;dma)............................. 44 4.2.3 The bol Kha (Ka)............................. 45 4.2.4 The bol Dhi (;a;da)............................. 45 4.2.5 The bol Dhe (;Dea).............................. 45 4.2.6 The bol Dhun (;DMua)............................. 45 MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

CONTENTS iii 4.2.7 The bol Khun (KMua)............................. 46 4.3 Drum notation.................................. 47 4.4 Exercices...................................... 48 5 Advanced material 55 5.1 Other bols..................................... 55 5.1.1 The right hand closed stroke Ne.................... 55 5.1.2 The right hand open stroke Dī...................... 55 5.1.3 The right hand closed stroke Ma..................... 56 5.1.4 The pakhawaj style Tā.......................... 57 5.1.5 The left hand closed stroke bol Ge.................... 57 5.1.6 The bol Dhak............................... 57 5.1.7 The bol TeRiKīṬa............................. 57 5.2 Exercices...................................... 58 6 The North Indian rhythmic system 61 6.1 Elementary rhythmic concepts.......................... 61 6.1.1 Tāl..................................... 61 6.1.2 Mātrā................................... 62 6.1.3 Vibhāg................................... 62 6.1.4 Avartan.................................. 63 6.1.5 Sam.................................... 64 6.1.6 Khālī.................................... 64 6.1.7 The bols as a system of mnemonics................... 65 6.1.8 Lay..................................... 67 6.2 Cyclic and cadential bol patterns........................ 68 6.2.1 Ṭheka................................... 68 6.2.2 Prakar................................... 73 6.2.3 Tihai.................................... 75 November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

iv CONTENTS 6.3 Gharanas The stylistic schools......................... 77 7 The Kaherawa Tal in Siddha Yoga chants 81 7.1 The basic ṭheka and his role in a nāma saṇkīrtana............... 81 7.2 Slow, medium, fast thekas (prakars)....................... 81 7.3 Additional variations............................... 81 7.4 Cadential material: tihais............................ 81 7.5 Other phrases................................... 81 7.6 The bhajan theka................................. 81 8 The Dadra Tal in Siddha Yoga chants 83 8.1 The basic ṭheka.................................. 83 8.2 Slow, medium, fast prakars............................ 83 8.3 Tihais....................................... 83 9 Examples of accompanyment 85 9.1 Accompanying Jyota se Jyota......................... 85 9.2 Accompanying Gurudeva Amara Pyara.................... 85 9.3 Accompanying Sadguru Ki Arati........................ 85 9.4 Accompanying a nama sankirtana....................... 85 9.4.1 Starting a chant............................. 85 9.4.2 Speeding up a chant.......................... 85 9.4.3 Skipping to half tempo......................... 85 9.4.4 Concluding a chant........................... 85 9.5 The role of cymbals and kartal in a chant................... 85 A That the indian modes 87 A.1 Swar the notes................................. 87 A.2 Saptak the scales................................ 88 A.3 The ten Thats................................... 90 MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

CONTENTS v B Details on drum construction 93 B.1 The treble head (pudi).............................. 93 B.1.1 Basic structure.............................. 93 B.1.2 Construction............................... 95 B.1.3 Quality of gajara............................. 98 B.1.4 The syhai................................. 99 B.1.5 Quality of syhai.............................. 102 C A list of suppliers of Indian instruments 105 November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

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Chapter 1 A brief Introduction to Indian music The music of India is one of the oldest unbroken musical traditions in the world. The origins of this system go back to the Vedas. Many different legends have grown up concerning the origins and development of Indian classical music. Such legends show the importance that music has to Indian culture. Modern historical and cultural research has also given a good perspective on the field, showing that Indian music has developed within a very complex interaction between different peoples of different races and cultures. It appears that the ethnic diversity of present day India has been there from the earliest of times. The basis for Indian music is sangeet. Sangeet is a combination of three artforms: vocal music, instrumental music and dance. Although these three artforms were originally derived from the single field of stagecraft (see section 1.3), today these three forms have differentiated into complex and highly refined individual artforms. The present system of Indian music is based upon two important pillars: rāga (or rāg) and tāla (or tāl). Rāga is the melodic form while tāla is the rhythmic. Rāga may be roughly equated with the Western term mode or scale. There is a system of seven notes which are arranged in a means not unlike Western scales. However when a westerner looks closely he sees that it is quite different what he is familiar with (see more in section 1.6). Tāla (rhythmic forms) are also quite developed. Many common rhythmic patterns exist. They revolve around repeating patterns of beats. Tāla is equivalent to the Western concept of rhythm. Most pieces of Indian music, whether a long improvisation or a devotional song, 1

2 A brief Introduction to Indian music have a rhythmic structure, i.e. a plan of organized beats that the players use as a foundation. Most of Siddha Yoga music is composed in simple groups of six, eight, nine, twelve, or sixteen beats. But given its ancient and divine origins, one should not be surprised to learn that the Indian system of rhythm frequently uses such sophisticated and complex patterns in groups of seven, ten, or fourteen. The interpretation of rāg and tāl is not the same all over India. Today there are two major traditions, or systems, of music. There is the North Indian (see section 1.7), and the South Indian tradition (see section 1.8). The North Indian tradition is known as Hindustani sangeet and the south Indian is called Carnatic sangeet. Both systems are fundamentally similar but differ in nomenclature and performance practice. In Siddha Yoga music is followed the Hindustani system. Many musical instruments are peculiar to India. The most famous are the sitar and tabla. However there are many more that the average person may not be familiar with. All of this makes up the complex and exciting field of Indian classical music. Its understanding easily consumes an entire lifetime. 1.1 Mythological origins By looking at mythology one can really see the significance that Indian music (sangeet) has to Indian society. This is illustrated in the story concerning its origin. In the Nāṭya Śāstra, which is the oldest surviving text on stagecraft in the world (circa 2nd century B.C.), the author Bharata writes: Once, a long time ago, during the transitional period between two Ages it so happened that people took to uncivilised ways, were ruled by lust and greed, behaved in angry and jealous ways with each other and not only gods but demons, evil spirits, yakshas and and such like others swarmed over the earth. Seeing this plight, Indra and other gods approached god Brahma and requested him to give the people a toy (Kridaniyaka), but one which could not only be seen but heard and this should turn out a diversion (so that people gave up their bad ways) MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

1.2 Historical development 3 Although it was decided to give the celestial art of sangeet to mankind, a suitable human had to be found who was capable of receiving this gift. Sangeet had always been in the realm of the demigods (gāndharva). A super human of superior spiritual ability was required to convey this celestial artform to the world of man. It fell upon the great sage Narada to be the first mortal recipient of this divine art. Through Narada, we are indebted for the presence of classical music. 1.2 Historical development There are many important events in the history of Indian music. These milestones show the development of musical thought from early history to the present day. 1.2.1 The early history The early history of Indian music may be explained by the Indo European theory. According to this theory, there was a culture, or group of cultures who were so successful that they spread throughout Europe and parts of Asia. Although no one knows where they came from, present thought tends to place their origins somewhere in Eurasia, either north of the Black sea or north of the Caspian. Within this family there are several major groups. Indo Aryan is a group which has special significance for India because this is the language and culture which generated the Vedas and other classical texts of ancient India. The classical music of India is said to have its roots in this culture. The connection between Indo European expansion and Indian music may be seen in mythology. Mythology refers to music being brought to the people of India from a place of celestial beings. This mythical land (Gāndharva Desh) is usually equated with heaven. However, some are of the opinion that this mythical land could actually be Kandahar in what is the modern Afghanistan. Therefore, the myths of music being given to the world by the celestial beings (gāndharva) may actually represent a cultural connection with this ancient Indo Aryan homeland. Further evidence may be seen in musical structure. In the first few centuries B.C., November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

4 A brief Introduction to Indian music Indian music was based upon seven modes (scales). It is probably no coincidence that Greek music was also based upon seven modes. Furthermore, the Indian scales follow the same process of modulation that was found in ancient Greek music. The link to Sanskrit is another strong indication of Indo European roots. Many of the earliest texts were written in Sanskrit. It is also generally believed that classical music is derived from the Samaveda (a part of the Vedas). The nature of music in prehistoric India may be obscure but the picture begins to become clear in the first few centuries B.C.. Bharata s Nāṭya Śāstra (circa 200 B.C.), provides a detailed account of stagecraft in that period. Here we find mention of seven shuddha jāti (pure modes) and eleven mixed jātis (modal forms not produced by simple modulation). There is also a very detailed discussion of the musical instruments of the time. The first millennium provides us with several texts which show the evolution of Indian music. The Brihaddeshi written by Matanga (circa 700 A.D.) is very important. It is in this work that we first find the word rag mentioned. Another important text is the Sangeet Ratnakar by Sharangdev. This work, written around the thirteenth century, gives extensive commentaries about numerous musical styles that existed at that time. 1.2.2 The contribution of Amir Khusru Perhaps one of the most significant milestones in the development of Indian music was the life of Amir Khusru (born circa 1253, died 1325). He was a poet musician who served at the court of Sultan Allaudin Khilji (1296 1316). There is a tendency among Indians to attribute the development of almost everything to him. He is erroneously referred to as the inventor of instruments like the sitar and tabla and of numerous musical forms which did not develop until many centuries after his death. Although the extent of his contribution to Indian music is more legendary than factual, he nevertheless symbolizes a crucial turning point in the development of Indian music. Amir Khusru is an icon representing a growing Persian influence on the music. This influence was felt to a greater extent in the North than in the South. The consequence of this differing degree of influence ultimately resulted in the bifurcation of Indian music into two distinct MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

1.2 Historical development 5 systems: the Hindustani sangeet of the North (see section 1.7), and the Carnatic sangeet of the South (see section 1.8). 1.2.3 The contribution of Tansen The musical career of Tansen is another landmark in the development of Indian music. He is significant because he symbolizes the maturing of the north Indian system as a distinct entity from south Indian music. Figure 1.1: Tansen (16th century) Tansen is considered to be one of the greatest musicians that ever lived. He was the court musician of the famous Mogul Emperor Akbar (16th century). He was so highly valued in the court that he was called one of the Nine Jewels in his court. It is in the period of Tansen that the famous catalogue of musical instruments known as Ain i Akbari, was compiled by Abul Fazi for the Emperor Akbar. The details of Tansen s life are incomplete. He was born in a Hindu community and had his musical training under his guru Swami Haridas. He then went to the court of the Raja Ram Baghela, a great patron of the arts. From there he migrated to the court of Akbar. It is said that Tansen could work miracles with his singing. This is called nada siddhi in Sanskrit. He is supposed to have acquired such supernatural abilities through the devotion November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

6 A brief Introduction to Indian music for his guru. It is said that on occasion he could create rain by singing the monsoon rāga Megh Malhar. It is also said that he could create fire by singing rāga Dipak. Many rāgas are ascribed to Tansen. Such as Mian ki Malhar, Mian ki Todi and Darbari Kanada are the most famous. Today the followers of his style are said to belong to the Senia Gharana (see more on gharanas, music traditions, in section 6.3). 1.2.4 The last two centuries The eighteenth century marks the birth of many of the musical forms that we think of today. Dādrā, kheyal, thumri and a host of other forms are traceable to this period. The early part of the 20th century brings the most recent revolution in north Indian music. This is provided by two people: V. N. Bhatkhande and V. D. Paluskar. These two men revolutionized the concept of Indian music. Paluskar is responsible for the introduction of the first music colleges while Bhatkhande is responsible for the introduction of an organized system which reflects current performance practice. Both men are also responsible for the development and popularization of a modern musical notation. 1.3 The Sangeet: vocal music, instrumental music and dance Sangeet is a word which doesn t really translate into English. In its most general sense it is considered synonymous with the term music ; however it is actually a threefold artform of vocal music, instrumental music, and dance. Since classical dance is also a component, it is not strictly synonymous to the Western term music. There is a historical reason why sangeet is composed of these three artforms. In the Vedic and post Vedic period it was customary to perform mythological dramas. These dramas used dancers to mime the story, instrumentalist to play the musical accompaniment, and vocalist to tell and sing the story. There is a standard terminology whenever one wishes to be specific. Dance is refered to as nritya, vocal is refered to as gāyaki, and instrumental is known as vadhya sangeet. MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

1.4 The traditional pedagogy of music 7 Figure 1.2: The statue of a dancer 1.4 The traditional pedagogy of music Classical music in India is considered more than mere entertainment; it is a moral and spiritual redeemer. Therefore, the divine qualities inherent in the artform imply certain prerequisites; key among them are guru, vinaya and sadhana, i.e. teacher, humility, and discipline. The music guru, or teacher, is the most important prerequisite in traditional musical pedagogy. Music is said to be a guru mukha vidhya (i.e., knowledge which must come from a teacher). This is considered the highest form of knowledge. Traditional pedagogy is based upon the transfer of knowledge from the teacher (guru) to the disciple (shishya) in an unbroken tradition (parampara). The tradition of guru shishya parampara extends back countless millennia. The second prerequisite is vinaya (humility). This also reflects the divine origins of the artform. Classical music is said to be a worship that involves both the listener and the artist alike. Any negative emotions such as arrogance (abhiman) becomes an impediment. This is November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

8 A brief Introduction to Indian music an impediment from both the divine aspect as well as a matter of simple pedagogy (e.g., If one thinks he already knows everything, then what is there to learn? ) The final prerequisite for a student of classical music is sadhana, or discipline and practice. The divine origins of the artform require that the student be prepared to be a recipient of this knowledge. 1.5 Aesthetics and the nine moods The music of India presents a main difference with respect to the Western music: Indian music is melodic only. When we hear Indian music, we hear a melody played against a drone, (usually given by a stringed instrument known as tamboura, see fig. 1.3) which is tuned to a tonic (or home key) that never shifts throughout the piece, no matter how long it is. This is quite different from what can be heard in a Western music piece; a melody played against a moving series of accompanying chords with the possibility of the home key shifting several times. The concept of a fixed key in Indian music gives the music a focus in a way that allows the listener and player to immerse themselves deeply in the feeling of the one key. It also means that the interest and excitement of the music will be generated by the melody, rhythm, or words, not the underlying harmonies or modulating keys. (a) (b) Characteristic decorations Figure 1.3: The tamboura the instrument giving the drone In Indian musical thought it is said that every note represents a different emotion or feeling, so when some notes are grouped together in a specific way, a correspondig association MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

1.6 Fundamental concepts associated to Rāga 9 is conjured up. The ancient scriptures describe nine fundamental emotions from which all complex emotions may be produced. Just as all hues may be produced by mixing the three primary colours, so too, all emotions are said to be derived from these principal emotions. They are called nava rasa and are shown in table 1.1 below. These emotions form the aesthetic foundation for sangeet. Shringar Hasya Karuna Raudra Veera Bhayanak Vibhats Adbhuta Shanta Love Comic Sadness Furious Heroic Terrible Disgusting Wonderment Peace Table 1.1: The Nine Moods (Nava Rasa) Music requires an acoustic vehicle to convey these emotions. This acoustic vehicle is known as rāga. Rāga may be thought of as the melodic foundation upon which classical Indian music is based. During the last few centuries it was customary to anthropomorphize the raga in the form of gāndharvas (demigods) and apsaras (celestial nymphs). The divine quality of music contained in the system of rāgas is perhaps best illustrated in nad siddhi. This is the ability to perform miracles by singing or playing certain rāgas. The most famous miracle working musician was Tansen (see section 1.2.3). 1.6 Fundamental concepts associated to Rāga The rāga is the most important concept that anyone involved in listening or playing Indian music should understand. The Hindi/Urdu word rāg is derived from the Sanskrit rāga which means colour, or passion. It is linked to the Sanskrit word ranj which means to colour. Therefore rāgmay be thought of as an acoustic method of colouring the mind and November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

10 A brief Introduction to Indian music the heart of the listener with an emotion. There are hundreds of rāgas in Hindustani and Carnatic music, each with particular connotations such as steadfastness, devotion, majesty, stillness, etc. Figure 1.4: A Ragmala painting depicting a Ragini This is fine as a general concept but what is it musically? It is not a tune, melody, scale, mode, or any concept for which an English word exists. It is instead a combination of different characteristics which define the rāg. It is important to understand that a rāga is not exactly a scale, for there are different rāgas that have the same scale. What differentiates one from the other is the way the notes are used. The characteristics of a rāga are: There must be the notes of the rāg. They are called the swar. This concept is similar to the Western solfege. There must also be a modal structure. This is called that in North Indian music and mela in Carnatic music. There is also the jāti, i.e. is the number of notes used in the rāg. MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

1.7 The north Indian system of music Hindustani Sangeet 11 There must also be the ascending and descending structure. This is called arohana / avarohana. Another characteristic is that the various notes do not have the same level of significance. Some are important and others less so. The important notes are called vadi (or King) and samavadi (or Queen). There are often characteristic movements to the rag. This is called either pakad or swarup. In addition to the main characteristics of rāg, there are some other less important ones. For instance rāgas have traditionally been attributed to particular times of the day. They have also been anthropomorphized into families of male and female rāgs: rāga, ragini (see fig. 1.4), putra rāga, etc. Over the centuries rāga have been ascribed to certain demigods. A natural consequence of such anthropomorphism is that there be a familial relationship between them. Therefore, in the past few centuries there arose a complicated system of rāgs (male rāgs), raginis (female rāgs), putra rāgs (sons of rags), etc. This was the basis for a system of classification before the advent of modern musicology. Today the that, i.e. the indian system of modes, is the basis for the modern classification of rāga(see more in appendix A). 1.7 The north Indian system of music Hindustani Sangeet The north Indian system of music is known as Hindustani Sangeet. It covers an area that extends roughly from Bangladesh through northern and central India into Pakistan and as far as Afghanistan. The usual interpretation states that the Hindustani system may be thought of as a mixture of traditional Hindu musical concepts and Persian performance practice. The advent of Islamic rule over northern India caused the musicians to seek patronage in the courts of the new rulers. These rulers, often of foreign extraction, had strong cultural and religious sentiments focused outside of India; yet they lived in, and administered kingdoms November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

12 A brief Introduction to Indian music Figure 1.5: The geography of musical styles in India which retained their traditional Hindu culture. Several centuries of this arrangement caused the Hindu music to absorb musical influences from the Islamic world, primarily greater Persia. There are a number of musical instruments that we associate with Hindustani Sangeet. The most famous is the sitar and tabla. Other less well known instruments are the sarod, sarangi and a host of others. Some of the major vocal forms associated with Hindustani Sangeet are the kheyal, gazal, and thumri. Other styles which are also important are the dhrupad, dhammar, and tarana. This is just a small sampling for there are many other vocal styles. Most of the concepts mentioned here and in next chapters are from the Hindustani sangeet since this is the system adopted in Siddha Yoga music. MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

1.8 The south Indian system of music Carnatic Sangeet (an outline) 13 Figure 1.6: A veena player 1.8 The south Indian system of music Carnatic Sangeet (an outline) Carnatic Sangeet, or also Karnatik Sangit, is the south Indian system of music. It has a rich history and a very sophisticated theoretical system. South Indian performers and composers have, gained a world class reputation by singing and playing instruments such as veena (vina), gottuvadyam, violin, and mridangam. In the West, Carnatic Sangeet is not as well known as Hindustani Sangeet (north Indian music). Whenever Westerners think of Indian music, they immediately think of Ravi Shankar and the sitar. Although South Indian music is extremely sophisticated, there has not emerged an artist with the widespread recognition that North Indians, like Ravi Shankar, have been able to generate. Carnatic Sangeet is found in the south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Carnatica. These states are known for their strong presentation of Dravidian culture. Purandardas (1480-1564) is considered to be the father of Carnatic Sangeet. He is given credit for the codification of the method of education, and is also credited with several thousand songs. November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

14 A brief Introduction to Indian music Venkat Mukhi Swami (17th century) is the grand theorist of Carnatic music. He was the one who developed the melakarta system. This is the system for classifying south Indian rāgs. Carnatic music really acquired its present form in the 18th century. It was during this period that the so called trinity of Carnatic music, Thyagaraja, Shamashastri, and Muthuswami Dikshitar composed their famous compositions. In addition to the trinity, numerous other musicians and composers enriched this tradition. Carnatic music has a very highly developed theoretical system. It is based upon a complex system of rāgam (rāg) and thālam (tāl). These describe the intricacies of the melodic and rhythmic forms respectively. The melodic foundation is the rāgam (rāg). Rāgam is basically the scale. Similarly to the north Indian system, the seven notes of the scale are Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, and Ni. However, unlike a simple scale there are certain melodic restrictions and obligations. Each ragam has a particular way that it moves from note to note. The rāgams are categorised into various modes. These are referred to as mela, and there are 72 in number. The mela are conceptually similar to the that of North Indian music (see more in appendix A). There is however, a major difference. South Indian scales allow chromatic forms that are not allowed in Hindustani sangeet. For instance it is perfectly acceptable for the first three notes (i.e., Sa, Ri, Ga), to all be roughly one semitone apart. It is these permissible forms which allow there to be so many mela. The thalam (tāl) is the rhythmic foundation to the system. The south Indian tāls are defined by a system of clapping and waving, while this is much less important in the north. North Indian musicians define their tāla by their ṭheka (combinations of bols, or syllables, or strokes). Nomenclature is one of the biggest differences between North and South Indian music. It is normal for a particular rāga or tāla to be called one thing in the North and something totally different in the South. It is also common for the same name to be applied to very different rāga and tāla. It is theses differences in nomenclature that have made any theoretical reconciliation difficult. MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

1.9 Relationship between Hindustani and Carnatic Sangeet 15 Vocal music forms the basis of South Indian music. Although there is a rich instrumental tradition that uses Saraswati vina, venu and violin, they revolve around instrumental renditions of vocal forms. There are a number of sections to the Carnatic performance. Varanam is a form used to begin many south Indian performances. The word varanam literal means a description and this section is used to unfold the various important features of the rāgam. The kritis are fixed compositions in the rāg. They have well identified composers and do not allow much scope for variation. However such compositions are often preceded by alapana. The alapana offers a way to unfold the rāgam to the audience, and at the same time, allow the artist considerable scope for improvisation. The niruval and the kalpana swara also provide opportunities to improvise. Another common structure are the rāgam, thanam, and, pallavi. South Indian performances are based upon three major sections. These are the pallavi, anupallavi, and charanam. The rich tradition of South Indian music is one of the worlds gems. The high performance standards and the well organised theoretical foundation put it on par with anything that world has seen, either East or West. 1.9 Relationship between Hindustani and Carnatic Sangeet The reasons for the differentiation between North and South Indian music are not clear. The generally held belief is that North Indian music evolved along different lines due to an increased exposure to the Islamic world. This results from nearly 800 years of Islamic rule over northern India. Unfortunately, evidence suggests that this answer is a gross over simplification. For instance, the state of Kerala in southern India has an extremely large Muslim population, but virtually no identification with north Indian music. By the same token, the Islamic influence over Orissa (north) was negligible, yet the artistic forms are clearly identifiable as Hindustani. Although there is a poor correlation between the geographical distribution of November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

16 A brief Introduction to Indian music Hindus / Muslims and the two musical systems, there is an almost exact correlation between the Indo European / Dravidian cultures and the two musical systems. MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

Chapter 2 The Siddha Yoga drum 2.1 The mridang The percussion instrument mainly used in Siddha Yoga chants and music, see fig. 2.1, is a drum whose origins date back thousands of years. This drum is known with various names. One of these is pakhāwaj; another one is mridang. (a) The system of bolts (b) The treble head (c) The bass head Figure 2.1: The mridang used in Siddha Yoga chants Strictly speaking the mridang is an entire category of barrel shaped, double headed drums. In its classical form, the instrument known as the Mridang or Mridanga, is referred to in ancient Sanskrit works and is also pictured in the paintings on the walls of the famous 17

18 The Siddha Yoga drum Ajanta caves. Similar drums have been found in Indus Valley excavations dating back 4 millenia. It is thus clearly a very ancient invention, and its acoustical perfection must be considered a remarkable testimony to the inventiveness and musical taste of its progenitors. The classical pakhāwaj is the north Indian version of mridang, see fig. 2.2(a). In southern India instead the mridang evolved in a drum known as mridangam, or carnatic mridangam, see fig. 2.2(b). (a) North indian pakhāwaj (b) South indian mridangam Figure 2.2: Two examples of mridang The classical pakhāwaj does not present metal parts but is laced with rawhide. The lacing fixes the drum heads to the wooden shell. Wooden pegs, known as gatta, are inserted between the straps and the shell for the purpose of tuning. The sliding of the tuning pegs induces tension variations in both the drum heads. The drum heads, known as pudi, are the peculiar part of the pakhāwaj among the other drums of the mridang class. The treble head, fig. 2.3, Figure 2.3: The treble head of a pakhāwaj MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

2.2 The drum in the context of indian music 19 has basically three parts: (i) the outer weaving (gajara or pagri), (ii) the membranes, (iii) the black spot (syahi, or shyai) in the center. The bass (bigger) head is in principle similar to the treble one except that there is a temporary application of flour and water instead of the black permanent spot. Details on the construction of pudi are reported in appendix B. The Siddha Yoga drum, usually called mridang also, is a modern evolution of the original ancient pakhāwaj. In this screw type pakhāwaj the system of straps is replaced by a system of metal hooks fixed to the shell by bolts, see fig. 2.1(a). This makes possible the tuning of a single head, sometimes without using a hammer for the fine tuning of the treble head, while letting unchanged the tension of the other head. Acting on the screws with a wrench, each of the drum heads can be tuned. 2.2 The drum in the context of indian music Pakhāwaj is the most common north Indian representative of the class of mridang. It was once common throughout north India. In the last few generations this drum has been replaced by tabla in performance music forms, fig. 2.4(b). (a) Tabla (b) A north Indian classical music performance with tabla accompaniment Figure 2.4: Tabla is today the preferred percussion instrument for the rhythmic accompanyiment of Hindustani classical music A Tabla set is formed by a small wooden drum called danya and a larger metal one called November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

20 The Siddha Yoga drum banya. It is said that tabla was developed by cutting a pakhāwaj into two pieces. 2.2.1 Dhrupad and Dhammar There are several styles of pakhāwaj playing. The most well known and important is for the accompaniment of dhrupad and dhammar singers. Dhrupad is perhaps the oldest style of classical singing in north Indian music today. The heyday of this style was in the time of Tansen (16th century). It is a very heavy, masculine style performed to the accompaniment of the pakhāwaj. It is known for its austere quality and strict adherence to the rhythmic structure (tala). The moods of dhrupad may vary but themes revolving around the victories of great kings and mythological stories are common. Devotional themes are also very common. Dhammar is a very old style of singing as well. This name is also applied to instrumental renditions of vocal compositions. It has many similarities to dhrupad. The major difference is that it is slightly more romantic. Themes of dhammar typically revolve around Krishna and the Holi festival. In fact the dhammar is often called hori, or holi. Pakhāwaj is found in accompaniment of Orissi dancers and occasionally for kathak dance. It is also found in a classical form from Rajasthan known as Haveli Sangeet. Pakhāwaj compositions are passed down from generation to generation. They are taught by a series of mnemonic syllables known as bols. 2.2.2 Bhajan and Kirtan Pakhāwaj is very much used for Devotional music forms, like nāmā saṇkīrtana and bhajans of Siddha Yoga. The bhajan has a special place in India. Most bhajans were written between the 14th through 17th centuries. They were songs sung in the praise of God through which spiritual truths were portrayed in the simple language of the farmers, merchants and other common people of the time. Bhajan is an important part of the Bhakti movement born in India during the Mogul period. Bhajan is not defined by any musical characteristics; it is simply defined by a sense MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

2.2 The drum in the context of indian music 21 of devotion (bhakti). Bhajans cover a broad spectrum of musical styles from the simple musical chant (dhun, or kirtan) to highly developed versions comparable to thumri. Thumri is a common style of light classical music with text of romantic and devotional nature, and usually revolving around a girl s love for Krishna. Bhajan, like thumri is, can become a style characterized by a greater flexibility with the raga. The poetic content of the bhajan also covers a broad spectrum. The more traditional ones are by great poet saint such as Mirabai, Surdas, or Kabir, and are considered to be of the highest literary quality. An important form related to bhajan is the dhun, which sometimes is actually nothing more than a musical version of a chant. Figure 2.5: An image of Mirabai The structure of bhajan is very conventional. It contains a single refrain sthai and numerous verses antara. The last antara has special significance because it contains the name of the author. The Kirtan or Dhun is related to the bhajan. The major difference is that bhajan is usually performed by a soloist, while kirtan and dhun usually involve the audience. The musical quality is consequently much simpler. The term Kirtan is used by Hindus and Sikhs, while the term Dhun seems to be used only by Hindus, especially Gujuratis. November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

22 The Siddha Yoga drum 2.3 Relation between pakhāwaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla and South Indian mridangam Pakhāwaj, tabla and mridangam form the basis for the classical percussion in India. Questions arise as to the differences and similarities between them. Differences may fall into four categories: construction, tone, technique, and philosophy. The music of India is one of the oldest systems of music in the world. There is the Hindusthani sangeet, the north Indian music system, and the Carnatic sangeet in the south. Collectively these two limbs form the body of a musical tradition that is said to extend back several thousand years. Although there are many similarities between the two systems there are also differences. One of the differences is in the choice of rhythmic accompaniment. The Carnatic sangeet of southern India prefers the mridangam. This instrument, like the north Indian pakhāwaj, is a single piece of wood that is hollowed out and has playing heads on both sides. North Indian music prefers the pakhāwaj and tabla. 2.3.1 Construction There are a number of differences between the construction of mridangam, tabla and pakhāwaj (even if some principles of construction of pakhāwaj and tabla are essentially the same). Some of the differences are obvious and some are more subtle. The most obvious difference in construction is that mridangam and pakhāwaj use a single resonator while tabla uses two. Therefore the tension of the left and right sides of tabla are separately controlled (actually this happens also for the Siddha Yoga drum thanks to the system of bolts), while they are inseparably linked in mridangam and pakhāwaj. Pakhāwaj, Siddha Yoga mridang and mridangam s single resonator also produces an acoustic coupling between the two heads. The drumheads show major differences. For instance the mridangam is made of extremely heavy hides while the tabla, the pakhāwaj and the Siddha Yoga mridang use thinner ones. The tabla bayan has a permanent dry application while the mridangam and the classical pakhāwaj have a temporary wet application of flour and water. Siddha Yoga mridang bass head has instead an inner permanent semi dry application. MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

2.3 Relation between pakhāwaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla and South Indian mridangam23 (a) The bass head (b) Sitting position Figure 2.6: More details on mridangam All these drums have a skin that does not completely cover the surface. There is a hole in this outer covering which exposes the main membrane below. The outer annular membrane is much more prominent in the mridangam than in the tabla, pakhāwaj and mridang. There are items placed between the main membrane and the annular membrane that further accentuate these differences. Tabla, pakhāwaj and mridang often have a string placed between the annular covering and the main skin, while mridangam has straw. This may not appear to be a significant difference but the purpose of these insertions is diametrically opposite. String is placed in the north Indian drums to lift the annular membrane and reduce the dampening effect. The mridangam instead has pieces of straw placed radially between the two skins. This actually increases the dampening and acts as a snare. The cumulative effects of these differences in construction create major differences in the tone of the instrument. 2.3.2 Tone Mridang, pakhāwaj, tabla and mridangam are characterized by a rich and varied tone. Some strokes evoke clear pitched sounds while others evoke unpitched sounds. The pitched strokes clearly show the tonal differences between these drums. For example the rim stroke on the treble head is a major stroke on both the mri- November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

24 The Siddha Yoga drum dang/tabla/pakhāwaj and the mridangam. Although the nomenclature varies this stroke is usually called Nā in the North and Nam in the South. If one looks at the sound frequency spectrum of this stroke, on both instruments a predominant third harmonic is the main characteristic. However, the fundamental may be seen in significant proportion in the mridangam while it is essentially absent in the mridang/tabla/pakhāwaj. Furthermore the second harmonic tends to be evoked in the north Indian drums while it is suppressed in the mridangam. The open stroke is also a major stroke for both drums. This is called Tun in the North and Deem in the South. Both strokes are characterized by a very prominent fundamental. However there is a significant difference in the second harmonic of the frequency spectrum. The open stroke of the left hand is called Ga in tabla, Gi in mridang and pakhāwaj and Thom in the South for mridangam. It shows a tremendous difference between these instruments. Tabla has a very pronounced fundamental (harmonic) and a long sustain. There are much fewer harmonics in this stroke. Conversely the pakhāwaj, the Siddha Yoga mridang and south Indian mridangam have a much more complex harmonic spectrum and a significantly reduced sustain. 2.3.3 Technique The fingering technique is a very important consideration in this discussion. Tabla has a distinct leaning toward the delicate fingering while Pakhāwaj, mridang and the mridangam have a balance between the powerful and delicate techniques. A brief look at the history of the instruments shows why. The evolution of both the pakhāwaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla, and mridangam may be traced to an archetypical mridang. This instrument had a close association to the ancient mythological dramas. This association meant that the drums would sometimes have to support both masculine and feminine characters. The delicate movements of the dance are known as lasya while the more powerful masculine movements are known as tandava. Powerful techniques were developed to accentuate the masculine roles while delicate techniques were developed to support the feminine roles. MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants 25 In the last several centuries the drumming technique in north Indian music has bifurcated. The more powerful and aggressive techniques have been relegated to the pakhāwaj while the delicate techniques have been relegated to tabla. Yet there was no bifurcation of technique in the South. The powerful and aggressive techniques exist alongside the delicate. In Siddha Yoga mridang both delicate and aggressive techniques are retained so that they can properly accompany the various Siddha Yoga chants in all their moods and speeds. 2.3.4 Philosophy There is another area of difference between the north and south Indian percussion styles. This reflects a basic philosophic difference between North and South Indian music. For example in performance music, tabla or pakhāwaj provide the rhythmic base for the entire performance. Since the main performer will constantly refer to the drum, it is essential that there be a conventionally established pattern that may be universally understood. This pattern is called theka. Too much variation from the established theka may lead to a breakdown in communication and thus compromise the entire performance. In the old days, vocalists and instrumentalists would not allow their drummers to play anything except theka. Today there is much greater freedom, still the basic responsibility remains. The role of the mridangam in south Indian music is much different. The mridangam does not have to provide the rhythmic base for the performance. Such a base is provided by a conventionally established pattern of claps and waves. Half of the audience in a south Indian performance may be clapping along with the performers. With so many people providing the base there is a greater freedom given to the mridangam player. The consequence of not having to provide a base means that there is no such thing as a theka, therefore different accompanying rhythms may be used according to the artistic discretion of the performers. 2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants There are two types of chanting in Siddha Yoga centers and ashrams: swadhyaya, the chanting of sacred texts, and nāma saṇkīrtana, or fast chants. The text chants, like the Guru November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

26 The Siddha Yoga drum Gīta, Rudram, and Shiva Mahimna are taken from the ancient scriptures of India and are usually sung in simple melodies at a medium pace, and accompanyed by harmonium and tamboura (see fig. 2.8). Figure 2.7: Playing for a Siddha Yoga fast chant Nāma saṇkīrtana, which means the divine repetition of the name of God, are the chants that usually use the drum in addition to the harmonium and tamboura. These chants exclaim one or more of the names of God over and over, usually in a call and response fashion. They most often begin at a slow or moderate tempo and speed up gradually. Many nāma saṇkīrtana are based on specific ragas, and the melodies are more involved than those in the text chants. The role of the drum in a nāma saṇkīrtana is to maintain the tempo so that everyone may sing in time together. There are also other instruments that are played to provide rhythmic support during a Siddha Yoga fast chant. They include hand cymbals, see fig. 2.9(a), and kartal, a pair of wooden blocks with small metal jingles mounted on it, see fig. 2.9(b). These instruments are played simply beating them together. MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants 27 Figure 2.8: Harmonium and Tamboura (a) Cymbals (b) Kartal Figure 2.9: Other rhythmic instruments used in Siddha Yoga fast chants November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

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Chapter 3 Getting started 3.1 Acquiring a mridang Buying a mridang from India is the first thing that most people think of. This is the preferred course if someone is actually going to India. It is important not to go to the shop by oneself unless the craftsman or the shop owner is well known. The chances of getting a good drum at a reasonable price are unlikely if one goes without someone who knows the instruments and the shopkeeper very well. If one is not actually going to India, things are more difficult. It is not practical to do retail business by correspondence. Therefore, one should think about purchasing such an instrument in his or her country or continent (in the case of North America or Europe). Transportation times in the West are typically only a few days as opposed to Indian weeks or months. Chances for damage are tremendously reduced. Should there be damage, it is easier to exchange or obtain compensation. There is really one disadvantage when dealing with western firms: cost. A mridang in America or Europe costs many times what comparable merchandise costs in India. In any case, all things considered, it is usually better to deal with western firms: the difference in cost is worth the headhache of trying to do business overseas. There is a list of suppliers in the Appendix C of this volume. Familiarizing with the parts of the drum makes many things easier. It allows to communicate with importers and musicians. It also gives necessary background to get started. Major parts of the mridang are shown in fig. 3.1. These parts are: (i) the heads (pudi), (ii) 29

30 Getting started the wooden shell (lakadi), (iii) the bolts. Figure 3.1: Main parts of a mridang Let us make a closer look at the pudi, fig. 3.2. The four parts that one has to be concerned with are: (i) the black spot (syahi), (ii) the main membrane (sur or maidan), (iii) the anular membrane (kinar or chat), and (iv) the leather braid (gajara or pagri). Figure 3.2: Parts of the drumhead There are many decisions which must be made during the time of purchase. It would be impossible to predict all of the options, but here are a few common ones. MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

3.2 Basic care and tuning 31 There are various types of lacing and tightening arrangements. Not all of them are of the same quality. One may find rawhide, leather, rope and turnbuckles. In traditional pakhāwaj method of lacing the rawhide is used, fig. 3.3. As the name implies, rawhide is a skin that has a minimal chemical treatment after it was removed from the animal: usually only the addition of salt as a preservative. It is readily available in India and relatively inexpensive. It has the the disadvantage of being sensitive to changes in humidity and temperature and it is sometimes difficult to work with. Figure 3.3: Traditional pakhāwaj lacing The case of metal turnbuckles, or bolts, is the preferred option in Siddha Yoga drums. They have the advantage, among the others recalled in chapter 2, of making the drum less susceptible to changes in humidity and temperature, hence the drumheads are more stable in their tuning. The best mridangs usually come from the two Indian states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. This area has a ready supply of shisham (Indian rosewood, Dalbergia sisu), which is tight grained and very heavy. There is also a good supply of the special powder used to make the syahi. The rawhide of traditional pakhāwajs also tends to be much heavier in this area. The availability of good materials and skilled craftsmen give these two states a very high proportion of excellent drums. 3.2 Basic care and tuning One of the first things that musicians have to learn is how to take care of their instruments. The mridang requires some special consideration. This instrument is used in such a sacred November 2000 agodemar@unina.it

32 Getting started and uplifting praactice as chanting that one has to take good care of him and pay him great respect. It is said that Saraswatī, the goddess of speech, arts and learning resides in each and every musical instrument. As a sign of respect, many musicians in India will salute their instrument, or touch their hands to the instrument and then to their hearts, before picking it up to play. Great care is taken to avoid stepping over any musical instrument. The following points can be made about the care for the drum. The most important thing is to keep the black spot (syhai) dry. It is very sensitive to moisture. This is one of the reasons why mridang players use talcum powder when they play. Even a small amount of sweat on the player s hands is enough to damage the drumhead. Using covers to protect the skin of each drumhead is a good idea when the instrument is not being played. A dust cover is also good. The mridang should not be exposed to extreme variations of temperature. Excessive heat may split the skins. Sudden exposure to cold may cause moisture to condense in the syahi and cause damage. The drum should be stored out of traffic s way to avoid accidental damage. It can be stored standing upright on the big end only. A cradle, i.e. a very low wooden stand that the drum can lie across, is a very good way as well, particularly if the ends are covered. Cradles also help position the drum at a comfortable height for playing. Periodic wiping of the outside will help keep the instrument looking nice. Wax polishes and the like are not necessary and best avoided. Great care has to be taken when transporting any instrument. Completely covering the mridang, when it does not hinder carrying it, will help avoid accidental scratches and scrapes. The drum heads, especially the treble head, should be kept always in tune. There is a common misconception that a drum like this should be loosened whenever it is not going to be played. This is true when dealing with the poorest quality mridangs. Doing this for any good quality drum will make it unreliable while performing. The treble head of a mridang has a stringent requirement for pitch. In table 3.1 is reported a list of treble head diameters and recommended tunings. There are three things MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

3.2 Basic care and tuning 33 that one should keep in mind about this table. The first is that the diameter is measured from the rim, as shown in fig. 3.4, not from the braid of the drumhead. The second is that the drum shell is sufficiently flexible to go a step in either directions, in terms of tuning: for instance, a 6 inches head could be tuned in A flat or in F sharp instead of G. The final point is that table 3.1 has not taken thickness of the skin into consideration. Therefore the table is only a rough guide. Figure 3.4: The correct way of determining the pudi size One uses the Nā or the Tin strokes (see chapter 4 for more details on the drum strokes) to determine the pitch. The use of these strokes has the advantage of showing what the tension is under a very small area of the rim. Size (in) Pitch 5 1/4 C 5 1/2 B 5 3/4 A 6 G 6 1/4 F 6 1/2 F sharp Table 3.1: Recommended tunings for mridang treble heads Tuning is performed on the braid. One raises the pitch by slightly tightening the skin. This is accomplished by acting on the bolts. Conversely, one lowers the pitch by slightly November 2000 agodemar@unina.it