1 The Prophets and the Canon Canonical Criticism canonical criticism: Brevard Childs & James Sanders Brevard Childs (Biblical Theology in Crisis, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture, Old Testament Theology in a Canonical Context): historical-critical methodology fragments text & doesn't produce framework for interpreting scripture properly, either eliminating the claim of authority or transferring authority to reconstructed, purportedly earlier, texts present canonical shape of text reflects conscious literary & theological decisions of faith community only the final form of the biblical text bears witness to the full history of revelation scripture should be interpreted in its final form as a document that speaks to the present faith community, without regard to historical reconstructions of either the text or the purported social settings of earlier stages of the text (or oral tradition) individual passages of scripture should be read in light of the canon as a whole: OT in light of NT and vice versa, earlier books in light of later books and vice versa (authoritative intertextuality) the exegetical task is constructive as well as descriptive, and it must be conducted "within an explicit framework of faith," which includes the recognition of the authority that the church has given to scripture James Sanders (Canon and Community, From Sacred Story to Sacred Text, Torah and Canon): historical-critical approaches to the text tend toward a subconscious primitivism (attributing authority to the earliest or original form of the text), lead to fragmentation of the text, and reduce the concept of canon to a purely mechanical phenomenon historical-critical approaches focus on the individual authors rather than the community of tradents many different canons exist today, and they all reflect a constant, historical dialog between community and tradition canon must be viewed both synchronically and diachronically study of the history of interpretation indicates that faith communities have regularly applied relecture (re-reading) to the biblical text in order to make it applicable for the present
2 canonical criticism is compatible with other forms of biblical criticism, though its focus is on the final forms of the text modern communities of faith have the same authority to interact with scripture that earlier faith communities did, so no arbitrary "canonical form" of the text can ever be thought of as authoritative for all believers or for all time Canonical Shape of Individual Prophetic Books Isa 1-12 begins with judgment, ends with focus on eschatological kingdom (11-12) Isa 13-23 contains oracles against foreign nations, followed by other oracles concerning Judah (Isa 24-35) ends with historical appendix (36-39) at later time exilic (Isa 40-55) & postexilic (Isa 56-66) portions added composite nature of book suggests continuity of message, but not homogeneity of message editors allowed tensions to remain (e.g., judgment vs. hope, messianic kingdom vs. reign of God, inclusivism vs. exclusivism), suggesting that discerning God's will and purpose requires serious theological reflection, not a simplistic reading of history & current events book ends on note of hope (for Judah, not rotting bodies of enemies) Jeremiah: mostly preexilic poetry & mostly exilic prose combined in earliest extant forms of book, suggesting Deuteronomistic editors valued Jer's prophecy but understood his theology in a way similar to that of other Deuteronomistic compositions (fall of Jerusalem as divine retribution for Judah's sins) major reworking of Jeremiah between earlier form (reflected in LXX) & later form (MT), including additions & deletions (mostly additions), added specificity in ambiguous passages (not systematically carried out), move of oracles against nations from end to middle of book last major addition probably historical appendix (Jer 52) earlier order reflects association with books of Bar, Lam, EpJer later order follows placement of foreign oracles in Isa & Ezek Ezekiel similarly has foreign oracles in center section, ends with extensive description of new Jerusalem & new temple indicates Ezekiel's vision that the focus of the new community would be proper worship Hosea: Judahite reworking of earlier exclusive Israelite focus suggests message has continuing relevance for Jews after destruction of Israel final word of wisdom (Hos 14:9) suggests later use of book as one to be studied & reflected upon, after the fiery days of judgment surrounding the falls of Israel & Judah Amos: like Hosea, Judahite reworking on earlier exclusive Israelite focus (Amos 2:4-5; 9:11-15) suggests relevance to Jews final prophecy concerning restoration of "fallen booth of David" assures hearers that God's future plans include Judah, now in exile Micah: primary focus is judgment, but book ends with promise of God's forgiveness Habakkuk: final psalm may reflect Habakkuk's connection to the cult or connection between recital of Israel's history & worship
3 inclusion of Obad & Nah (& perhaps Jon), which focus exclusively on foreign nations, reminds faithful that Yahweh is God of all nations also, God's warnings to foreign nations apply as well to Israel & Judah last three verses of Mal: 4:4 stresses postexilic concern with Law as organizing principle of community Mal 4:5-6 ends book with warning to be alert for future prophet(s) general observations: most prophetic books are composite in nature, so reflect the views and concerns of faith community over time prophetic books tend to end on notes of hope for Israel/Judah oracles against foreign nations function in canonical form of books as warning to the faithful Canonical Shape of the Collection of Prophetic Books The rabbis taught: "The order of the prophets is as follows: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the Twelve Prophets."... However, was not Isaiah before Jeremiah and Ezekiel? Why is he not placed first? Because "Kings" ends with the destruction of the Temple, and the whole book of Jeremiah speaks of the destruction, and that of Ezekiel at the beginning speaks of the destruction and at the end of consolation, while Isaiah's entire book speaks of consolation: destruction was put next to destruction, and consolation next to consolation. (bbaba Bathra 14b) modern order of both Jewish & Christian canons lists three major prophets chronologically: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel Jewish canon groups former prophets (Joshua - Kings) with latter prophets (Isaiah - Twelve) what is the significance of grouping these two sets of books, historical & prophetic, together? in what sense may the books Christians call historical be viewed as prophetic? Jewish canon places Daniel among the Writings, primarily because Daniel was written late, probably after the Prophets began to be considered a second part of the canon however, the fact that Daniel is an apocalypse might have pushed it into the Writings category anyway does being in the Writings section of the canon signify anything about its relative authority compared with those books in the Prophets category? Christian placement of Daniel among Major Prophets boosts its status perhaps placed among Major Prophets on basis of "Son of Man" passage (Dan 7:13-14; Mk 13:26), early Christian interpretations of the book that focused on Rome, or connection to Rev Jewish canon places Lamentations in the Writings section, since it is a collection of poems, but Christian canons place it after Jeremiah, among the Major Prophets RC canon (Vulgate) also places Baruch & Epistle of Jeremiah after Jeremiah, similar to LXX (LXX: Jer, Bar, Lam, EpJer;
4 Vulgate: Jer, Lam, Bar+EpJer) LXX places Minor Prophets before Major Prophets, with result that Prophets begin with Hosea & end with Daniel (+ additions) chronological or recognition that Daniel focuses on apocalyptic eschatology? how ancient is this order? probably Christian rather than Jewish, so perhaps mimics NT, with Rev at end order of Minor Prophets MT/modern: Hos, Joel, Amos, Obad, Jon, Mic, Nah, Hab, Zeph, Hag, Zech, Mal LXX: Hos, Amos, Mic, Joel, Obad, Jon, Nah, Hab, Zeph, Hag, Zech, Mal MT is perhaps to be seen as chronological, with Joel & Obad understood as early, so six 8th C prophets followed by three 7th/6th C prophets & postexilic prophets LXX puts 8th C prophets first, groups prophets against foreign nations together, then other 7th/6th C prophets & postexilic prophets (with Joel understood as early) last three verses of Malachi may be end to entire prophetic corpus (Josh-Mal) rather than just Malachi if so, stresses continuity between Law (Moses) & Prophets Place of the Prophets within the Canon association of Former & Latter Prophets in Jewish canon (earlier, non-writing prophets, DtnHist) vs. segregation of prophets in Christian canon close association of prophets with historical books (Jewish canon) emphasizes God's acts in history, with emphasis on the past necessity of theological discernment of historical events focus on scripture as story separation of prophets from historical books (Christian canons) emphasizes God's words of judgment & hope, with emphasis on the future necessity of theological discernment of contemporary events focus on scripture as divine oracle The Prophets in the Light of the New Testament messianic expectation in Second Temple Judaism, based on 2 Sam 7 & other passages, led to messianic interpretation of certain passages, particularly in the Prophets & Psalms (e.g., TJ Isa 10:27; 14:29; 52:13; Mic 4:8; TN Gen 3:15) Christian understanding of Jesus as messiah, bolstered by oracular (i.e., non-historical) understanding of Prophets & other parts of scripture, led NT authors & later Christian writers to read many passages in light of their understanding of Jesus as messiah Rabbinic Judaism also read the Prophets, etc., as oracular, finding many allusions to the messiah, but primarily a nationalistic, this-worldly messiah
5 modern interpretations in both Judaism & Christianity (post-enlightenment) have tended to read the Prophets primarily from a historical rather than oracular perspective continuing message of the prophets: both historical & oracular reading of Prophets practiced in modern Church mainstream Christian reading of Prophets always keeps in mind the unique Christian understanding of Jesus as messiah (i.e., a messiah who suffered, died, and rose again), as well as Church's understanding of significance of Jesus' life and teaching