Information technology skills of Australian teachers: implications for teacher education

Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education ISSN: 0962-029X (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rtpe19 Information technology skills of Australian teachers: implications for teacher education Glenn Russell, Glenn Finger & Neil Russell To cite this article: Glenn Russell, Glenn Finger & Neil Russell (2000) Information technology skills of Australian teachers: implications for teacher education, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 9:2, 149-166, DOI: 10.1080/14759390000200087 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14759390000200087 Published online: 19 Dec 2006. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 791 View related articles Citing articles: 8 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode=rtpe19 Download by: [178.63.86.160] Date: 28 June 2016, At: 17:43

Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000 Information Technology Skills of Australian Teachers: implications for teacher education GLENN RUSSELL Monash University, Frankston, Australia GLENN FINGER & NEIL RUSSELL Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia ABSTRACT The identification of teachers information technology skills is a prerequisite for future professional development. This article reviews results of an Australian study involving 400 schools, which aimed at establishing baseline information about teachers experience and skills in information technology. Although teachers agreed that information technology was important for their students, and for their own professional development, significant areas of deficit were identified. Teachers saw themselves as competent with basic computer skills, but were less confident with activities requiring advanced use of computers. In addition, teachers reported low levels of confidence in their knowledge of information technology developments, identified barriers to using technology in the classroom, and indicated preferences for future professional development that were not reflected in current practices. We argue in this article that teacher preparation in the use of information technology is presently characterised by the provision of lowlevel computer skills. In contrast, the complexities of life in the twenty-first century and demands for teacher competencies in learning technology will require a paradigm in which teachers routinely use advanced computer skills and embed the use of information technology across all aspects of the school curriculum. Approaches are proposed to assist teacher educators in this task. Introduction: the skills and needs of teachers in information technology Recognising the importance of teacher education in information technology (IT), this article agrees that recent attempts by school systems and preservice tertiary education institutions have been characterised by the provision of minimal skills in educational technology for teachers in pre- 149

Glenn Russell et al service education training courses (Hardy, 1998). Accepting Hardy s assertions, we argue that it is necessary to establish what skills and capabilities teachers currently possess. Once this is done, we can identify needs, establish a rationale for broadly based competencies and plan for improvement by proposing elements of a model which has the potential to encourage teachers to routinely use advanced computer skills. In this scenario, teachers can integrate the use of IT in the school curriculum by using the computer as a tool across the various curriculum areas. Further, we maintain that IT skills need to be seen in the context of existing and projected outcomes-based curricula. This article reviews findings from Real Time: computers, change and schooling (Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs [DETYA], 1999), in which a representative sample of 400 schools from all Australian states and territories was surveyed to obtain information about both students and teachers experience and skills in IT. The school sample, which drew on the current database of Australian schools held by the Australian Council of Educational Research, included 200 schools covering the primary exit year of 6 or 7 (ages 9-10 years), and 200 schools covering year 10 (ages 13-14 years). Questionnaires were returned by 1258 teachers, of which 327 were primary teachers (teaching ages 5-11 years), 676 were secondary school teachers (teaching ages 12-17 years), and 245 were in combined schools. Characteristics of Information Technology Initiatives in Australia There are considerable differences in the ways in which state education departments in Australia approach the provision of professional development and other information technology initiatives in schools. In Australia, school education is also provided by the Independent and Catholic sectors, which have implemented their own professional development initiatives. Trinidad (1998) provides an Australian overview of initiatives in state education departments, which indicates that there have been intentions to: o improve the ratio of computers to students in schools; o adequately fund professional development; o specify competencies in information technology; o audit, accredit or evaluate computer competencies and achievements. While some teachers might disagree that these aims have been adequately met, the central importance of effective professional development for teachers in IT is now recognised by all Australian school systems. This belief is consistent with international experience that hardware and connectivity are less important than competent teachers. Bigum (2000) even goes as far as advising schools to forget about the kids and worry about the teachers. 150

IT SKILLS OF AUSTRALIAN TEACHERS Unless they are adequately prepared, you are wasting your time and the taxpayer s money (p. 14). Coughlin & Lemke (1999) concurs with this view and reports:... the key to success isn t in the computers...it is liberated educators, whose understanding and creative use of technology can help them to achieve undreamed-of levels of excellence for themselves and for their students. Despite progress in the provision of computers and networks in American schools, the United States CEO Forum s 1999 research indicates that inadequate progress in the provision of professional development programs is still likely to reduce the anticipated potential of technology to deliver improvements in education. This observation has led President Clinton (CEO Forum, 1999) to include professional development as one of the Four Pillars of the Technology Literacy Challenge which faced American schools. The National Sample Study and the Information Technology Skills of Australian Teachers While national sample studies in areas such as literacy and numeracy are quite common in Australia, initiatives involving the introduction of computers in schools have received no systematic collection of data about student and teacher IT competencies. However, in 1997 DETYA commissioned the first national sample study on the computer skills of Australian school students. This national sample study report (DETYA, 1999) was undertaken under the auspices of the Annual National Report on Schooling in Australia Task Force of the Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs. Funding for this research was provided by the Commonwealth Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DEETYA). The largest Australian IT study of its kind, the national sample study was formulated on the assumption that schools within Australia were committed to improving teaching and learning through the appropriate use of IT. A representative sample of schools from all Australian states and territories and including the three major schooling sectors was surveyed to provide information for the Annual National Report on Goal 6d of the Common and Agreed Goals for Schooling. Goal 6d refers to the development of students skills in information processing and computing. In addition to obtaining information from students and principals, the study surveys were completed and returned by 1258 teachers. An analysis relating to key findings from the teacher responses is undertaken in this article to identify issues and implications for the pre-service and in-service professional development of Australian teachers in their use of IT. The national sample study reports findings about teachers in terms of: 151

Glenn Russell et al o teachers basic and advanced computing skills; o how teachers use computers in the classroom; o teachers use of computers outside school; o teachers reported perceptions about the challenges facing educators; o teachers experiences and preferences for professional development. There was also an opportunity to examine students perspectives on the use of IT in their classroom, and for students IT skills to be reported. The following analysis draws on the data reported by teachers and students, and presents findings on ways in which a model for improving IT skills and competencies might be devised. Teachers Basic and Advanced Computing Skills The researchers developed a list of 13 core skills for the national survey of Australian teachers which were identified as basic to the operations of computers (DETYA, 1999, p. 70), and in addition, a list of 13 more advanced computer skills were identified as important in widely used computer applications. Developing the list of basic and advanced skills was a time-consuming task. Extensive literature searches were conducted and all education authorities in Australia asked for their advice on the skills included. Draft skill lists were sent to specialist computer education advisers in education systems around Australia for comment. Interestingly, skills required by primary and secondary teachers were very similar and a decision was taken to have the same skill list for both groups of teachers. The skills were not ranked for priority or difficulty. As displayed in Table I, teachers were found to have very high levels of basic computing skills. Operation % of Learnt Learnt Learnt at Other teachers at home at school pre-service Turn on computer 99 33 43 13 10 Start program 96 32 41 14 9 Delete files 89 35 35 12 7 Move files 82 32 32 11 7 Shut down 98 36 41 12 9 Open saved 96 35 39 13 9 document Save document 97 35 39 14 9 Create new 90 32 35 14 9 document Print document 96 34 40 14 8 Use mouse 99 35 45 12 9 Exit program 97 34 40 14 9 Use keyboard 98 34 37 14 13 Get data from floppy/cd-rom 93 32 41 12 8 Table I. Teachers basic computer skills and where they first acquired them. 152

IT SKILLS OF AUSTRALIAN TEACHERS Of teachers surveyed, 97% reported that they possessed more than half of the 13 core skills basic to the operation of computers and 76% of teachers indicated that they had them all. Some of the results were nevertheless a cause for concern. Eighteen per cent of teachers did not know how to move files, and skills such as this are essential if teachers are to use computers with students. However, as shown in Table II, outcomes for responses to the advanced computer skills were much lower than for basic skills. Teachers were also asked where they first acquired their IT skills and findings are also shown in Table II. The results of this survey show that, at a basic computing skill level, teachers have a similar skill profile to that of students. The proportion of teachers who claim to learn skills at home rather than at school is lower than the student responses to the same question. Less than 15% of the teachers learnt basic computing skills in their pre-service education course, although teachers between the ages of 20 and 30 were significantly more likely to have developed the skills in this way. Operation % of Learnt Learnt at Learnt at Other teachers at home school pre-service Play games 80 50 19 4 7 Copy games from 41 25 11 2 3 WWW Creative writing 85 40 30 8 7 Use of virus software 52 24 22 2 3 Create music/sound 26 12 8 3 3 Draw using mouse 77 33 30 8 6 Send email 65 22 27 9 7 Use spreadsheet 75 25 31 11 8 Create multimedia 37 12 15 6 4 Search WWW 71 21 32 12 6 Make a web site 24 7 9 4 4 Use WWW 76 22 34 13 7 Create program 45 9 15 11 10 Table II. Teachers advanced computer skills and where they first acquired them. In Table II, the results reveal that almost half the teachers do not know how to use virus detection software and only a quarter of the teachers know how to make a web site. Overall, consistent with the findings for the acquisition of basic computing skills, pre-service education is considerably less important as a source of advanced skills acquisition than home or school. It is, however, worth noting that only 15% of the teacher sample had 5 or less years of experience as teachers, so for the majority of the teachers their preservice education was not recent. The skills most likely to be acquired during pre-service education are those that teacher educators seem to have identified as necessary for research, curriculum support and presentational applications. We would argue that all teachers should acquire these basic and advanced computing skills. Beginning teachers should enter the 153

Glenn Russell et al profession with appropriate skills, and existing teachers should be encouraged to upgrade their skills as soon as possible Patterns relating to where teachers first acquired skills were evident. For example, there was a tendency for skills such as playing games to be learned at home and for skills using the World Wide Web to be learned at school. Pre-service education was not considered an important source for the acquisition of either basic or advanced skills. This might be partly explained given the relatively recent inclusion of computer education programs in pre-service education. Given the importance of basic and advanced computer skills, pre-service education programs need to align with the development of those skills for student teachers. Moreover, teachers possession of skills appeared to be related to their age, as younger teachers had more skills than older teachers. Eighty-two per cent of 20 to 30 year-old teachers had all the basic skills compared with 64% of over 50 year-old teachers. Overall, nearly all of the teachers in the sample study possessed the basic range of skills required, but indications that a considerable proportion of teachers, ranging from 25% to 50%, lacked some of the required skills remain a source of concern. There are also equity concerns implicit in the distribution of skills reported in the sample. It is more likely that those who lack basic skills in IT use will be over 50, female and primary school teachers. By implication, the students of these teachers may be disadvantaged, and this may mean that professional development will have to be tailored to the needs of these groups of teachers. Similarly, teachers in Catholic schools and to a lesser extent government schools are falling behind in basic skills, in comparison with those teachers who work in Independent schools. In some cases, this disparity in skills may be explained by limited access to computers in schools, but differences between states, school types and sectors make it difficult to draw reliable conclusions. Despite such concerns, the data nevertheless provide strong indications of changing teaching practices associated with the IT use. Across the range of age and teaching experience, many teachers have begun to use IT with their classes in recent years. Thirty per cent of the sample nominated the period 1995-98 as the period in which they started using computers with their classes, while an additional 61% nominated 1994 or earlier. How Teachers Use Computers in the Classroom Four domains of educational IT activity were examined (Table III), involving: o creativity; o information; o communication; o educational programs and games. 154

IT SKILLS OF AUSTRALIAN TEACHERS Teachers reported that IT was most frequently used in their classrooms for information purposes, creative purposes, and educational programs and games. Very little use was made of IT for communicating with others. Domains and activities within domains % of all teachers Using Information 70 Get information from CD-ROM 70 Get information from Internet/Web 57 Use computerised library catalogue 53 Create graphs or diagrams 43 Use spreadsheets and databases 37 Creative Uses 50 Creative writing 51 Create their own pictures 41 Make music or sound 9 Educational Programs and Games 43 Use an educational program or game to help them learn 61 Record their level or score when using programs and games 27 Communicating with People 10 Send and receive personal email 15 Communicate with schools in other countries 7 Take part in an email discussion 5 Take part in an Internet Relay Chat 2 Take part in a desktop video conference 1 Table III. IT domains teachers use most with students and activities undertaken within each domain. Teachers Reported Perceptions about the Challenges Facing Educators Eighty-one per cent of teachers agreed with the statement that information technology will inevitably change how we understand the nature of schools and schooling. Ninety per cent agreed that information technology is a worthwhile addition to the quality of teaching and learning, and 86% agreed that information technology has applications in all subjects. Despite the very strong support for the use of IT in schools arising from the study, and the realisation that the nature of teaching and learning must inevitably change as a consequence, teachers were able to identify several barriers to the effective implementation of information technology. Both the teachers and the principals surveyed identified concerns about resources, support, and the adequacy of training and professional development. Those barriers to the effective implementation of information technology are summarised in Table IV. Significantly, teachers who had access to resources for teaching and learning were found to be more likely to have all the basic computing skills (79% of teachers with access compared to 69% of teachers without access) 155

Glenn Russell et al and all of the advanced computing skills (12% compared to 7% of those without access). Barrier to Effective Implementation Costs of providing adequate hardware and software Availability of hardware and software for teachers Supporting Evidence from the Survey 81% of teachers agreed that the costs of hardware are a barrier 77% of teachers agreed that the costs of software are a barrier The responses by teachers were lower than by principals for the same items, namely: Teachers Principals Access to computers * Teaching and learning 82% 97% * Administrative purposes 80% 95% * Personal use at work 82% 93% * Personal use at home 42% 64% Teachers are more likely to indicate that they have access to hardware/software resources for teaching and learning if they are from primary schools (87%), Independent schools (89%), and provincial cities (88%) Availability of information technology support services in the school Only 11% of teachers definitely agreed that there was adequate maintenance support, and only 9% definitely agreed that there was adequate technical support. The larger and better resourced a school is, the more likely it is to have technical support and maintenance services available Table IV. Barriers to the effective implementation of information technology in schools. Teachers Experiences and Preferences for Professional Development Although 88% of the teachers agreed with the statement that it is essential for all teachers to be technologically literate, there were low levels of satisfaction with the availability of professional development. Forty-seven per cent did not agree that availability of training was adequate. In addition, 55% of teachers believed that they were unable to keep abreast of new programs and applications, while 46% believed that they were not adequately informed about how to incorporate IT into the curriculum. While there have been commendable policy initiatives in Australian states and territories to address deficiencies in professional development in IT, there is clearly a need for a considerable commitment to funding appropriate professional development for teachers, if computers are to be used effectively for teaching and learning in Australian schools. Ninety per cent of teachers agreed that professional development was available to them. 156

IT SKILLS OF AUSTRALIAN TEACHERS Arguably, it is not the availability of professional development which is in question, but the duration, type and location. Indeed, over three quarters of the teachers had received professional development related to IT in the previous 2 years, but for 63% of teachers, this amounted to 10 hours or less. Most teachers (73%) had participated in professional development after teaching hours in school days. It is interesting that, in contrast, the preferred type of IT professional development was reflected in 35% of teachers in support of school-based training, while the remainder of preferences were distributed among an additional 10 professional development options. There is considerable evidence from the literature that teachers do not strongly support brief professional development sessions run after the end of their teaching (Russell & Bradley, 1997; Bradley & Russell, 1997) although for reasons of cost and administrative ease, such an approach is common. Teachers placed a very strong importance on IT and both teachers and principals agreed that it was essential for all teachers to be technologically literate. However, in contrast to that, most teachers did not agree that the availability of training was adequate to meet their needs as teachers. Only 5% of teachers definitely agreed that they were able to keep abreast of new programs and educational applications, and only 6% definitely agreed that they were sufficiently informed about incorporating information technology into the curriculum. When compared with principals responses, teachers were found to perceive that there was less flexibility in terms of where professional development is available. For example, only 48% of teachers indicated that professional development was available in both school-based and external mode, compared with 85% of principals indicating that professional development was available in both school-based and external mode. This might be explained, in part, by principals greater access to information at a school and system level. Teachers in Independent schools (57%) and schools in capital cities (53%) were found to be more likely to consider that professional development is available both at school and externally. Beyond Minimum Skills: developing a professional competency continuum From an analysis of the overview of IT initiatives throughout Australia, it is apparent that schools are obtaining increased levels of IT infrastructure and increasing the number of computers. As there is also evidence that teachers advanced computing skills require improvement, as presented earlier in Table II (DETYA, 1999), we argue that more attention needs to be placed upon IT professional development which moves beyond minimum standards for teachers. In particular, training and professional development models for both student teachers and teachers need to keep pace with the rapid changes in technology. There needs to be a vision which is both 157

Glenn Russell et al dynamic and futures oriented. To identify a set of IT skills to be acquired provides a starting point, but those skills need to placed within a context which also attempts to identify optimal skills. In Australia, one of the state education departments (Education Queensland) has developed the Minimum Standards Project (Education Queensland, 1999) for teachers in using IT. The standards are presented in four key areas information technology, curriculum planning including classroom planning and management, school planning, and student-centred learning. The systemic target for 2001 is for all teachers with a minimum level of skill in the use of computers for learning (Education Queensland, 1999, p. 2). The IT skills are very basic computing skills (e.g. performs basic word-processing operations ) and several of them require only an awareness to be gained (e.g. is aware of categories of software ). Learning Technology Competencies for Australian Teachers The Australian Council for Computer Education (ACCE) (2000) has developed a rationale for the specification of teacher learning technology competencies (TLTC) by teachers. In their recent paper, the ACCE suggests that professional development programs should aim at improving/renewing teaching practice first and foremost, with a goal of improving learning outcomes for students. Consideration should be given to developing attitudes and conceptual knowledge which help teachers use learning technology in curriculum programs and work practice. The policy of the ACCE is developed very clearly and includes the following desiderata: o TLTC programs should aim at renewing teacher professionalism and be understood as a strategy for teachers to identify, plan for and gain learning technology competence. o TLTC standards should neither be used as conditions of employment, nor strategies to measure teachers eligibility for professional advancement. They should, however, be strongly encouraged and supported as a means of improving the quality of education. o A minimum standards framework may not be sufficient to define levels of competence for the multiple levels and types of roles in schools. It should be flexible and reviewed as classroom practice in the use of learning technology changes. o TLTC programs should accommodate support positions in school as well as general teacher positions and should be seen as an opportunity for these employees to identify, plan for and gain learning technology competence. o TLTC programs should aim to define the specialist knowledge required for IT leadership and planning. It should be seen as a strategy to enable the specialists involved in this area to gain new knowledge and skills 158

IT SKILLS OF AUSTRALIAN TEACHERS including skills that facilitate whole-school change and professional development. o The development of confidence in adapting to new ideas and technology is as important as the development of the competencies themselves. o The development of this rationale for learning technology competencies can form the basis of planning for both pre-service and in-service professional development programs in learning technology. Figure 1. Conceptualising a professional competency continuum. Source: the stages of instructional evolution identified in the research from the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow program (Sandholtz et al, 1997, pp. 37-47). According to Boston (1999), tension exists between minimum and optimal standards for teachers. Boston is critical about approaches to minimum levels of competence for teachers and warns that: There is a danger in Australia that if we focus solely on minimum standards, we will simply institutionalise mediocrity by accepting the lowest common denominator as the norm. This would reinforce a deficit view of teaching and further contribute to lowering the public status of teachers. (Boston, 1999, p. 11) In suggesting a resolution to that tension, Boston suggests that we develop both minimum and optimal standards for teachers. Thus, we need to provide a conceptual map that promotes ongoing learning and skill development in IT for student teachers and teachers in the form of a professional competency continuum. Figure 1 provides such a conceptualisation in the form of three stages awareness, integration, and 159

Glenn Russell et al new teaching and learning practices, upon which to build a schema of IT competencies for teachers. Implications for Teacher Education The data reported in this research indicate that while teachers were routinely using basic computer skills such as create a new document, fewer reported confidence with their knowledge of more advanced computing skills such as web page design. In addition to the issue of basic and advanced skills, there is also the important question of how teachers use computers in their classrooms. The question of pedagogy is a linked but separate issue which must be considered in any discussion of improving teaching practice with computers. The finding that teachers were more likely to use computers for informational purposes than for creativity or communication has disturbing implications, which can be illustrated by reference to the Internet. While one of the key elements of Internet use in schools may be its ability to allow collaborative work between schools and individuals, teachers may be more likely to see it as a giant encyclopaedia which can be mined for information. In effect, this continues an information dissemination paradigm of education, in which the most appropriate teaching method is believed to be the provision of information by the teacher. There is no shortage of information for today s students, and many students can use the Internet at home to access far more information than the teacher could ever provide. Ultimately, teachers may possess both basic and advanced skills, but without an appropriate pedagogy to implement them, their classes may be less effective, and some students may even see them as irrelevant. This issue assumes greater importance in a context of continued Internet expansion. The number of schools around the world that are connecting to the Internet is growing rapidly, as is evidenced by sites such as Web66 (1999). The DETYA-funded research indicated that 76% of the schools had one or more modems, and that at least 49% of schools had a web creation capability. This data from schools should be seen in the context of Internet connection in households, where a recent report (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1999) has indicated that there was a 57% increase in those households which were connected to the Internet in Australia in the period May 1998 to May 1999. Whether connectivity occurs at home or at school, it is likely that the Internet will be a key factor in the shaping of our culture and educational systems. As the number and capability of computers in schools increases, it is necessary to look further than traditional questions such as the funds allocated for teacher development, or the hardware in schools. Teachers basic and advanced computer skills and understanding of associated curriculum processes must be adequate for a digital world in which computers permeate the fabric of everyday life. If teachers continue to 160

IT SKILLS OF AUSTRALIAN TEACHERS display only basic skills, it is likely that students will not be prepared adequately for the twenty-first century. Indeed, if teachers have computing skills but are not confident of their ability to integrate computers in their teaching, the computers may be under-utilised. Research by Oliver (1994) found that new teachers were less likely to use computers in secondary schools than primary schools, because primary school teachers had been taught how to use computers in their classrooms. Consequently, Oliver (1994) concludes that teacher education courses should embrace curriculum applications and strategies. Additional support for a teacher education model which is more comprehensive than a list of IT skills to be taught is also found in McDougall & Squires (1997) and Watson et al, (1999). Teachers will need not only advanced computing skills, but the ability to integrate them seamlessly into the curriculum, and an understanding of the ways in which computers affect notions of school reform, and relationships with students and society. All computer use in school education must be seen in an appropriate context, to allow teachers to predict what their outcomes will be for their particular class. This observation is supported by recent Australian research (DEETYA, 1997) which used a case study approach to examine the use of IT in school classrooms. The report of that research concluded that: Their educational implications must become a feature of future teacher education programs. Such instruction may well lead to a reconceptualisation of the teacher s role in the classroom and the kinds of technologies which support a learner focussed rather than a teacher centred environment. (DEETYA, 1997, Vol. 2, p. 179) Teacher education visions which are driven by scenarios of future schooling involving IT are likely to require a comprehensive plan. Without this, the gap between teacher capabilities and student needs will widen further. To avoid this possibility, we propose elements of a model which is aimed at overcoming these concerns. Elements of an IT Professional Development Model for Teachers To design pre-service and in-service teacher education programs to meet various imperatives discussed above, we completed a scan of research on models of effective professional practice involving IT, and the results of this search are summarized as key findings in Table V. These findings suggest that, in order to develop effective IT classroom skills, teachers need to be taught both computer skills and skills in designing and implementing curricula using technology. Many of these skills are generic, and the discussion of them would not be out of place in a consideration of appropriate skills for a modern office, or in a range of occupations. 161

Glenn Russell et al Therefore, we argue that a professional development model which concentrates on the attainment of such generic computing skills is likely to be inadequate. In terms of the professional competency continuum presented in Figure 1, at best it will only assist teachers to move into the awareness phase (Stage I) and possibly enable them to exhibit some aspects of the integration phase (Stage II). While this is necessary, it is not a sufficient condition for the effective use of IT in schools. Teachers will also require professional development in the pedagogical skills necessary to integrate the use of technology into the curriculum (Stage II), and they will need to know the implications of their actions for the academic and social development of the students in their care. If technology is to be a catalyst for significant changes in learning practice, as described in Stage III, teachers will need to be sophisticated users of computer applications. Models of effective IT professional development Literature source Teachers need knowledge of curriculum issues for successful classroom implementation Teachers are better able to integrate the use of technology in the curriculum in a supportive school environment Teachers are better able to integrate the use of technology in the curriculum when they have received a sustained and broad-ranging staff development program in the use of IT Teachers need specific instruction on how to integrate technology into their instruction Teachers have effective professional development when a framework is used having characteristics used in some Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow schools, namely: small-group collaboration between teachers; takes place in working classrooms and schools; builds upon teachers existing knowledge about curriculum and practice; provides opportunities for experimentation and reflection on new experiences Teachers need time to design a plan for using IT software in the classroom and time to restructure curriculum around technology Teachers need knowledge of what is available to them through technology Student learning is enhanced when teachers use curriculum approaches which feature situated information management projects that provide a service to the community Oliver, 1994 Becker, 1994 Becker, 1994 Schoefield, 1995 Yocam & Wilmore, 1995 Bosner & Daugherty, 1994; Poole, 1997 Wiburg, 1997 Wolfson & Willinsky, 1998 Table V. Summary of research findings of conditions for enhancing teachers IT skills. Funding models which increase the provision of hardware and software in a school but fail to train the teachers who are to implement them, must be seen as inadequate. The research summarised in Table V, together with the 162

IT SKILLS OF AUSTRALIAN TEACHERS data and conclusions arising from this study, suggest that an appropriate teacher development model will include a need for: o knowledge of curriculum issues for successful classroom implementation; o the ability to integrate technology across the curriculum in a supportive school environment; o sustained and broad-ranging staff development in the use of IT; o time to design a plan for using IT software in the classroom, and to restructure curriculum around technology; and o knowledge of what teachers can achieve through the informed use of IT; o knowledge of what is available for educational uses of technology. Conclusions The implications of this research are evident. Professional development of current teachers needs to be dramatically upgraded and provision for preservice education for teachers needs to be revamped. Teachers have a clear preference for professional development to be based on existing school resources. For this to happen there needs to be a large range of tools and network resources available to teachers, plus support services to help them use the technology whenever and however they want. Teachers need a variety of on-line resources such as interactive web sites, databases, information web sites, discussion forums, and email. Some private schools in Australia now appoint experienced teachers as learning technologies coaches, as well as network support staff to assist staff. With these resources in place, teachers can negotiate with local universities to conduct schoolbased training programs and gain credit towards a postgraduate qualification. Developing partnerships between schools and local universities for the provision of professional development in learning technology has the potential to overcome the criticism made by teachers that in-service courses provided at universities are not meeting school needs. At the university level, staff in faculties of education need to be aware of the requirements of major employers of education graduates, which now specify minimum standards in learning technology in areas such as hardware operation, software application, telecommunications, curriculum applications and the integration of computers in the curriculum. Graduating students with these competencies will need extensive time on task and in most cases a restructuring of existing courses. A sound rationale for a competencies framework has been prepared by the ACCE and we predict that the approach suggested by the ACCE will form the basis of a competency-based teacher education program. This article has reported a major study of teacher and student IT skills in Australian schools. There are likely to be extensive implications for the provision of teacher training and professional development in a range of knowledge-based economies. Significant issues were identified associated 163

Glenn Russell et al with the pre-service and in-service preparation of teachers, which impels us to argue that the preparation of teachers in the use of IT is presently characterised by the provision of minimal skills. Such an approach is likely to constitute an inadequate measure with regard to the planning required for effective schooling in the next century. Teachers were found to be strong supporters for the use of IT in schools. The challenge for those institutions and organisations involved with teacher education will be to revise training and professional development provisions at both the pre-service and inservice levels, to match teacher preparation with students future lives in a digital world. Acknowledgment The authors are grateful for the contributions of the teachers, students and principals who participated in the associated study in Australia, and the assistance of all those who were associated with the DETYA Report (1999) is appreciated. This research was produced by the Australian Key Centre for Cultural and Media Policy for the Commonwealth Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. The authors of the Report are D. Meredyth, N. Russell, L. Blackwood, J. Thomas & P. Wise. An earlier version of this article was presented at the Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education in Melbourne in November 1999. Correspondence Glenn Russell, Faculty of Education, Peninsula Campus, Monash University, PO Box 527, Frankston, Victoria, Australia (glenn.russell@education.monash.edu.au). References Australian Bureau of Statistics (1999) Use of the Internet by Householders, Australia [on-line]. Available at: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/ ausstatshome?openview Australian Council for Computers in Education (2000) Teacher Learning Technologies Competencies Project [on-line]. Available at: http://www.acce.edu.au/tltc/b-ltai.asp#18 Becker, H. J. (1994) How Exemplary Computer-using Teachers Differ From Other Teachers, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 26(3), pp. 1-10. Bigum, C. (2000) Technology and the Teacher, Australian Educator, 27, Spring, p. 14. Bosner, R. & Daugherty, M. (1994) In-service Activities for Technology Education: the role of colleges and universities, Journal of Technology Education, 6(1), pp. 194-201. Boston, K. (1999) Enhancing the Status of the Teaching Profession, Unicorn, 25, pp. 7-14. 164

IT SKILLS OF AUSTRALIAN TEACHERS Bradley, G. & Russell, G. (1997) Computer Experience, School Support and Computer Anxieties, Educational Psychology, 17, pp. 267-284. CEO Forum (1999) CEO Forum on Education and Technology [on-line]. Available at: http://www.ceoforum.org Coughlin, E. C. & Lemke, C. (1999) Professional Competency Continuum. Professional Skills for the Digital Age Classroom [on-line]. Available at: http://www.mff.org/pubs/me159.pdf Department of Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (DEETYA) (1997) Digital Rhetorics: literacies and technologies in education current practices and future directions. 3 volumes. Canberra: DEETYA. Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA) (1999) Real Time: computers, change and schooling. National Sample Study of the Information Technology Skills of Australian School Students. Canberra: DETYA and Australian Key Centre for Cultural and Media Policy. Also available on-line at: http://www.detya.gov.au/schools/publications/realtime.pdf Education Queensland (1999) Minimum Standards for Teachers Learning Technology. Brisbane: Publishing Services, Education Queensland. Hardy, V. H. (1998) Teacher Attitudes Toward and Knowledge of Computer Technology, Computers in Schools, 14 (3/4), pp. 119-136. McDougall, A. & Squires, D. (1997) A Framework for Reviewing Teacher Professional Development Programmes in Information Technology, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 6, pp. 115-126. Oliver, R. (1994) Factors Influencing Beginning Teachers Uptake of Computers, Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 2, pp. 71-89. Poole, B. (1997) Education for an Information Age. Boston: WCB McGraw-Hill. Russell, G. & Bradley, G. (1997) Teachers Computer Anxiety: implications for professional development, Education and Information Technologies, 2, pp. 1-14. Sandholtz, J., Ringstaff, C. & Dwyer, D. (1997) Teaching with Technology. New York: Teachers College Press. Schoefield, J. (1995) Telecommunications for Personal and Professional Uses: a case study. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco. Trinidad, S. (1998) National Overview. Table of state education department technology initiatives, Australian Educational Computing, 13(2), pp. 4-5. Watson, G., Taylor, P. & Russell, G. (1999) Putting Teachers in the IT Picture, in Real Time: computers, change and schooling. National Sample Study of the Information Skills of Australian School Students. Canberra: DETYA. Web66 (1999) Web 66 International School Web Site Registry [on-line.] Available at: http://web66.coled.umn.edu/schools.html Wiburg, K. (1997) The Dance of Change: integrating technology in classrooms, Computers in the Schools, 13(1/2), pp. 171-184. Wolfson, L. & Willinsky, J. (1998) Situated Learning in High School Information Technology Management, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 31, pp. 96-110. 165

Glenn Russell et al Yocam, K. & Wilmore, F. (1995) Creating an Alternative Context for Teacher Development: ACOT s two-year pilot project. Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow Research Report No. 17 [on-line]. Available at: http://www.apple.com/ education/k12/leadership/acot/library.html 166