Sociology s Family Tree: Theories and Theorists

CHAPTER 2 Sociology s Family Tree: Theories and Theorists LEARNING OBJECTIVES For a detailed Study Plan and more Learning Objectives, see www.wwnorton.com/studyspace. By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: Explain what social theory is. Understand how social theory is relevant in individual s lives. Identify the origins of social theory and its founders Comte, Spencer, Martineau. Distinguish the four key figures in classical sociological thought: Freud, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber. Provide an overview of the three modern schools of thought: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interaction. Demonstrate an understanding of new theoretical approaches such as postmodernism, feminist theory, and queer theory. CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter provides an overview of the theorists and theoretical perspectives that make up the foundation for social thought. This chapter aims to summarize quickly complex abstract concepts that many students may find uninteresting, but it includes engaging examples and details about the theorists lives to capture students attention. Ferris and Stein begin by defining theory and using the example of society s changing attitudes about mental illness to illustrate a practical consequence of theory. The first theorists discussed are referred to as the roots of sociology s family tree Comte, Martineau, and Spencer. The trunk of the tree consists of Durkheim, Marx, Weber, and Freud. After covering the life experiences and ideas of these theorists, the chapter explains the three major theoretical paradigms: structural functionalism, social conflict theory, and symbolic interaction. The chapter ends by outlining new theoretical approaches such as feminist theory, queer theory, and postmodern theory. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. What Is a Theory? a. A theory is an abstract proposition about how things are as well as how they should be. Theories are also called approaches, schools of thought, paradigms, or perspectives. b. The theoretical paradigm we use affects the way that we see the world and helps to guide social research. Each theoretical paradigm has benefits and limitations. All these paradigms are necessary for social analysis. c. Theory affects public policy and treatment of individuals. Past theories about mental illness led to horrific treatment of the mentally ill. Present theories are just as fallible and subject to modification. 2. Sociology s Family Tree a. Sociology s Roots i. Auguste Comte: Positivism, scientific method applied to studying society. ii. Harriet Martineau: Critiqued U.S. democracy as flawed and hypocritical for condoning slavery and denying full citizenship to women. iii. Herbert Spencer: Social Darwinism, survival of the fittest; Spencer compared society with the human body in that all parts are needed for the function of the whole. b. Classical Sociological Theory 13

14 Chapter 2 i. Emile Durkheim: Use of empirical study; mechanical solidarity versus organic solidarity; study of suicide; anomie; religion as social solidarity. ii. Karl Marx: Conflict over resources; social inequality; capitalism; means of production; proletariat versus bourgeoisie; alienation; socialism. iii. Max Weber: Rationalization; bureaucracies; disenchantment; verstehen. iv. Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis; libido and aggression versus sublimation and repression; discontent. 3. Modern Schools of Thought a. Structural Functionalism i. Origins: Comte, Spencer, and Durkheim ii. Tenets: Society is a stable system of interrelated parts that work together to function as a whole. Emphasis on social structure and the functions that each part fulfills. iii. Offshoots: Parsons, Smelser, Merton s manifest and latent functions. iv. Critiques: The mere persistence of an institution should not be seen as an adequate explanation of its existence. It is a static model that does not provide insight into social processes. v. Advantages: Attempts to provide a universal social theory. b. Conflict Theory i. Origins: Marx. ii. Tenets: Society is an area of conflict and change motivated by struggle over resources and power. Marx encouraged social change and equal access for all people. False consciousness versus class consciousness. iii. Offshoots: Critical theory (Frankfurt school, neo-marxism), including theorists such as Habermas, Adorno, Marcuse; feminist theory, critical race theory. iv. Critiques: Overlooks commonalities and shared values. v. Advantages: The principle of praxis, or practical action. c. Symbolic Interactionism i. Origins: George Herbert Mead and the Chicago School, Herbert Blumer, Erving Goffman, and Harvey Sacks. ii. Tenets: Face-to-face interaction is the building block for all of society. Through interaction we create a meaningful reality. Meanings are negotiated and modified through social interaction. iii. Offshoots: Dramaturgy, ethnomethodology, conversation analysis. iv. Critiques: Often dismissed by macrosociologists as being unscientific, astructural, and less rigorous than structural functionalism and conflict theory. v. Advantages: Allows for versatility in addressing any sociological issue. Explores meaning and truly connects the individual to the social. 4. New Theoretical Approaches a. Feminist theory focuses on enhancing scholarly understanding of gender inequality in our society. b. Queer theory proposes that the predominant categories of sexuality are simplistic social constructs that need to be replaced with more fluid notions of identity. c. Postmodern theory is an interdisciplinary theory that argues that there are no absolute universal truths from which we can interpret the meaning of existence. Instead, we need to embrace multiplicity, fluidity, complexity, and multi-dimensionality. LECTURE SUGGESTIONS Many students groan at the thought of reading a chapter on theory. The authors approach helps students understand that theory is shaped by individual experience as well as by cultural and historical contexts. Another technique that I employ is to make sure that students realize that theory doesn t exist in a vacuum and instead is applicable to their everyday lives on many different levels. I begin by arguing that they can use theories as a basic map for understanding whatever they are studying. Because sociology is a study of society, its theories can be explained as ways of looking at interaction that help to guide research and analysis. The authors use theories of mental illness to illustrate how theory can affect treatment of other human beings. The example I use in class of virtual communities and building relationships online demonstrates how theory can affect individual interactions and relationships. An individual s assumptions about cyberspace interaction influence the way that he or she interacts online. Some see their virtual identities as an extension of their actual identities. Thus, when they post online, they do so earnestly, with as much integrity and honesty as they would in their real life interactions. Others see online interactions as a joke, and thus their virtual identities are free to engage in behavior without consequences. In many cases, those who see online interaction as unreal tend to lie, act rudely or spitefully, or violate rules simply because they do not believe that their actions have costs or penalties. Problems arise when these two perspectives on cyberspace interaction collide.

Sociology s Family Tree: Theories and Theorists 15 A Rape in Cyberspace by Julian Dibbell (www.julian dibbell.com/texts/bungle.html) is a classic piece documenting an extreme case of what occurs when people approach interaction using drastically different theories. As a side note, the same article is an excellent illustration of applied postmodernism. Dibbell details an incident in a cybercommunity where an outsider, applying the perspective that interaction in cyberspace is not real interaction, uses words to simulate sexual assaults on members of the community. Dibbell captures the outrage that stems from the violated members humiliation and horror at this virtual rape. On one level, this research provides a fascinating example for students to understand the impact that theory can make on individuals and their interactions. On another level, this research can help illustrate a postmodern concept: Is rape where no bodies are actually involved still an act of violence? On a much lighter note, I like to give the following example to explain Merton s manifest and latent functions. To extend the book s example of education s manifest and latent functions, I detail the manifest and latent functions of college. Generally, for manifest functions of college, I will show the students the school s mission statement. Then, I will show them examples of common understandings of college life from clips of such movies as Animal House, Rvenge of the Nerds, Van Wilder, and from some current television ads portraying college as a beer-soaked orgy. Then I explain to them that college does serve a latent function as a prescribed time and somewhat safer place to experiment with drinking, drugs, and casual sex. Outside the context of college (and the traditional age of college attendance), excessive drinking, rude behavior, and pranks are no longer considered appropriate. The movie Old School provides a funny account of what occurs when married men in their thirties decide to return to the attitudes and behaviors of their college years. Short Discussion DISCUSSION QUESTIONS I particularly like the eighth Question for Review as the topic for a short class discussion. Symbolic interactionism argues that meanings are not inherent in things or gestures, but are socially derived and negotiated through interactions. Ask students to think of some recent fashion trend. Ask them to describe this trend in terms of what it means to those who embrace it. Also ask what sort of interactions produce and maintain this meaning. Long Discussion Returning to the text s recurring theme of reality television, show students the current listings of reality shows such as the one at www.realitytvcalendar.com, and have small groups each select a familiar show. Ask each group to select one of the three major theoretical perspectives best suited to analyze its chosen show. Make sure that students are able to support their decisions adequately. SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE DVD See www.wwnorton.com/studyspace for Sociology in Practice DVD quizzes and streaming video clips. The Coffee-Go-Round (6:09) Bullfrog Films; produced by Television Trust for the Environment, 2004 Try showing The Coffee-Go-Round. This clip elucidates the contradiction between the increasing amounts of coffee being consumed each year and the economic crisis that coffee growers face. It also helps to illustrate how students can use theory in framing issues connected to items found in their everyday lives. In fact, you can take a quick hand-raise poll about how many students have a cup of coffee with them in class and how many students had a cup of coffee that day. You can use the clip as a springboard for discussion about how to apply the different theoretical perspectives to the problem of coffee production. Precarious Peace: God and Guatemala (4:47) Written and produced by Rudy and Shirley Nelson, 2003 Alternatively, if you ve used The Coffee-Go-Round in Chapter 1, Precarious Peace: God and Guatemala presents a variety of Christian views on Mayan spirituality in Guatemala. The clip includes interviews with religious leaders and scholars about the El Shaddai Church, a movement that originated in the United States and has now spread to upper-class Guatemalan Protestant churches. According to structural functionalism, the beliefs and practices associated with a religion serve a number of functions. What are some of the functions that religion provides for the people in this video? Are there any dysfunctions? How might a conflict theorist analyze the experiences of the people in this video? DATA WORKSHOP GUIDE Interactive Data Workshops are available at www.wwnorton. com/studyspace.

16 Chapter 2 For Instructors: Analyzing Mass Media and Popular Culture: Theories of Celebrity Gossip Data Collection: Approximately 30 minutes This Data Workshop aids students in understanding how something that is usually seen as academic and abstract can be applied to a phenomenon like celebrity gossip. Students are asked to pick five entries from a celebrity gossip blog of their choice and answer questions that will allow them to analyze these entries from each of the three theoretical perspectives. The data collection for this workshop should take about 30 minutes, and can be done from the convenience of any place that has internet access. Because it is a fairly easy assignment, and because celebrity gossip readily sparks class discussion, I suggest using Option 1.

HANDOUT 2.1 Data Workshop 2.1 Analyzing Mass Media and Popular Culture: Theories of Celebrity Gossip Each of these Data Workshops requires you to do original sociological research, using methods and concepts covered in the course. Please refer to Chapter 3 of the textbook for instructions on how to conduct social research. Refer to the textbook chapter listed under each topic for information on the concept to which it is related. You will be expected to support your discussion using specific terms and concepts from that chapter. You should not use any other supplemental sources for this paper. Chapter 2 of The Real World emphasizes the importance of social theory in analyzing the world around us. Although many can dismiss celebrity blogs such as www.perezhilton.com and www.wwtdd.com as frivolous and mean, the popularity and prevalence of these websites have a considerable social impact on our world today. For this Data Workshop, you will be analyzing entries in a celebrity blog, using one of the three major social paradigms. Step 1: Collectng Data Choose a celebrity blog and pick five entries. Scrutinize the pictures, read the headlines and text carefully, and review the reader comments. Step 2: Thinking about and Analyzing the Data For the five entries that you have selected, answer the following questions from each of sociology s three major theoretical perspectives. DATA-COLLECTION FORM FOR THEORIES OF CELEBRITY GOSSIP Data Workshop 2.1 Name: Class Section: Date: 1. Structural Functionalist Theory: What is the function (or functions) of celebrity gossip blogs for society? What purpose(s) do they serve, and how do they help society maintain stability and order? Do celebrity gossip blogs have manifest and latent functions? Are any dysfunctions built into such publications?

2. Social Conflict Theory: What forms of inequality are revealed in celebrity gossip blogs? In particular, what do celebrity gossip blogs have to say about gender, race, and class inequalities? Who suffers and who benefits from the publication of celebrity gossip blogs? 3. Symbolic Interactionist Theory: What do celebrity gossip blogs mean to society as a whole? What do they mean to individual members of society? Can they have different meanings for different individuals or groups of individuals? How do those meanings get constructed in interaction? And how do celebrity gossip blogs shape and influence our everyday lives?

Sociology s Family Tree: Theories and Theorists 19 For Instructors: Analyzing Everyday Life: Shopping for Theoretical Perspectives at Wal-Mart Completion Time: Approximately 1 hour This workshop aids students in applying theoretical perspectives to their personal knowledge and to data that they collect at a familiar social institution, Wal-Mart. If a Wal-Mart is not available, suggest that students use another big-box store. By asking and answering differing sets of questions about the same topic, they are able to see how different theoretical assumptions can allow analysis of the same object to yield multiple interpretations. You may want to have students refer to the glossary at the end of the textbook for quick reference to the relevant terms. Because this is a complex and involved Data Workshop, I suggest assigning this exercise as a group project. It may be useful to assign a perspective to each group and allow the groups to share their findings with the rest of the class. After allowing time for the group work, I would suggest using Option 2, the more formal assignment, as a write-up to ensure that each student grasps the three main theoretical perspectives.

HANDOUT 2.2 Data Workshop 2.2 Analyzing Everyday Life: Shopping for Theoretical Perspectives at Wal-Mart Each of these Data Workshops requires you to do original sociological research, using methods and concepts covered in the course. Please refer to Chapter 3 of the textbook for instructions on how to conduct social research. Refer to the textbook chapter listed under each topic for information on the concept to which it is related. You will be expected to support your discussion using specific terms and concepts from that chapter. You should not use any other supplemental sources for this paper. In this Data Workshop, you will be asking and answering theoretically driven questions about a familiar social institution: Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., the highest-grossing company in the United States, has had a major social impact on the country. Although many see Wal-Mart as a convenient retail store with prices cheaper than most for everyday household items, it also has the effect of driving out of business locally owned shops that can t compete with the low prices and huge selection. The company has also been accused of underpaying and exploiting its low-wage workers. At any given time, multiple lawsuits are pending against this corporate giant for its labor practices. Step 1: Collecting Data Think about your own shopping experiences (if not at Wal-Mart, at another big-box retailer). You might even want to visit your local store. Walk up and down the aisles and observe the other shoppers. Note how and where the goods are displayed. How do the shoppers and staffers interact with the products and with each other? If you get a chance, try to view several of Wal-Mart s television commercials as well. Step 2: Thinking about and Analyzing the Data Immediately after the experience (perhaps while you are still in the parking lot), sit down with the data-collection form and write out your answers. This activity should help you see how making different theoretical assumptions can allow us to analyze the same object but come up with different interpretations. Data Workshop 2.2 Name: Class Section: Date: DATA-COLLECTION FORM FOR SHOPPING FOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AT WAL-MART 1. Functionalist questions a. What are the functions of Wal-Mart for society?

b. Are they the same or different from the functions of Wal-Mart in our individual lives? How do the two types of functions connect? c. Does Wal-Mart have both manifest and latent functions? d. Does Wal-Mart have any dysfunctions for society? If so, what are they? How might these dysfunctions become incentives or catalysts for social change? 2. Conflict questions a. Does Wal-Mart affect every group in society in the same way? b. If not, what are the differences?

c. Does Wal-Mart perpetuate the inequalities (of gender, race, class, religion, age, sexual orientation, and so on) in our society? If so, how? d. Does Wal-Mart contribute to conflict between unequal groups in our society? If so, how? e. How might Wal-Mart contribute to social change, or the amelioration of inequalities in society?

3. Interactionist questions a. What kind of symbolic world are you likely to encounter inside a Wal-Mart store? How does that affect the shopper s experience? b. How does Wal-Mart influence our interpersonal interactions? c. How do interpersonal interactions shape the Wal-Mart experience for shoppers? for workers? d. How does Wal-Mart contribute to our socially constructed reality?

24 Chapter 2 EVERYDAY SOCIOLOGY BLOG EXERCISE For more exercises from everydaysociologyblog.com, see www.wwnorton.com/studyspace. Have your students read Sally Raskoff, Cognitive Dissonance and Sociology Classes, 5/22/2009, at http://nortonbooks. typepad.com/everydaysociology/2009/05/cognitive_ dissonance_and_sociology_classes.html. This blog entry could facilitate a discussion about how learning about the new perspectives and theories from the first two chapters of The Real World can lead to a paradigm shift that may cause students discomfort. The blog entry addresses how this newfound discomfort can facilitate change and improvement. At the end of semester, numerous students have approached me to recount how the class changed their lives. The idea that an Introduction to Sociology class can affect student s lives beyond the classroom should be presented early on in the class. Students may react with eye-rolling and skepticism, but it will give them fair warning. Additional relevant blog posts for this chapter include: Sally Raskoff, Fractals, Theories, and Patterns, 12/12/2007 Raskoff muses that although it may be tempting to apply the theory of fractals, natural small patterns writ large, to human sociology, this is not the most appropriate theory. With humans, the sum of the parts may be more than the whole. C. N. Le, Applying Social Science in the Combat Zone, 1/11/2008 Le discusses how the U.S. military uses social scientists to help fight terrorists in Afghanistan and Iraq. Although some criticize this practice as another weapon, Le favors it because it will make the military more sensitive to the local population. SERVICE LEARNING EXERCISE For this stage of service learning, have your students select a volunteer organization that they will devote their semester to. Have them write a short essay detailing why they have chosen this organization and what theoretical perspectives they believe will aid them in their analysis throughout the course. You can guide them toward the questions in the Data Workshop Shopping Theoretical Perspectives at Wal-Mart (p. 20) to help them figure out how to apply theory to their experiences in their service learning organization. SUGGESTED READINGS Charmaz, Kathy. 2006. Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis. New York: Sage. Hill Collins, Patricia. 2007. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and The Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge. Kivisto, Peter. 2007. Illuminating Social Life: Classical and Contemporary Theory Revisited. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. Lemert, Charles. 2007. Thinking the Unthinkable: The Riddles of Classical Sociological Theories. Boulder, CO: Paradigm. Meyers, Diana Charles. 1996. Feminists Rethink the Self. Theory and Politics Series. Cambridge, MA: Westview Press. Ritzer, George. 2007. Sociological Theory. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. SUGGESTED FILMS Moulin Rouge. 2001. This film is mentioned in the textbook as an example of postmodernism. Showing several scenes in class may help students to visualize the concept. When the Levees Broke. 2006. Spike Lee s documentary about the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina provides an interesting companion to the Data Workshop in this chapter. SUGGESTED WEBSITES ASA Theory Section Website www.asatheory.org This site has been online since 2003, offering news and resources to fans and practitioners of sociological theory of all kinds. It introduces the Theory Section, its members, and their work to those outside this field. The SocioWeb: Sociological Theories www.socioweb.com/directory/sociological_theories The SocioWeb is an independent guide to the sociological resources available on the internet. It was founded in the belief that the internet can help to unite the sociological community in powerful ways. Originally launched in October, 1995, the SocioWeb has grown at a steady pace. This site provides a list of recommended sociology sites that specialize in theory.