From Dashing to Delicious: The Gastrorgasmic Aesthetics of Contemporary BL Manga Antonija Cavcic Murdoch University, Australia 0284 The Asian Conference on Cultural Studies 2013 2013 Abstract Food is a regular feature, if not the centrepiece, of visual entertainment in Japan (Cwiertka, 2005, p.416). The prominence (and to an extent, fetishization) of food in Japan is not a recent phenomenon, Western media s current infatuation with food and the concept of food porn and/or the sexing-up of food media culture (as demonstrated in such programs as Anthony Bourdain s No Reservations, The Naked Chef, or in Nigella Lawson s ongoing BBC series), is a cultural movement which I define as global gastrorgasmic texts. While audio-visual media have a certain sensory advantage, Japanese gourmet manga have attempted to embrace the fetishization of food since the 1980s with titles such as Oishinbo (The Gourmet), Cooking Papa, or Bambino!. However, this paper concerns the incorporation of the fetishization of food and the shift of focus from the aesthetics of beauty in the bishōnen (beautiful boys) in boys love comics to the gastrorgasmic aesthetics of food in boys love (BL) manga. By drawing examples from mainstream BL manga (such as Yoshinaga s iconic Antique Bakery series, the more recent What Did You Eat Yesterday? and Not Love But Delicious Foods Make Me So Happy), as well as several minor publications, I will demonstrate how BL manga artists have arguably incorporated and embraced gastrorgasmic themes and motifs. I argue that BL narratives amplify the pleasure derived from visually consuming beautiful boys as well as the tantalising treats they prepare within the narratives. Furthermore, this paper questions what these gastrorgasmic texts might reflect about Japanese and global culture in the current socio-economic climate. Key Words: Boys love manga, food fetishism, aesthetics of pleasure, economics iafor The International Academic Forum www.iafor.org 278
Introduction In the last ten to fifteen years, network television has seen an escalating number of celebrity chefs and their seemingly saucy and self-indulgent programmes such as the not-necessarily naked but naughty Jamie Oliver, the lawless queen of food porn, Nigella Lawson, or the bold and risqué spokesman of food porn for gourmets worldwide, Anthony Bourdain. Needless to say, there are a number of diverse socio-economic and cultural factors which have influenced this phenomenon, but one still has to question just what is it that can account for the sudden sexing-up or the increased fetishization of cooking programmes on broadcast media? Bourdain s personal observation is that such shows are the new pornography: it s seeing people on TV, watching people make things on TV that they are not going to be doing themselves anytime soon, just like porn (as cited in Rosseau 2012, p. x). Similarly, Cheri Ketchum also notes that in the last twenty years, media discourses about food have proliferated and she argues that the Food Network constructs a consumer fantasy world, that creates a sense of pleasurable intimacy for its viewers (2005, p.217). But is this voyeurism, or non-gender specific gastro-gaze, per se, just limited to the Food Network or the plethora of competitive food-centred reality shows on broadcast media in the West, or is it a global phenomenon? Apart from mere cultural observations, I, as well as a number of scholars and anthropologists, am of the opinion that food pervades every aspect of life in Japan- more so than a lot of Western cultures. Indeed, before there was a Naked Chef, there was an Iron Chef, and before there was an Iron Chef, there were manga and anime titles and characters that were associated in any way and every way to food. Cultural anthropologist, Katarzyna Cwiertka best epitomises this in her observation that: Food is a regular feature, if not the centrepiece, of visual entertainment in Japan [ and even] popular animated characters bear food-related names, such as the celebrated Anpan-man (Mr. Beanpaste Bun) and Sazae-san (Mrs. Top-shell) (2005, p.416). Thus, if one considers texts which incite food-fetishism and involve a kind of voyeuristic gastro-gaze as a cultural movement which I define as global gastrorgasmic texts, then manga, despite not having the same heightened sensory advantages as audiovisual media, nonetheless qualify as such texts and have since at least the 1980s with gourmet (gurume manga) titles such as Oishinbo, or The Gourmet (1983-), Cooking Papa (1985) or Mister Ajikko (1986-1989). While such comics at that time were, and even still are, generally targeted at men in the mainstream manga industry, over time, the trend gradually infiltrated the homoerotic realm of boys love comics and the saw the emergence of Yoshinaga Fumi s Antique Bakery (1999-2002). Since then, the motif has also proliferated with lesser-known dōjin (self-published/slash) titles available on major BL online distributor, www.dlsite.com, which boasts titles such as Candy Candy (2010), The Ecstasy Spreading through Your Mouth (2010), or Sugary Days (2010). Mainstream titles include the likes of Yasuei s How to Eat Delicious Pasta (2013) and Yoshinaga s more recent titles, the massively successful What Did You Eat Yesterday? (2007-) and Not Love but Delicious Foods Make Me So Happy (2005). 279
Fig.1.0 (Yoshinaga, 2005). To further examine the origin, motifs and trends of this grossly gastrorgasmic phenomenon, I will firstly consider how gourmet-themed boys love manga differ from gourmet manga as a stand-alone genre. The following arguments will then posit reasons as to why BL motifs shifted to fetishizing food, whereby there is no human hero since the hero is now the dish, and how food within narratives is depicted so as to appear gastrorgasmic. To conclude, I will consider what these manga as gastrorgasmic texts reflect about Japanese society and global consumption trends as a whole. Due to the sheer volume of dōjin manga, as well as lesser-known mainstream publications, only mainstream gourmet manga and gourmet-infused BL manga such as the aforementioned Yoshinaga s series will be sites of reference and analysis. However, before delving into the analyses of the erogenous realm of the dashing, delicious and even delectable, as a starter, the aspects whereby gastrorgasmic boys love texts differ from gourmet manga will be considered. 2. Contrasting gourmet and gourmet-themed BL manga Although having mentioned that gourmet comics' target readership was initially male, that did not necessarily suggest that women or children did not actively engage in the consumption of such texts. However, Japanese cultural theorist, Lorie Brau notes that food and cooking came into greater prominence in manga in the 1970s, a context in which the narratives of boys comics which recounted the trials of apprentices or athletes in their quest for mastery became a popular subject (2004, p.36). One of the first titles to depict the ordeals of a specifically culinary quest was Hōchō-nin no Ajihei (Ajihei the Knifeman) from 1973-1977. The entire series adopted this quest typology characteristic of boys comics and thus arguably catered for the expectations of a predominantly male readership. Such hero s path typologies (emulating Joseph Campbell s model) have been outlined by Honda Masuko, who considers the characteristics of boys manga as narratives in which the protagonist desires a goal, confronts an obstacle and experiences a setback to achieving the goal, then overcomes that setback (and successive setbacks) until finally reaching success (2010, p.25). This formula is relatively standard for most of the sports comics or even gourmet comics like Bambino! (2005-2009), which sees its ostracized Japanese protagonist rising from a sloppy kitchen hand to a chef in an exclusive Italian restaurant. The same typology is also exemplified in the iconic Oishinbo and Cooking Papa series. Both of these series were produced and set in the 1980s in the midst of the Japanese economic bubble. 280
Although businessmen had the money to eat out, for a man to be a food-savvy by either being a decent cook or absolute foodie was a desirable character attribute, so in a way, comics served as a kind of didactic tool to enhance a man s cultural capital. Where Cooking Papa s goal is to do a hard day s work in the office and still have enough time for his hobby (cooking for his family, making his lunch, and helping out others with his cooking skills), Oishinbo s hero Yamaoka s goal as a culinary journalist is constantly to create the ultimate menu and prove himself to his father, Kaibara, his rival in the series. If we acknowledge the basic narrative structure of Oishinbo, Cooking Papa and Bambino! as a standard in gourmet manga, we can thus surmise that for most traditional gourmet manga, the narrative is goal-oriented and although the goals may differ, I argue that the protagonists overriding aims are to please others or themselves by concocting (and often consuming) the most mouth-wateringly mesmerising meals they possibly can. In addition, as in other genres of boys comics, the element of competition, conflict and resolution are all involved. As Lorie Brau reminds us, Competition not only plays a significant role in dramatizing the subject of food on Japanese television in Iron Chef or Which Dish? It also appears frequently in gurume manga (2004, p.39). However, in terms of Laura Mulvey s concept of the gaze in regard to gourmet manga, I suggest that it is not particularly drawn to any one of the female (or even male) characters. The gaze, I suggest, becomes a gastro-gaze, whereby the dish is the object of desire or is fetishized. This gastro-gaze also applies to gourmet-themed boys love manga as a genre of girls comics, though, girls comics originally, and still now, follow quite a different narrative structure. However, before any consideration of the thematic and stylistic differences between boys and girls comics, I suggest that Honda s outlined narrative typology for boys comics can also be applied to girls comics. However, the major difference is, as Honda suggests, the value highlighted in each text is love. In boys narratives, the protagonists achieve victory. In girls narratives, however, there is no clear distinction between winners and losers. Since in boys genres the goal is external, it is obvious whether or not success has been achieved. Love is an abstract goal sought internally. Therefore, its attainability is not automatically associated with external developments (2010, p.27). Given this argument, one can surmise that the fundamental elements of girls comics are love, the overall atmosphere, and the sensations and feelings evoked by the text (being there as opposed to the more goal-oriented getting there nature of boy s comics). That is, relishing in the here and now rather than planning the next move and having one s eye on the prize, so to speak. Boys love manga, as a genre of girls comics, nonetheless embrace particular elements of girls comics. Love, for example, has also been considered central to the plot by Dru Pagliassotti in her qualitative research on boys love fandom. She contends that the romantic storyline within boys love manga is important to its readers and that in her 2005 survey of such readers, the largest group of respondents reported that the single most important element of BL manga was slowly but consistently developing love between the couple (2008, p.59). If love, as scholars and fans have noted, indeed drives the plot in boys love manga as a genre of girls comics, then overcoming all obstacles to reach that pivotal moment of true love, or the romantic climax, per se, can be considered the internal goal of the protagonists in boys love manga, regardless of whether it involves agency or merely destiny. However, as gourmet themes have infiltrated the genre, I argue the gastrorgasmic depictions of food, 281
the fetishism of food, if you like, have shifted the object of desire to food. This, I believe, is best epitomized by the emergence of titles such as Not Love But Delicious Foods Make Me So Happy. To demonstrate how the element of love is incorporated into this typology, consider, for instance, the following figures taken from a gourmet-themed BL narrative. Although Morning s primary readership for What Did You Eat Yesterday? is male, given that the narrative revolves around a professional gay couple living together in Tokyo and the occasional allusions to love and romance within the narratives, I suggest one may nonetheless sub-classify it as BL manga. To briefly set the scene, this series involves the daily life of a lawyer, Shiro and his boyfriend Kenji (who of course, lives up to the stereotype of gay hairdressers). There are very few intimate scenes, and thus far, there have been no homo-erotic depictions in the series whatsoever. Upon my own personal examination of the content in the series, the results revealed that roughly sixty per cent of each manga is comprised of recipes and didactic cooking instructions. In this particular excerpt, we observe as Kenji and Shiro are out with their friend, Wataru, to watch his partner, Daisaku, play amateur baseball. The tension between both couples seems to lie and be resolved in the food which they bring along to the picnic, which is the origin of the first obstacle of the scene. Both Shiro and Daisaku go head to head to prove to their lovers who made the more delicious bentō. At the beginning of the scene, the baseball bat, ball and crotch are the only sexual allusions within the excerpt as the three friends watch the game (2012, p.41). Whilst watching, Kenji opens up the bentō that Shiro prepared and expresses how tasty it looks (46). Wataru (who is paranoid about the chemistry between his boyfriend and Shiro) criticises the soccer mum-like appearance of Shiro s bentō (47). Wataru retaliates by revealing his own kawaii (cute) bentō and stressing that the pink ham and redness of the paprika reflects how gay bento should look (48). Everyone seems generally impressed with how cute the bentō looks. However, all the while Daisaku is commenting on how delicious and healthy Shiro s rice balls and bentō are (49). Wataru then tries one of the egg rolls and rice balls and admits that Shiro s bentō actually is delicious (50). Thereafter, Daisaku even asks for one of Shiro s recipes (52), which signals Shiro s victory in the conflict. In a last resort attempt (53), Yoshiyuki points out that Shiro prepared everything the night before and that not even the rice is fresh. Shiro attests that he woke up early that morning to boil the rice and thus reigns as the victor. However, to end the scene, Daisaku appeases Wataru in suggesting that his bentō was also delicious. So, in spite of the inter-partner conflict, both cooks managed to please their boyfriends with their delicious bentō boxes. Thus, the element of competition is lost and love is shared through the hero of the day, namely, the dish. Here the fetishization of the bentō for the reader is that which may be unattainable without agency but can nonetheless be vicariously enjoyed through reading. Interestingly though, the recipes are clearly outlined for the reader and thereby renders the fantasy feasible. Love, then, would be attainable. It is also no longer an abstract goal since food is the means through which to obtain it. Food additionally functions as an expression of desire, or more often than not, is the object of desire. What this enables is the flexibility to alternate between a gaze involving sexual fetishism to a food-fetishizing gastro-gaze. Finally, the fusion of fantasy (in depictions of non-normative romance) and the feasible (the simple satisfaction derived from food) offers a multitude of gratifications beyond the target readership. The difference then, 282
between gourmet manga and BL manga as gastrorgasmic texts is that with the former, food is used as a tool to reach one s personal goal (whether it is to distinguish oneself from others or outdo one's competitors). In contrast, in gourmet-themed boys' love comics, love is the goal. That love may be reached when food is utilised as a tool (or an expression of love/desire) or love is simply the readily attainable food- that taken for granted daily satisfaction that any reader may get at the 'Bing!' of a microwave. 3. Accounting for gourmet-themed BL phenomena: 美 少 年 + 美 味 = 美 ² Having compared and contrasted traditional male-oriented gourmet manga and gourmetthemed BL manga, it is significant to proceed by considering why BL motifs have shifted to fetishizing food and how the manga mise en scène, depicts food in a gastrorgasmic light One can make several assumptions as to why this phenomenon has flourished. Consider, for instance, that since the dawn of BL in the 1970s the settings and motifs have focused primarily on boarding schools, schools or contexts where a clear hierarchy is defined. Fig.2.0 Dōjin website (dlsite, 2010). According to the data in Figure 2.0, the largest number of titles falls under the genres of boys love, manga involving minors, schoolyard settings, and couples with age discrepancies. These trends have persisted for decades and seem to show no signs of slowing. The bishōnen, the innocent archetype and object of desire, remains a staple in BL trends. Having said that, the change in readership is where the shift in motifs occurs. To elaborate, the fans of the 1970s who grew up with BL are now in their forties or over, while the young fans can start from junior high school or even elementary school. Thus, in order to cater for both groups and a wider range of audiences, creating more adult manga with older protagonists, a greater sense of realism, and offering something 283
unique in the narrative that is desirable, caters for the older fans as well as drawing younger fans who might be interested in the new and unique point of fetishism. However, what alternative attractive element to the bishōnen could be appropriated and allure a greater target readership in Japan? If we recall that food is arguably centrepiece, of visual entertainment in Japan, then the proof is in the pudding, for lack of a better expression. If the possible reasons why gourmet-themed manga have become a new trend relate to expanding the target market as well as appeasing old and new fans, then the logical question to follow is how the motif has been appropriated to make it the centrepiece of the narrative. To address this matter, as a general indication, I examined the framing and focus of food within the panels, as well as the amount of panels containing food or mentioning food in Not Love But Delicious Foods Make Me So Happy. Needless to say, but I must stress that this is not a realistic indication but it demonstrates the potential prominence of food in manga. Upon examining the content, the statistics revealed that of the total 709 panels, 477 panels depicted food or alluded to food, arguably making food the centrepiece of 67 per cent of the panels. Given that the ABC s (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) local content quota is 55 per cent, we can surmise that at least for this title, the cake takes the cake. Once again, it must be stressed that examining a larger volume of manga would be necessary to make such assumptions about the genre but for argument s sake, I suggest this information is adequate. In addition to the ratio of food content, the focus and framing of food in the panels demonstrate how food is fetishized and objectified. Take for instance, the panel in which Yoshinaga takes her gay friend out for sushi (Figure 3.1). The high angle framing of the sushi as it rests on the table objectifies the sushi, suggesting its role in the narrative as the object of desire. Fig.3.1 (Yoshinaga, 2005). Fig.3.2 (Yoshinaga, 2005). In addition, aside from the drooling and heavy breaths in Figure 3.1, as the sushi is consumed in Figure 3.2, close shots are primarily employed to enhance the gastrorgasmic effects. This is the money shot, if you like, of gastrorgasmic texts. Similar depictions are found in Figure 3.3 as Yoshinaga and a friend go French. The mouth is 284
always slightly ajar to emphasise the subject s salivation. Other motifs and keiyu (motion lines), which are employed to fetishize food or convey a gastrorgasmic effect to consider are the lightning bolts in Figure 3.4 to convey extreme satisfaction and the commonly used arrows to emphasise the object of the gaze such as the ice cream being fetishized in the bottom panel. Fig.3.3 (Yoshinaga, 2005). Fig.3.4 (Yoshinaga, 2005). In Figure 3.5, there is the iconic BL flower motif to express feelings of love or passion. Note how the tilted head too reinforces the pleasure of consumption. Whilst some may not be convinced of the fetishisation of food in the former figures, this last excerpt (Figure 3.6) illustrates, if not epitomises, the prominence of food fetishism in BL manga. One need not look beyond the framing of the panels during the dunking, dipping and shoving of tender Vietnamese rolls into the subjects mouths. Can one honestly counterargue that there is nothing remotely gastrorgasmic about these panels? Fig.3.5 (Yoshinaga, 2005). Fig.3.6 (Yoshinaga, 2005). 285
4. Discussion In the grand scheme of things, this article has attempted to distinguish gourmet-themed BL manga from traditional gourmet manga, as well as attempting to postulate why the gourmet boom has infiltrated boys love manga, and outline the methods which artists have employed to glorify and fetishize food. To conclude on a more profound, or beefier level, if you like, it is significant to reflect on what these manga reflect about Japanese society and global consumption trends. Firstly, I acknowledge that a number of contentious assumptions have been made throughout this article, and yet I will conclude with yet another based on personal observations. That is, I argue that in contexts of either an economic crisis or an economic boom, food becomes fetishized. To elaborate, in the former context, when struggling with budgets, people tend to fantasise about or vicariously enjoy the luxury of being served or consuming fine food made by another, or at least learning how to reproduce such recipes at home. In the latter context, people have the capital to afford fine food but want that extra edge, that something more that no one else can have. That because you re worth it ideology prevails and food, of all things commonplace, is certainly not excluded. Having said that, one could further argue then that Japan s economic bubble in 1980s partly influenced the boom in gourmet manga; and the successive global recession in the early twenty-first century saw the massive influx of gastrorgasmic texts as well as gourmet-themed BL texts. Given this argument, what does this then reflect about Japan and global trends in food media? Perhaps the significance of it all lies in Frederick Kaufman s suggestion that, food porn, like sex porn, like voyeurism, are all measures of alienation, not community. As such, they belong to realms of irreality. Irreality, of course, is attractive to anyone who may be dissatisfied with the daily exigencies of his or her life (Kaufman, as cited in McBride 2010,-p.45). Bibliography Bajira 2012, Sugary Days, Sel-Fac, Japan. Brau, L 2004, Oishinbo's Adventures in Eating: Food, Communication, and Culture in Japanese Comics, Gastronomica: The Journal of Food and Culture, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp.34-45. Cwiertka, K 2005, Culinary Culture and the Making of a National Cuisine, In J Robertson (ed.), A Companion to the Anthropology of Japan, Blackwell, Malden. Dlsite girls titles 2013, viewed 1 May 2013, http://dlsite.com/girls Gyū, J 1973-1977, Hōchō-nin no Ajihei, Shueisha, Tokyo. Honda, M 2010, The genealogy of hirahira: Liminality and the girl, In T Aoyama & B Hartley (eds.), Girl Reading Girl in Japan, Routledge, London. Ichijima, A, Tanaka, K & Umakoshi, T (directors) 1993, Iron Chef, television program, Fuji Television, Japan. 286
Kan 2010, The Ecstasy Spreading through Your Mouth, 724kan, Japan. Kariya, T 1983-, Oishimbo, Shogakukan, Tokyo. Ketchum, C 2005, The Essence of Cooking Shows: How the Food Network Constructs Consumer Fantasies, Journal of Communication Inquiry, Vol. 29, pp. 217-234. Kimiyoshi 2010, Candy Candy, Zombie Productions, Japan. Llewellyn, P (director) 1999, The Naked Chef, television program, BBC2, England. Liebler, T (director) 2005-, Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations, television program, Travel Channel, United States. McBride, A.E 2010, Food Porn, Gastronomica: The Journal of Food and Culture, Vol. 10, No 1, pp. 38-45. Pagliassotti, D 2008, Better Than Romance? Japanese BL Manga and the Subgenre of Male/Male Romantic Fiction, In Levi, A, McHarry, M & Pagliassotti D (eds.), Boys' Love Manga: Essays on the Sexual Ambiguity and Cross-cultural Fandom of the Genre, McFarland & Co, Jefferson. Rousseau, S 2012, Food Media: Celebrity Chefs and the Politics of Everyday Interference, Berg, London. Sekiya, T 2005-2009, Bambino!, Shogakukan, Tokyo. Takeno, K (series producer) 1997, Which Dish? (どっちの 料 理 ショ- ), television program, Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation, Japan. Terasawa, D 1986-1989, Mister Ajikko, Kodansha, Tokyo. Ueyama, T 1985, Cooking Papa, Kodansha, Tokyo. Yasuei 2013, How to Eat Delicious Pasta, Comic Box, Tokyo. Yoshinaga, F 1999-2002, Antique Bakery, Shinshokan, Tokyo. 2005, Not Love But Delicious Foods Make Me So Happy, Ohta Books, Tokyo. 2012, What Did You Eat Yesterday?, Kodansha, Tokyo. 287