Contemporary Linguistics An Introduction Editedby WILLIAM O'GRADY MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY FRANCIS KATAMBA LONGMAN London and New York
Table of contents Dedication Epigraph Series list Acknowledgements Preface Preface to the original edition published by Copp Clark Pitman L td, Canada List of technical abbreviations v vi xiii xiv xv xvii xix 1 Language: a preview WILLIAM O'CRADY, MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY AND FRANCIS KATAMBA 1 1 A creative system 1 2 Grammar and linguistic competence 4 3 Changeability: grammars change over time 9 4 Biological specialization for language 13 Summing up 14 Note 15 Sources 15 Recommended reading 15 Questions 16 2 Phonetics: the sounds of language MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY AND FRANCIS KATAMBA 1 8 1 Phonetic transcription 19 2 The sound-producing system 20 3 Sound classes 23 4 Consonant articulation 25 5 Manners of articulation 27 6 Vowels 35 7 Phonetic transcription of RP vowels and consonants 41 8 Suprasegmentals 41 9 Processes 49 10 Other vowels and consonants (advanced) 57 Summing up 62 Notes 64
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Sources 64 Recommended reading 64 Questions 65 3 Phonology: the function and patterning of sounds MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY AND FRANCIS KATAMBA 68 1 Segments in contrast 70 2 Phonetically conditioned variation: phonemes and allophones 72 3 Phonetic and phonemic transcription 82 4 Above the segment: syllables 83 5 Features 95 6 Derivations and rule ordering 102 7 Representations (advanced) 108 8 Stress and metrics (advanced) 113 Summing up 121 Notes 122 Sources 122 Recommended reading 123 Appendix: Hints for solving phonology problems 123 Questions 125 4 Morphology: the analysis of word structure WILLIAM O'GRADY AND VIDEA P. DE GUZMAN 1 32 1 Words and word structure 132 2 Derivation 144 3 Compounding 151 4 Other types of word formation 156 5 Inflection 160 6 Further examples of inflection 164 Summing up 170 Notes 171 Sources 171 Recommended reading 172 Appendix: How to identify morphemes in unfamiliar languages v 172 Questions 173 5 Syntax: the analysis of sentence structure WILLIAM O'GRADY 181 1 Categories and structure 182 2 Complement options. 196 3 Transformations 202 4 Universal grammar and parametric variation 214 5 Some extensions (advanced) 222 6 Other types of syntactic analysis 229 Summing up 234
TABLE OF CONTENTS IX Notes 234 Sources 235 Recommended reading 236 Appendix: How to build tree structures 236 Questions 239 6 Interfaces MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY, WILLIAM O'GRADY AND FRANCIS KATAMBA 245 1 Morphology and phonology 245 2 Phonology and syntax 254 3 Morphology and syntax 260 Summing up 264 Notes 264 Sources 265 Recommended reading 265 Questions 265 7 Semantics: the analysis of meaning WILLIAM O'GRADY 268 1 The nature of meaning 268 2 The conceptual system 276 3 Syntax and sentence interpretation 284 4 Other factors in sentence interpretation 295 Summing up 305 Notes 305 Sources 306 Recommended reading 307 Questions 307 8 Historical linguistics: the study of language change ROBERT W. MURRAY 3 1 3 1 The nature of language change 313 2 Sound change 318 3 Morphological change 332 4 Syntactic change 337 5 Lexical and semantic change 340 6 The spread of change 346 7 Language reconstruction 349 8 Language change and naturalness 362 Summing up 363 Notes 364 Sources 364 Recommended reading 365 Questions 366
X TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 The classification of languages ALEKSANDRA STEINBERGS 372 1 Some preliminaries 372 2 Typological classification 374 3 Genetic classification 389 Summing up 410 Notes 411 Sources 411 Recommended reading 412 Questions 412 10 Brain and language GARY LIBBEN 41 6 1 The human brain 416 2 Investigating the brain 421 3 Aphasia 424 4 Acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia 429 5 Linguistic theory and aphasia 431 6 Where is language? 434 Summing up 435 Notes 435 Sources 435 Recommended reading 436 Questions 436 11 Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing GARY LIBBEN 438 1 Methods of psycholinguistic research 438 2 Language processing and linguistics 448 3 Putting it all together: psycholinguistic modelling 457 Summing up 460 Sources 460 Recommended reading 461 Questions 462 12 Language acquisition: the emergence of a grammar SOOK WHAN CHO AND WILLIAM O'GRADY 464 1 The study of language acquisition 464 2 Phonological development 466 3 Morphological development 471 4 Syntactic development 476 5 Semantic development 481 6 Determinants of language acquisition 488 Summing up 496 Notes 497
TABLE OF CONTENTS XI Sources 497 Recommended reading 499 Questions 499 13 Second language acquisition JOHN ARCHIBALD 503 1 The study of second language acquisition 504 2 Interlanguage grammars 511 3 Factors affecting SLA 523 4 The L2 classroom 528 Summing up 534 Notes 535 Sources 535 Recommended reading 536 Appendix: L2 pedagogy 536 Questions 537 14 Language in social contexts RONALD H. SOUTHERLAND AND FRANCIS KATAMBA 540 1 Fundamental concepts 540 2 Social differentiation of language 542 3 Regional differentiation of language 563 4 Mixed languages 571 5 Speech situations 576 Summing up 585 Note 586 Sources 586 Recommended reading 588 Questions 588 15 Writing and language MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY AND WILLIAM O'GRADY 5 9 1 1 Types of writing 591 2 The history of writing 592 3 The evolution of writing 595 4 Some other writing systems 604 5 English orthography 613 6 Writing and reading 619 Summing up 620 Notes 621 Sources 622 Recommended reading 623 Questions 623
Xii TABLE OF CONTENTS 16 Animal communication MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY 625 1 Non-vocal communication 2 Communication structure: the study of signs 3 The bees 4 The birds 5 Non-human primates 6 Testing non-human primates for linguistic ability 7 Comparing communication systems: design features Summing up Notes Picture credits Sources Recommended reading Questions 625 627 635 638 641 648 656 659 660 661 661 662 662 Computational linguistics JDITH KLAVANS 1 Computational phonetics and phonology 2 Computational morphology 3 Computational syntax 4 Computational lexicology 5 Computational semantics 6 Practical applications of computational linguistics Summing up Recommended reading Questions Glossary Language Index Subject Index 664 666 671 676 684 689 693 700 700 700 703 736 740