Economic Policy Reforms Going For Growth Interim Report OECD Chapter Structural policy indicators This chapter contains a comprehensive set of quantitative indicators that allow for a comparison of policy settings across countries. The indicators cover areas of taxation and income support systems and how they affect work incentives, as well as product and labour market regulations, education and training, trade and investment rules and innovation policies. The indicators are represented by figures showing for all countries the most recently available observation and the change relative to a previous observation. Nonetheless, they may no longer fully reflect the current situation in fast-reforming countries. The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. 9
Figure.. Cost of labour A. Minimum wages Percentage of median wage 7 9 8 7 B. Minimum cost of labour Percentage of labour cost of median worker 7 8 7 EST CZE JPN USA LUX KOR GRC ESP CAN GBR NLD POL IRL SVK BEL HUN OECD FRA AUS ISR PRT SVN NZL CHL TUR. Missing countries do not have a national statutory minimum wage except for Mexico. Data refer to - and 9- for India and to and for Chile.. Exactly half of all workers have wages either below or above the median wage for the OECD countries. For non-oecd countries: percentage of minimum to average wage for China, Indonesia, the Russian Federation and India.. The cost of labour is the sum of the wage level and the corresponding social security contribution paid by employers. and data for Chile. Source: Panel A: OECD (), OECD Employment Outlook Database; China Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, National Bureau of Statistics; Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios); International Labour Organisation (ILO) Database on Conditions of Work and Employment Laws; Ministry of Man Power and Transmigration of the Republic of Indonesia and Statistics Indonesia; Russia Federal State Statistics Service and Rani, U., P. Belser, M. Oelz and S. Ranjbar (), Minimum wage coverage and compliance in developing countries, International Labour Review, Vol., No. -; Panel B: OECD (), OECD Employment Outlook and Taxing Wages Databases. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 9 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Net income replacement rates for unemployment Net income when unemployed as a percentage of net income when working A. Initial 9 8 7 B. th month 9 8 7. Simple average of the net replacement rates for the following households situations: single with no child and with two children at 7% and % AW, one-earner married couple with no child and with two children at 7% AW and % AW. After tax and including unemployment and family benefits. Social assistance and other means-tested benefits are assumed to be available subject to relevant income conditions. Housing costs are assumed equal to % of AW.. Initial phase of unemployment but following any waiting period. Any income taxes payable on unemployment benefits are determined in relation to annualised benefit values (i.e. monthly values multiplied by ) even if the maximum benefit duration is shorter than months.. After tax and including unemployment benefits, social assistance, family and housing benefits in the th month of benefit receipt. Values for Italy and Turkey are equal to zero in and.. For Turkey, the average worker earnings (AW) value is not available. Calculations are based on average production worker earnings (APW).. The OECD average excludes Chile, Israel and Mexico for and Mexico only for. Source: OECD (), Tax-Benefit Models. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD 9
Figure.. Average tax wedge on labour Percentage of total labour compensation A. At 7% of average worker earnings, single person without children 7 B. At % of average worker earnings, couple with two children 7. Measured as the difference between total labour compensation paid by the employer and the net take-home pay of employees, as a ratio of total labour compensation. It therefore includes both employer and employee social security contributions. For India, the data cover manufacturing companies with less than ten employees (which represent 9% of all companies in the sector); liability to health insurance and Employee Provident Fund contributions in India are restricted to employees in firms that have or more employees. In China, a significant portion of workers are not covered by the social security system; hence their tax wedge is significantly lower than the figure reported here, which reflects the situation of workers covered.. Couple with two children, at % of average worker earnings for the first earner. Average of three situations regarding the wage of the second earner (%, % and 7% of average worker earnings) Source: OECD (), Taxing Wages Database; for BIICS countries, data represent the latest figures based on the methodology described in: Gandullia, L., N. Iacobone and A. Thomas (), Modelling the tax burden on labour income in Brazil, China, India, Indonesia and South Africa, OECD Taxation Working Papers, No.. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889989 9 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Marginal tax wedge on labour Percentage of total labour compensation for single persons without children A. At 7% of average worker earnings 7 8 7 B. At % of average worker earnings 7 8 7 C. At 7% of average worker earnings 7 8 7. Measured as the difference between the change in total labour compensation paid by employers and the change in the net take-home pay of employees, as a result of an extra unit of national currency of labour income. The difference is expressed as a percentage of the change in total labour compensation. For India, the data cover manufacturing companies with less than ten employees (which represent 9% of all companies in the sector); liability to health insurance and Employee Provident Fund contributions in India are restricted to employees in firms that have or more employees. In China, a significant portion of workers are not covered by the social security system; hence their tax wedge is significantly lower than the figure reported here, which reflects the situation of workers covered. Source: OECD (), Taxing Wages Database; for BIICS countries, data represent the latest figures based on the methodology described in: Gandullia, L., N. Iacobone and A. Thomas (), Modelling the Tax Burden on Labour Income in Brazil, China, India, Indonesia and South Africa, OECD Taxation Working Papers, No.. http://dx.doi.org/.787/88899888 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD 9
Figure.. Implicit taxes on continued work at older ages Percentage of average worker earnings A. Implicit tax on continued work: early retirement 9 7 9 8 7 - B. Implicit tax on continued work: old-age pensions 9 7 9 8 7 -. Average for and year-old workers of implicit tax on continued work for five more years in early retirement route, as defined in Duval ().. Implicit tax on continued work in regular old-age pension system, for year olds. The value for South Africa is equal to zero in 9.. For France, year. Source: Duval, R. (), The Retirement Effects of Old-Age Pension and Early Retirement Schemes in OECD Countries, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 7, OECD Publishing and OECD calculations. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889987 9 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Average tax wedge: single parent versus second earner Percentage Single parent,¹ Second earner,² Single parent,¹ 7 Second earner,² 7 7 - - -. Single parent with two children earning 7% of the average wage.. Average tax wedge faced by the second earner when earning 7% of the average wage in a family with two children, where the first earner receives a full average wage. Source: OECD (), Taxing Wages Models. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 Figure.7. Public expenditure on childcare services¹ 9, percentage of GDP Pre-school Childcare Total,.8....8.... Childcare expenditure cover children under three years old enrolled in childcare and children between three and five years old enrolled in pre-school. Childcare refers to formal day-care services, such as day-care centres and family day-care. Pre-school includes kindergartens and day-care centres which usually provide an educational content as well as traditional care for children (ISCED under UNESCO s classification system). Local government spending may not be properly captured in the data for federal countries.. The OECD average excludes Turkey. Source: OECD (), provisional data from the OECD Family Database. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD 97
Figure.8. Implicit tax on returning to work Net transfers and childcare fees for households with two children aged and, 8 A. Second earner taking up employment Childcare fees Decrease in benefits Increase in social contributions and income tax Total increase Per cent of gross earnings in new job 8 - - - -7 Per cent of gross earnings in new job B. Lone parent taking up employment 8 - -. Taking into account childcare fees and changes of taxes and benefits in case of a transition to a job paying two-thirds of average worker earnings.. Second earner taking up employment at 7% of average wage and the first earner earns % of average wage.. The OECD average excludes Chile, Estonia, Israel, Italy, Mexico, Turkey and Slovenia.. Lone parent taking up employment at 7% of average wage. Source: OECD (), Benefits and Wages Database. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 98 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.9. Net costs of childcare Percentage of average wage, 8 A. Couple Tax reductions Childcare benefits Childcare fee Net Cost Childcare-related costs and benefits 8 7 - - - - - - B. Lone parent Childcare-related costs and benefits 8 7 - - - - - - -7. Couple where the first earner earns % of the average wage and the second earns 7% of the average wage. For Canada, Finland, Norway, Slovak Republic and the United Kingdom, childcare benefits refer to childcare and other benefits.. EU and OECD averages exclude Chile, Italy, Mexico and Turkey.. Lone parent earning 7% of the average wage. For Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, Norway, Slovak Republic and the United Kingdom, childcare benefits refer to childcare and other benefits. Source: OECD (), Tax-Benefit Models; www.oecd.org/els/social/workincentives. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889988 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD 99
Figure.. Income support for disability and sickness A. Per cent of population aged - years old receiving disability benefits or last available year² 8 B. Number of weeks lost due to sickness leave 7. Disability benefits include benefits received from schemes to which beneficiaries have paid contributions (contributory), programmes financed by general taxation (non-contributory) and work injury schemes.. The last available year is for Luxembourg; 7 for Canada, France, Italy and Poland; 8 for Austria, Greece, Japan, Korea and Slovenia; 9 for Germany, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, the Slovak Republic and the United States; for Switzerland, Australia and Estonia; for the United Kingdom.. The OECD average excludes Chile, Iceland and Turkey in Panel A and excludes Australia, Chile, Israel, Japan, Korea, Mexico and New Zealand in Panel B. Source: Panel A: OECD Questionnaire on Disability; Panel B: OECD estimates based on the European Labour Force Survey (unpublished data), the Canadian Labour Force Survey and published U.S. Current Population Survey estimates on lost working time rate due to injury or illness of full-time wage and salary workers. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Employment Protection Legislation Index scale of - from least to most restrictive A. Protection for regular employment 8 B. Protection for temporary employment 8 C. Additional protection on collective dismissals 8. The last available data refer to for BRIICS countries. In Panel C, values for 8 and are equal to zero for Chile, Indonesia and New Zealand, and for 8 only for Brazil. Source: OECD (), Employment Protection Database. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Public expenditure on active labour market policies per unemployed Percentage of GDP per capita 8 7. The last available year is for Ireland and Mexico; 9 for the United Kingdom and 7 for Norway. For, data refer to 8 for Chile.. OECD and EU averages exclude Greece, Iceland and Turkey. Source: OECD (), Public expenditure and participant stocks on LMP and Economic Outlook Databases. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Coverage rates of collective bargaining agreements and trade union density rates A. Coverage rates of collective bargaining agreements Per cent 9 8 7 Last available B. Trade union density rates Per cent 9 8 7 Last available. The coverage rate is measured as the percentage of workers who are covered by collective bargaining agreements, regardless of whether or not they belong to a trade union. The union density rate is the percentage of workers belonging to a trade union. The rates refer to wage and salary workers.. The last available year is for Canada, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States; for Austria, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain and Switzerland; 9 for Estonia, Finland, Hungary and Slovenia; 8 for France, Greece, Iceland, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Brazil, Indonesia and South Africa; 7 for Australia, Chile, Denmark and New Zealand; for Israel and Turkey. For, data refer to 7 for Portugal; for Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland and South Africa; for Denmark and Finland; for France, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Brazil and Indonesia; for Austria, Belgium, Iceland and Mexico; for Australia and Turkey; for Israel.. The last available year is for Australia, Chile, Ireland, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States; for Austria, Belgium, Canada, Finland, Germany, Greece, Italy, Korea, the Netherlands, Slovak Republic, Slovenia and Turkey; for Denmark, Estonia, France, Poland, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland; 9 for Czech Republic; 8 for Brazil, Hungary, Iceland, Luxembourg, South Africa and the Russian Federation; 7 for Indonesia and Israel. For, data refer to 8 for Slovenia; 7 for the Russian Federation; for Indonesia and for Israel. Source: OECD estimates and J. Visser, Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Labour Studies (), ICTWSS Database on Institutions, Coordination, Trade Unions, Wage Setting and Social Pacts (Version, April ). http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889989 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Product market regulation and State control of business operation Index scale of - from least to most restrictive A. Restrictiveness of economy-wide product market regulation 8.... B. State control: Public ownership 8...... C. State control: Involvement in business operation 8..... Note: For more details on the structure and construction of the PMR indicators, see Chapter, Annex.A. The reported indicators for Brazil, China, India, Mexico, Poland, the Russian Federation and Turkey are based on preliminary estimates as some of the underlying data has not been validated with national authorities. Subsequent data validation may lead to revisions to the indicators for these countries. Source: OECD (), Product Market Regulation Database and Koske, I., I. Wanner, R. Bitetti and O. Barbiero (), The Update of the OECD Product Market Regulation Indicators: Policy Insights for OECD and non-oecd Countries, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, forthcoming. http://dx.doi.org/.787/88899878 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Barriers to entrepreneurship Index scale of - from least to most restrictive A. Complexity of regulatory procedures 8.... B. Administrative burdens on startups 8..... C. Regulatory protection of incumbents 8... Note: For more details on the structure and construction of the PMR indicators, see Chapter, Annex.A. The reported indicators for Brazil, China, India, Mexico, Poland, the Russian Federation and Turkey are based on preliminary estimates as some of the underlying data has not been validated with national authorities. Subsequent data validation may lead to revisions to the indicators for these countries. Source: OECD (), Product Market Regulation Database and Koske, I., I. Wanner, R. Bitetti and O. Barbiero (), The Update of the OECD Product Market Regulation Indicators: Policy Insights for OECD and non-oecd Countries, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, forthcoming. http://dx.doi.org/.787/88899897 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Barriers to trade and investment Index scale of - from least to most restrictive A. Barriers to FDI 8.... B. Tariff barriers 8..... C. Other barriers to trade and investment 8... Note: For more details on the structure and construction of the PMR indicators, see Chapter, Annex.A. The reported indicators for Brazil, China, India, Mexico, Poland, the Russian Federation and Turkey are based on preliminary estimates as some of the underlying data has not been validated with national authorities. Subsequent data validation may lead to revisions to the indicators for these countries. Source: OECD (), Product Market Regulation Database and Koske, I., I. Wanner, R. Bitetti and O. Barbiero (), The Update of the OECD Product Market Regulation Indicators: Policy Insights for OECD and non-oecd Countries, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, forthcoming. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.7. Sectoral regulation in the transport sector Index scale of - from least to most restrictive A. Airlines sector 8 B. Rail sector 8 C. Road sector 8 Note: For more details on the structure and construction of the PMR indicators, see Chapter, Annex.A. The reported indicators for Brazil, China, India, Mexico, Poland, the Russian Federation and Turkey are based on preliminary estimates as some of the underlying data has not been validated with national authorities. Subsequent data validation may lead to revisions to the indicators for these countries. Source: OECD (), Product Market Regulation Database and Koske, I., I. Wanner, R. Bitetti and O. Barbiero (), The Update of the OECD Product Market Regulation Indicators: Policy Insights for OECD and non-oecd Countries, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, forthcoming. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD 7
Figure.8. Sectoral regulation in the energy sector Index scale of - from least to most restrictive A. Electricity sector 8 B. Gas sector 8 Note: For more details on the structure and construction of the PMR indicators, see Chapter, Annex.A. The reported indicators for Brazil, China, India, Mexico, Poland, the Russian Federation and Turkey are based on preliminary estimates as some of the underlying data has not been validated with national authorities. Subsequent data validation may lead to revisions to the indicators for these countries. Source: OECD (), Product Market Regulation Database and Koske, I., I. Wanner, R. Bitetti and O. Barbiero (), The Update of the OECD Product Market Regulation Indicators: Policy Insights for OECD and non-oecd Countries, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, forthcoming. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 8 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.9. Sectoral regulation in the post and telecommunications sectors Index scale of - from least to most restrictive A. Telecommunication sector 8 B. Post sector 8 Note: For more details on the structure and construction of the PMR indicators, see Chapter, Annex.A. The reported indicators for Brazil, China, India, Mexico, Poland, the Russian Federation and Turkey are based on preliminary estimates as some of the underlying data has not been validated with national authorities. Subsequent data validation may lead to revisions to the indicators for these countries. Source: OECD (), Product Market Regulation Database and Koske, I., I. Wanner, R. Bitetti and O. Barbiero (), The Update of the OECD Product Market Regulation Indicators: Policy Insights for OECD and non-oecd Countries, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, forthcoming. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889987 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD 9
Figure.. Sectoral regulation in retail and professional services Index scale of - from least to most restrictive A. Retail sector 8 B. Professional services 8 Note: For more details on the structure and construction of the PMR indicators, see Chapter, Annex.A. The reported indicators for Brazil, China, India, Mexico, Poland, the Russian Federation and Turkey are based on preliminary estimates as some of the underlying data has not been validated with national authorities. Subsequent data validation may lead to revisions to the indicators for these countries. Source: OECD (), Product Market Regulation Database and Koske, I., I. Wanner, R. Bitetti and O. Barbiero (), The Update of the OECD Product Market Regulation Indicators: Policy Insights for OECD and non-oecd Countries, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, forthcoming. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889989 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Educational attainment, Percentage of population aged - and - A. Upper secondary education - - 9 8 7 B. Tertiary education 9 8 7. Data are missing for Japan. Source: OECD (), Education at a Glance : OECD Indicators. http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Graduation rates in upper secondary and tertiary education A. Upper secondary education Per cent 9 8 7 B. Tertiary education Per cent 7. First-time graduation rates for typical age at upper secondary level. Data refer to 7 and for China and India. Due to a statistical feature generated by the New Opportunities programme in Portugal, for this country data refer to graduation rates for students under years old. The last available year is 8 for Greece; for Iceland and Switzerland; for the BRIICS, data refer to graduation rate at upper secondary level for typical age from the general programmes except for India for which upper secondary education is defined as persons aged 9 year olds who completed upper secondary education.. In Panel A, OECD and EU averages exclude Australia, Belgium, Estonia, France and New Zealand for and also Austria and the Netherlands for. In Panel B, OECD and EU averages exclude Belgium, Estonia, France, Korea and Luxembourg for and also Chile for.. First-time graduation rates for typical age at the tertiary-type A level. Data refer to 7 and for China and India. The last available year is for Australia, Canada and Iceland; 7 for Greece; for the BRIICS, data refer to graduation rate for typical age from tertiary-type A programmes (first degree) except for India for which tertiary education refer to the -year-olds and over who have graduated. Source: OECD (), Education at a Glance : OECD Indicators; CEIC for China data; India National Sample Survey (th and 8th Rounds). http://dx.doi.org/.787/888998 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Educational achievement Average of PISA scores in reading, mathematics and science, 9 7 7. PISA is the Programme for International Student Assessment.. Data for India is the average for of the states of Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh and therefore may not be representative of nation-wide outcomes. Source: OECD (), PISA Results: What Students Know and Can Do (Volume I): Student Performance in Mathematics, Reading and Science, PISA. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889989 Figure.. Variance of educational achievement Total variance in PISA scores in reading, mathematics and science, 9 9 8 7. PISA is the Programme for International Student Assessment. OECD =. Average of PISA scores in mathematics and science only in 9 for France.. The variance components in mathematics, sciences and reading were estimated for all students in participating countries with data on socio-economic background and study programmes. The variance in student performance is calculated as the square of the standard deviation of PISA scores in reading, mathematics and science for the students used in the analysis. Source: OECD (), PISA Results: What Students Know and Can Do (Volume I): Student Performance in Mathematics, Reading and Science, PISA; OECD (), PISA Results: Excellence through Equity (Volume II): Preliminary version Giving Every Student the Chance to Succeed, PISA. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889988 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Influence of socio-economic and cultural background on student reading performance Strength of the link between the reading score and the socio-economic index 9. Defined as the estimated coefficient from the country specific regression of PISA reading performance on corresponding index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS). Source: OECD (), Education at a Glance : OECD indicators; OECD (), PISA Results: Excellence through Equity (Volume II): Preliminary version Giving Every Student the Chance to Succeed, PISA. http://dx.doi.org/.787/88899887 Figure.. Share of direct taxes Percentage of total tax revenue ² 7 8 7. Direct taxes aggregate taxes on income, profits and capital gains, social security contributions and taxes on payroll and workforce.. The last available year is for Australia, Japan, the Netherlands, Mexico and Poland. Source: OECD (), Revenue Statistics Database. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889987 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.7. Health expenditure Percentage of GDP ¹ 8 8. data for Canada, Chile, China, Finland, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Korea, Norway, Slovenia and Switzerland; for Australia, Japan and Mexico and 8 for Turkey. Source: OECD (), Health Database; World Bank (), World Development Indicators Database and China National Bureau of Statistics. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889987 Figure.8. Producer support estimate to agriculture Percentage of farm receipts 7 7 NZL AUS CHL USA ISR MEX CAN OECD EU TUR ISL KOR JPN CHE NOR ZAF BRA RUS CHN IDN Source: OECD (), Producer and Consumer Support Estimates Database. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889987 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.9. Public investment Percentage of GDP 7-¹ -7²....... Average 7- for the Russian Federation and Turkey; average 7- for Chile.. Average -7 for Turkey. Source: OECD (), OECD Economic Outlook 9 Database. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889987 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
Figure.. Infrastructure A. Rail density, Km per square km 8 B. Road density, Km per square km. 8 for Indonesia. The OECD average excludes Iceland and New Zealand.. for South Africa; for Italy; 7 for Spain; 8 for Ireland and India; 9 for Korea, the Russian Federation and Indonesia. Source: World Bank (), World Development Indicators (WDI). http://dx.doi.org/.787/88899878 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD 7
Figure.. Financial support for private R&D investment A. Direct public funding of business R&D Percentage of GDP 9-¹ -²......... B. Indirect public support through R&D tax incentives Percentage of GDP....... Average of years 9 and for New Zealand and Sweden. Average of years 9 and for Australia, Chile, France, Israel, Italy, Portugal and Spain. 9 for Austria, Belgium, Iceland and South Africa; 8 for Switzerland; 7 for Greece.. Average of years and for Iceland and Norway. Average of years and for Austria. 7 for Chile; for Denmark, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand and Sweden; for Switzerland.. The last available year is for Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Ireland and Spain; 9 for South Africa. Instead of, data refer to 7 for Belgium, Denmark, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, Slovenia and Sweden; 8 for Italy, New Zealand and Turkey. Source: OECD (), Science and Technology Indicators Database and OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard. http://dx.doi.org/.787/8889988 8 ECONOMIC POLICY REFORMS : GOING FOR GROWTH INTERIM REPORT OECD
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