C ontents. How Does Culture Change? 17. Hunters and Gatherers 25. Early Agricultural Societies 49. The Industrial Revolution 81

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1 Preface This book introduces a content-based approach to the teaching of English as a foreign language (EFL) reading skills and low-intermediate level discussion-based activities. It is believed that by focusing on meaningful content in EFL classes, students will find it easier to access meaning even when that meaning includes complex and sometimes technical vocabulary. By encountering such vocabulary in a natural and repetitive context, it is hoped that students will be able to focus more on reading and the skills associated with reading for context, and less on grammar and translation. The content chosen for this book comes largely from the social sciences and particularly from the fields of intercultural communication and anthropology. It is believed that these fields offer students the opportunity to understand the human condition from a sociocultural and sociohistorical perspective. That is, it will give them the chance to examine the world around them and to understand how it is changing and why. Chapter One begins with a brief examination of what culture means. It notes that in both English and Japanese, the word culture has several meanings. Two of the most common are what has come in English to be called Capital C culture and small c culture. Capital C Culture is generally associated with traditional arts, crafts and festivals as well as with music, literature and the fine arts. It is also occasionally associated with etiquette, manners and polite or cultured language and behavior. In large part, this meaning of culture reflects the habits and life-styles of the well to do (e.g., with such things as going to museums, concerts, the opera, or eating at fine restaurants). The view of small c culture, on the other hand, is largely a product of the social sciences. It sees culture as the sum total of how we live. It does not see highly technological first-world nations as inherently superior to other societies. To view one society as highly cultured or civilized and another as uncultured or uncivilized is a throwback to the racism and colonialism of the 19th century. Chapter Two deals with cultural diversity. For many, culture is identified with a nation for example the culture of Japan or the culture of the United States. Sometimes this is known as the national character approach to culture. There are several problems with this approach. First, what are described as national cultural characteristics are invariably stereotypes, which reflect the idealized behaviors and values of the elite or dominant strata of society. As such, they are neither accurate nor enlightening. Second, they exclude large segments of the national society, which do not share these cultural behaviors and values. These may include women, youth, the aged, the working class, the poor and homeless, prison populations, people from outlying regions, indigenous peoples, colonized peoples, ethnic minorities, immigrant populations, people of color, people with different religious or political affiliations, gays and lesbians, etc. These groups are often referred to as minority, or non-dominant groups. They have their own i

2 cultures and diverse ways of organizing themselves and coping. Rather than identifying culture with nation and a set of dominant national characteristics, therefore, culture should be seen as highly diverse, consisting of many non-dominant groups both within a nation and worldwide. In this view, individuals may claim membership in a variety of non-dominant cultural groupings at the same time. By focusing on cultural diversity rather than national character, it should be possible to build greater understanding. Chapter Three examines the processes involved in cultural change. Key factors include economics and technology. Here we examine what types of things are produced in a culture (e.g., fish nets or television sets), how they are produced (e.g., by hand or manufactured for mass consumption), how they are distributed (e.g., are they shared by the community or purchased only by those with enough money?), and who controls and profits from the process of production (e.g., a factory owner or the people at large). Beginning in Chapter Four, we start to examine specific societies as they have developed through history. In so doing, we apply many of the principles and conceptual tools introduced in the first three chapters. The societies examined in this book are: hunting and gathering societies, horticultural societies, pastoral societies, early agricultural societies, highly stratified agricultural states (also known as Great Civilizations ), feudal societies, capitalist societies, and industrial/post-industrial societies. We also examine how each of these societies creates different cultural beliefs, norms, values, assumptions, behaviors, etc. For those concerned with teaching content-based cultural issues to first-world Japanese students in an EFL university setting, some may wonder why studying societies that either no longer exist or remain only in extremely isolated areas of the world should be studied at all. What can these societies tell us about building intercultural awareness in today s world? There are at least three reasons for doing so. First, it may help us become less ethnocentric or, if not, then at least less Eurocentric than standard versions of history accessible to most students and scholars. Second, it may help us to become less malecentric. This should be of particular help to those concerned with gender issues. In these two areas then, if this book errs in creating its own cultural stereotypes and myths, it errs on the side of the non-dominant and oppressed groups in society. Third, as global economics pushes itself to the last corners of the world from the rainforests of Sarawak and the Amazon to the mineral rich mountains of New Guinea and tundra of northern Canada, indigenous peoples worldwide are searching for ways to respond to the economic, social and cultural devastation they are experiencing. By understanding how these and other people in different places and times throughout history have created more egalitarian relations, we may be able to learn something about how we can do the same. Minimally, it should teach us that the highly stratified, competitive, individualistic, patriarchal and alienating societies that we live in are not the inevitable result of our human nature. We do have the capacity to change! ii Preface

3 C ontents Preface i Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 What Is Culture? 1 Cultural Diversity 9 How Does Culture Change? 17 Hunters and Gatherers 25 Horticultural Societies 33 Pastoral Societies 41 Early Agricultural Societies 49 Feudal Societies 57 Great Civilizations 65 Capitalist Societies 73 The Industrial Revolution 81 What Does the Future Hold? 89

4 Chapter 1 What Is Culture? s 1

5 Reading 1 What Does Culture Mean to You? There are 190 words in this reading. Suggested reading time is 3 minutes. Fumiko: When I say the word culture, what do you think of? Ken: What do I think of? Fumiko: Yes, what is the first thing that comes to mind? Ken: I guess I think of the kimono and the Japanese tea ceremony. I also think of holidays like seijin no hi. Fumiko: So, for you, culture means things like traditional clothing, ceremonies and holidays. Ken: Yes, and I also think of traditional foods and festivals. Fumiko: Such as? Ken: Well, like sushi. That s a traditional Japanese food. Or festivals like the Japanese matsuri. Fumiko: Anything else? Ken: I guess art, music and literature are also part of culture. When I think of European culture, I think of people like da Vinci, Beethoven and Shakespeare. Fumiko: So culture includes traditional clothing, ceremonies, holidays, foods, festivals, music, art and literature. Those are all traditional kinds of things. Ken: Right. How about you? What do you think of when you hear the word culture? Fumiko: I don t think of traditions. For me, the meaning of culture is about how people live and organize their society. I usually think of customs, values and beliefs. Useful Words and Expressions (to) mean : What does culture mean? ; Culture means. (to) think of : What do you think of? the first thing that comes to mind : like / such as : things like clothing / people such as da Vinci the meaning of : (to) be about : culture is about custom : values pl. : belief : 2 Chapter 1

6 Comprehension Check Try to answer these True/False questions. If you don t know the answers, you may read the passage again. Then check your answers with a partner or other members of your group. You have five minutes to complete this exercise. 1. Fumiko thinks culture means things like traditional clothing, ceremonies and holidays. 2. Fumiko and Ken agree on the meaning of culture. 3. For Ken, culture includes traditional foods and festivals. 4. Fumiko does not think of art, music and literature when she hears the word culture. 5. When Fumiko thinks of culture, she thinks of customs, values and beliefs. Vocabulary Building Fill in the blank with the correct word form. 1. tradition, traditional, traditions a. Sushi is a ( ) Japanese food. b. Can you think of a Japanese ( )? c. When Fumiko thinks of culture, she doesn t think of ( ). 2. mean, meaning, means a. What is the ( ) of culture? b. What do you think it ( )? c. What do you ( )? What Is Culture? 3

7 Meaning Matching Match the word or expression from the column on the left with appropriate description from the column on the right. 1. seijin no hi a judgment about what is important 2. values a 15th 16th century Italian artist and scientist 3. kimono the idea that something is true 4. custom a Japanese holiday (Coming of Age Day) 5. da Vinci come to mind 6. belief a common cultural practice or behavior 7. think of traditional Japanese clothing Summary Completion Read the following paragraph and fill in the blanks with the appropriate words and expressions. a. and beliefs e. is about i. people live b. ceremonies and f. like j. such as sushi c. culture g. matsuri k. thinks of d. first comes to mind h. meaning l. traditional Fumiko and Ken are talking about ( ). Fumiko asks Ken what ( ) when he thinks of culture. Ken says he ( ) traditional things ( ) clothing, ( ) holidays. He also thinks of ( ) foods ( ) and festivals like the Japanese ( ). Fumiko thinks culture has a different ( ). For her, culture ( ) how ( ). It includes customs, values ( ). Your Turn Now tell the story using your own words. 4 Chapter 1

8 Reading 2 The Different Meanings of Culture There are 272 words in this reading. Suggested reading time is 4 minutes. The word culture has many meanings. Culture originally meant to grow, or cultivate, something. This included farming, or agriculture, and gardening, also known as horticulture. And it included certain crafts such as silk growing, or sericulture. The word culture also meant to make, or manufacture, something. This included special techniques used in art, handicrafts and engineering. People with such technical skills were called artisans, or craftsmen. In this meaning, culture and technology are similar. In the 1700s, a new meaning of culture developed in France. Culture was now used to refer to people, especially educated people. Rich and educated people were considered cultured. Poor and uneducated people were considered uncultured. In this sense, culture was associated with manners, etiquette, art, music and literature. A third meaning of culture developed in the late 19th century. It grew out of social science especially anthropology, ethnography and intercultural communication. Here, culture is associated with the customs, beliefs, values and the everyday lives of people living in a particular society. In this sense, culture and the organization of society are similar. Finally, another meaning of culture developed in the 1920s. It was associated with the popular culture of young people, including fashion, art, music and entertainment. This became known as pop culture. In Japan, Harajuku is a center of pop culture. In this book, we are interested in understanding people from different cultures. For this reason, we will study the everyday customs, beliefs and values of people. Sometimes this is referred to as small c culture, while the type of culture associated with art, music, literature and traditional things is referred to as Capital C Culture. Useful Words and Expressions (to) grow / (to) cultivate : farming / agriculture : agri- culture gardening / horticulture : hort- culture craft / handicraft : silk growing / sericulture : ser- culture technique / skill : or / also known as : What Is Culture? 5

9 in this meaning / in this sense / here : (to) develop / (to) grow out of : (to) refer to / (to) be referred to as : social science : anthropology : anthropo -logy ethnography : ethno- -graphy intercultural communication : (to) be associated with : Comprehension Check Try to answer these True/False questions. If you don t know the answers, you may read the passage again. Then check your answers with a partner or other members of your group. You have five minutes to complete this exercise. 1. Culture originally meant to cultivate something. 2. A new meaning of culture developed in the 1700s. 3. In anthropology, culture is associated with art, music and literature. 4. The culture of everyday customs, beliefs and values is sometimes called small c culture. 5. In this book, we will study Capital C Culture. 6. Pop culture developed in the 1920s. Vocabulary Building Fill in the blank with the correct word form. 1. technical, techniques, technology a. People with ( ) skills are called artisans. b. In one sense, ( ) and culture are similar. c. What ( ) are used in silk growing? 2. culture, cultured, cultures, uncultured a. In France, educated people were considered ( ). b. Poor people were thought to be ( ). c. Anthropologists study different ( ). d. The term pop ( ) developed in the 1920s. 6 Chapter 1

10 Meaning Matching Match the word or expression from the column on the left with appropriate description from the column on the right. 1. grow agriculture 2. farming artisan 3. gardening sericulture 4. silk growing grow out of 5. make horticulture 6. craftsman cultivate 7. develop manufacture Summary Completion Read the following paragraph and fill in the blanks with the appropriate words and expressions. a. about d. grew out g. meanings b. anthropology e. intercultural h. small c c. everyday lives f. is associated with i. understand This book is ( ) culture. Culture has many ( ). Because the purpose of this book is to help you ( ) our rapidly changing world and the people in it, we will study what is known as ( ) culture. Small c culture ( ) the customs, beliefs, values and ( ) of people. It ( ) of ( ), ethnography and ( ) communication. What Is Culture? 7

11 Activity Page 1. Survey five students. Ask them what they think culture means to them. 2. Report to the class. We asked people what they think culture means. The answers included and. and are examples of Capital C Culture. and are examples of small c culture. 3. Look at the picture below. What kind of culture do you think it is associated with? Write a few sentences describing the picture. Culture Box The word bunka (culture) in Japanese also has two meanings. The bunka of art, literature, traditional crafts, fashions, holidays and festivals are examples of Capital C Culture. In anthropology, ethnography and intercultural communication, bunka means the customs, daily life and values of a group of people. These are examples of small c culture. 8 Chapter 1