TAKING RESPONSIBILITY FOR SUSTAINABILITY:

TAKING RESPONSIBILITY FOR SUSTAINABILITY: THE SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM MODEL APPLIED TO THREE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS & ONE REGIONAL GOVERNMENT IN GREATER VANCOUVER by BARBARA ANN EVERDENE B.A., The University of Victoria, 1999 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Planning THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA June 2005 Barbara Ann Everdene, 2005

Abstract Cities and regions contribute to global and regional ecological degradation and there is a need to focus sustainability efforts at a scale suited to understanding and mitigating their impacts. In Greater Vancouver, as the trajectory of economic and population growth, and over-consumption of materials and energy (and production of their associated wastes) continues unabated, local and regional government practitioners are professionally called upon to take preventative measures within their own jurisdictions. With new sustainability responsibilities and some regulatory authority, their democratic legitimacy and resources as public institutions, and their technical expertise and coordinative capacity, local and regional governments in Greater Vancouver have key opportunities to demonstrate leadership on sustainability. This study focuses specifically on what I term corporate ecological responsibility as a means to lend credibility to service provision and regulation roles and model sustainability processes and activities for replication in the community by other actors. Managing for sustainability performance demands a clear definition and understanding of ecological sustainability as a physical condition rather than simply a principle or an idea, and an effective system for managing institutional performance. A review of the literature on sustainability and performance management reveals that a practical model has not yet been devised to assist North American local and regional governments in adopting a strategic and systematic method to make a corporate contribution toward achieving ecological sustainability milestones. To fill this gap, I advance a Sustainability Performance Management (SPMS) model that is comprised of distinctive system components and recognizes five fundamental sustainability principles and organizational conditions of culture and capacity. In the study, I focus on corporate purchasing policies and building policies and projects as key tools for sustainability performance management. I then apply my SPMS model as a tool to assess what I term the sustainability performance management activities of four case organizations in Greater Vancouver: the Greater Vancouver Regional District, the City of Vancouver, the City of Richmond, and the City of Burnaby. The case presentations and assessments with a qualitative scoring tool demonstrate that the SPMS model has practical value for use in local and regional governments as a first template to encourage the development of a strategic, systemic, and sensitive approach to sustainability performance management where it does not yet exist and to correct organizational "blind spots" in existing approaches. The best practices of the case organizations enrich the model with specific examples of how to put the five sustainability principles into practice. ii

In addition, the use of the model as an evaluation tool reveals specific areas in which each case organization can its sustainability efforts. Assessed against the SPMS model, the City of Richmond is the clear sustainability performance management (SPMS) leader, although the GVRD and the City of Vancouver are more prolific in implementing performance management tools. To date, the GVRD has experimented most aggressively with ecologically responsible and innovative facility development, while the City of Vancouver has recently adopted ambitiously scoped purchasing and building policies. The City of Burnaby's efforts are rated least effective of the study organizations when compared to my model. iii

Table of Contents ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES & FIGURES LIST OF ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parti 1 THE SUSTAINABILITY DILEMMA: GLOBAL & REGIONAL 2 TOWARDS A REGIONAL SUSTAINABILITY SOLUTION ~ 8 CORPORATE ECOLOGICAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR LOCAL & REGIONAL GOVERNMENT 9 OPERATIONALIZING CER THROUGH SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT 13 THE SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM MODEL 16 PART II 58 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS 58 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH 59 THEORETICAL LINEAGE: COMMUNICATIVE/COLLABORATIVE PLANNING 60 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 61 CASE APPROACH 63 LIMITATIONS ON CONCLUSIONS 70 Part III 72 CITY OF RICHMOND 73 THE GREATER VANCOUVER REGIONAL DISTRICT 93 THE CITY OF VANCOUVER 114 THECITYOFBU RNABY 139 Part IV 153 COMPARATIVE SYSTEMIC SPM EFFECTIVENESS 154 SYSTEM COMPONENTS 157 COHESION BETWEEN SYSTEM COMPONENTS 161 CULTURE & CAPACITY 161 SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES 163 NEXT STOP: COMMUNITY 171 DIRECTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 173 RECOMMENDATIONS 175 LITERATURE CITED 180 Appendices 193 APPENDIX A: Two CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABILITY 193 APPENDIX B: CITIES AND REGIONS 196 APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE 199 APPENDIX D: SPMS SCORING SYSTEM 201 APPENDIX E: COMPARATIVE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES 206 APPENDIX F: COMPARATIVE ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE PURCHASING POLICIES 209 APPENDIX G: COMPARATIVE CHRONOLOGY OF SPM EFFORTS 213 iv

List of Tables and Figures Parti FIGURE 1-1: MANAGEMENT SYSTEM COMPONENTS 17 FIGURE 1-2: DESIRED CHARACTERISTICS OF INDICATORS IN A SPMS 26 FIGURE 1-3: THE PEOPLE PRINCIPLE - LADDER OF INVOLVEMENT 33 FIGURE 1-4: STAGES OF COMMFTMENT TO ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 34 Part II FIGURE 11-1: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 63 Part III FIGURE 111-1: SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN RICHMOND 77 FIGURE 111-2: RICHMOND'S ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 80 FIGURE 111-3: SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN THE GVRD 97 FIGURE 111-4: PHASES OF THE GVRD'S SUSTAINABLE REGION INITIATIVE 99 FIGURE III-5: SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN VANCOUVER 121 FIGURE III-6: SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN BURNABY 143 FIGURE Hl-7: ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY FRAMEWORK IN BURNABY'S OCP 145 Part IV FIGURE IV-1: COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF CASE UNIT SPM 154 FIGURE IV-2: COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF COMPONENTS OF CASE UNIT SPM 155 FIGURE IV-3: COMPARATIVE SPM INFRASTRUCTURE 157 FIGURE IV-4: DEGREE OF ADOPTION OF SPM PRINCIPLES IN CASE UNITS 163 FIGURE IV-5: COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS RATING FOR ALL CASE UNITS 170 Appendices FIGURE A-1: Two CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABILITY 193 FIGURE D-l: DEFINITIONS FOR SPMS SCORING METHOD 201 FIGURE D-2: SCORING CRITERIA FOR SPMS PRINCIPLES 202 FIGURE D-3: POINT SCORING SYSTEM 204 FIGURE D-4: MASTER SCORING MATRIX FOR CASE STUDIES 205 FIGURE E-1: GVRD ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 206 FIGURE E-2: VANCOUVER ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 206 FIGURE E-3: RICHMOND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 207 FIGURE E-4: BURNABY ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 207 FIGURE G-1: CHRONOLOGY OF SPM DEVELOPMENT IN GREATER VANCOUVER 213 v

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ACE CBIP CCAP CVTF DSM EMS ESCO ETCC FCM GVRD ICLEI LCA LEED OCP ODP PCP sec SEFC SOER SOFE SPMS SRI SSM TFAC Advisory Committee on the Environment Canadian Building Incentive Program Climate Change Action Plan (City of Vancouver) Cool Vancouver Task Force (City of Vancouver) Demand Side Management Environmental Management System Energy Service Contract Organization Environmental Terms and Conditions of Contract Federation of Canadian Municipalities Greater Vancouver Regional District International Council for Local Government Initiatives Life Cycle Analysis/Assessment Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Official Community Plan Official Development Plan Partners for Climate Protection Supplier Code of Conduct (City of Vancouver) South East False Creek (City of Vancouver) State of the Environment Report Special Office for the Environment (City of Vancouver) Sustainability Performance Management System Sustainable Region Initiative (Greater Vancouver Regional District) Supply Side Management Task Force on Atmospheric Change (City of Vancouver) vi

Acknowledgements My warm thanks goes first to my Advisory Committee members Dr. Bill Rees, PhD. of the School of Community and Regional Planning and Deborah Curran, LL.M. of West Coast Environmental Law for providing clarity and insight through my process of writing and revision. A thank you is also given to Dr. Michael Leaf, PhD. for his willingness to serve as a third reader of this study. I am indebted to all staff at West Coast Environmental Law for the exceptional flexibility and moral support they have given me over the course of this study. Finally, I am deeply grateful for the patience, encouragement, and sense of humor of my core team of supporters: my parents Ken and Margitta Ewert, my partner Tariq Jooya, and my invaluable friends Jodi Newnham, Dean Rempel, Antonella Nizzola, and Sandra Zalunardo...to name only a few. vii

Part I Corporate Ecological Responsibility & Sustainability Performance Management in Local & Regional Government 1.1 INTRODUCTION. In the 15th century, Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) observed that: "it is necessary not only to pay attention to immediate crises, but to foresee those that will come, and to make every effort to prevent them. For if you see them coming well in advance, then you can easily take the appropriate action to remedy them, but if you wait until they are right on top of you, then the prescription will no longer take effect, because the disease is too far advanced...in the beginning the disease is easy to cure, difficult to diagnose; but, after a while, if it has not been diagnosed and treated early, it becomes easy to diagnose and hard to cure (cited in 11 Wootton 1994)." Machiavelli's practical wisdom holds true as a comment on the sustainability dilemma of the 21 st century. Although the optimistic claim has been made that "in the battle of big public ideas, sustainability has won: the task of the coming years is simply to work out the details (Campbell 1996 cited in 30 Berke and Conroy 2000)", the expansionist economic worldview and its instrument, the market capitalist system, still dominates all levels of government in North America and beyond. The disease is far from cured and the battle far from over: more work must be done to make sustainability meaningful in ecological and practical terms. The purpose of this research is to position sustainability (and un-sustainability) as a physical, ecological condition rather than a principle or an idea, and to set forth a strategic, systematic, and sensitive method for local and regional governments to "work out the details" of making a corporate contribution toward achieving ecological targets. 1.2 STUDY OVERVIEW. This study focuses in on change opportunities at the local and regional government level. Cities and regions are centers of production and consumption and contribute to global and regional ecological degradation. There is a need to focus sustainability efforts at a scale suited to understanding and mitigating the impacts of cities and regions. By focusing on a local and regional scale, I do not argue that cities and regions can be made sustainable in and of themselves (see Appendix B). Rees and Wackernagel observe that according to the principle of patch ecology, cities are unsustainable by definition because "modern cities and industrial regions are dependent for survival and growth on a vast and increasingly global hinterland of ecologically productive landscapes (29 Rees and Wackernagel 1

1996)." Rather, I argue that taking responsibility for sustainability means that immediate actions must be taken in the context of the existing milieu and governance structures and institutions. In a recent address to the professional planning community, Judith Maxwell observed that Canadian cities have inherited major new responsibilities as provinces and the federal government have scaled down their activities (13-14 2003). With these new sustainability responsibilities and some regulatory authority, their democratic legitimacy and resources as public institutions, and their technical expertise and coordinative capacity, local and regional governments have powerful opportunities to demonstrate leadership on sustainability. In Part I, I portray the current and projected sustainability condition of the Greater Vancouver region in terms of economic growth, population growth, and consumption as a case for local and regional governments to take action on achieving ecological sustainability milestones. Secondly, I present a review of the literature on city management and sustainability to point out that a management system designed to track performance on corporate ecological sustainability targets for North American local and regional governments has not yet been devised. To fill this gap, I posit a model of a sustainability performance management system on the basis of the literature on sustainability and management. To demonstrate the applicability of the model to local and regional government, I focus on purchasing and building projects and policies as key corporate functions to calibrate toward greater ecological sustainability. Subsequent Parts detail the methods used to obtain case information and present the results of an assessment of the sustainability efforts of the Greater Vancouver Regional District and the cities of Vancouver, Richmond, and Burnaby against my Sustainability Performance Management System (SPMS) model. While this study is exclusively concerned with a local and regional government's corporate (i.e. their own organizational operations), rather than community-based, sustainability efforts, it assumes that local and regional governments should undertake what I term corporate ecological responsibility not simply as an end in itself. Rather, corporate ecological responsibility should also be viewed as a means to lend credibility to service provision and regulation roles and model sustainability systems and activities for replication by other actors in the community. 1.3 THE SUSTAINABILITY DILEMMA: GLOBAL & REGIONAL. This section illustrates the rationale for local and regional government leadership on sustainability, pointing out that even the highly livable and abundant Greater Vancouver region is symptomatic of unsustainable economic growth, population growth, and consumption when examined from an ecological sustainability perspective. Before examining the region in greater detail, I will distinguish a definition of ecological sustainability from the many uses of the term sustainability. 2

The term sustainability, since the Brundtland Commission report in 1987, has been used as a loose ethic to steward resources for future generations and has come to define - at least nominally - a wide array of definitions and frameworks. Edward Jepson jr. astutely points out that most accepted public definitions of sustainability are vague descriptions that avoid the inherent competition between ecological and expansionist economic worldviews - a "vagueness [that] serves to protect the dominance of the former while accommodating (without necessarily furthering) the yearnings of the latter (6-7 2004)." For clarity and precision, I distinguish between a shallow concept of sustainability and strong, or ecological sustainability. Along with Rees (2004, pers. comm.) and Simon Bell and Stephen Morse (12 1999), I consider these two views of sustainability as mutually exclusive with unique philosophical assumptions. The concept of shallow sustainability resonates with neoliberalism, and strong sustainability resonates with many of the major principles of ecological economics. While shallow sustainability concentrates on mitigating the damage rather than challenging the behavior of industrial economies and [northern] lifestyles on local ecosystems or the global environment (9 Boyd 2004), ecological sustainability is concerned with the transformation of those human ideologies, systems, institutions, and behavior patterns driving the causes of un-sustainability (478 Jacob 1994). In ecological economic terms, while shallow sustainability assumes that manufactured capital can be substituted for natural capital, ecological sustainability contends that a healthy functioning biosphere must be preserved and that manufactured capital cannot substitute for the integrity of natural systems and resources. For further detail on this distinction, see Appendix A. The importance of the concept of ecological sustainability demands a more detailed explanation. In basic terms, systems theory and the science of ecology define sustainability as the attainment of a balance in which the demands placed on an ecosystem (in terms of resource extraction and waste assimilation) do not exceed the capacity of the ecosystem to meet those demands (Rees 1995). Further, these disciplines conceive of human social and economic systems as interdependent with and subordinate to the ecosphere, and hold that a condition of relative stability can be attained or undermined based on the activity of one or more of these subsystems (Allen and Starr 1988 cited in Jepson Jr. 2001). In keeping with these notions, an assembly of Swedish scientists determined that the planet and the society of its human inhabitants can be deemed sustainable when materials from the Earth's crust and materials produced by society are not systematically increased in the ecosphere and when the physical basis for the productivity and diversity of nature is not systematically diminished (Natural Step 1988). On the basis of this literature, I posit that ecological sustainability denotes an actual, end condition; moreover, I also argue that progress towards ecological sustainability - or put another way, progress towards reducing the degree of un-sustainability - can be made and measured by degrees. Like a doctor that uses his or her understanding of the conditions of optimal health when 3

examining a patient, we can now examine the state of the globe and the region with this definition of ecological sustainability. How balanced are the flows of consumption and regeneration across the global ecosphere? At the turn of the millennium, the planet's energy, water, and materials are being consumed faster than natural cycles of regeneration can replenish them, and materials from the Earth's crust and materials produced by society are being systematically increased in the ecosphere. Put another way, the physical basis for the productivity and diversity of the ecosphere is being systematically diminished and degraded by human demand for resources and waste generation (Factor 10 Institute 2004; Natural Step 2004). In ecological terms, half of all global ecosystems have been transformed and are being managed in some way for human purposes (5 Rees 2001). Mass consumption and burning of fossil fuels, largely used for space heating and transportation as well as industry, is responsible for the accumulation of gases in the atmosphere, climate change, and its consequent impacts (Homer-Dixon 1999; UNDP 2001 cited in 5 Rees 2001). Environmental scientists are generally in agreement that the global environment continues to deteriorate at an accelerating pace. The literature demonstrates that the ecological deterioration that defines un-sustainability is driven largely by the economic growth assumptions of global market capitalism that reinforce increasingly consumptive behavior among a rising global population. Rooted historically in human industrialization, this globally dominant economic system has been largely abstracted from the functioning of the global biosphere. 1 Ecological economist Paul Hawken vividly summarizes that: "in its late maturity, industrial society runs on life support systems that require enormous heat and pressure, are petrochemically dependent and materials-intensive, and require large flows of toxic and hazardous chemicals. These industrial 'empty calories' end up as pollution, acid rain, and greenhouse gases, harming environmental, social, and financial systems (1999 cited in 14 Throgmorton 2003)." Given their development within this economic context of industrialization and growth, conventional financial systems and techniques from pricing to accounting have failed to adequately value the ecosphere. We are not even able to quantify its many life support services 1 ' 4. Despite these theoretical and practical oversights, this economic system has had very real ecological impacts. The expansion of the economy and individual incomes is reliant on increasing consumption, and further increases in consumption are made possible by economic growth and rising incomes. 1 E.O. Wilson goes on to argue that human culture has advanced in complexity because of its ever-increasing ability to use and manipulate natural resources, leading to enormous cultural optimism about the capabilities of science to continually provide technological solutions to scarcity that continues today (45 1988). 4

Ecological footprint analysis demonstrates that the largest ecological footprints belong to those in the developed north, pointing out that northern countries are generally the higher consumers and waste generators. In many developed countries, per capita energy consumption is thirty or more times that of developing countries (6 Rees 2001). In the developing south, per capita consumption and population are rising very quickly with the expansion of industrialization and electrification in some areas of the developing south (58 Homer-Dixon 1999). At the broadest level, a recent figure from the United Nations Population Division (2002) predicts that there will be an additional 2.9 billion people on Earth by 2050 (14 Nierenberg and MacDonald 2004). The combined effect of human numbers and human consumption is driving the sustainability crisis; if uncorrected, this dangerous positive feedback loop between human behavior and the ecosphere threatens to undermine human health and overwhelm the regenerative capacity of the ecosphere to restore the balance (Factor 10 Institute 2004; Natural Step 2004). Each region of the globe experiences unique impacts from these global conditions and makes a unique contribution to ameliorating or exacerbating them. In general terms, the developed north has remained relatively insulated from the worst effects of ecological deterioration, while profiting from the economic dependence of the south. This is true of the Canada's ecologically abundant but highly consumptive Greater Vancouver region. 2 Despite their relative health, local ecosystems in Greater Vancouver now show signs of population and consumption pressures, the same dynamics that characterize the global sustainability dilemma. On the basis of availability of existing studies, the following section will summarize the current condition of the region and projected economic, consumption and population trends to 2031 (UFI I 2003; UFI II 2003) to demonstrate the urgency of public leadership on strategically and systematically setting course for ecological sustainability. 1.31 REGIONAL ECONOMIC GROWTH. The Greater Vancouver region is characterized by a market capitalist economy that has constituted the main engine of economic growth in the province of British Columbia over the past five years (8 GVRD SR 2002). The region is a single, diversified, and highly interdependent economy in which boundaries do not play a prominent role. People, goods, services, capital, and information all move freely within the region. The region is governed by the Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD), a non-hierarchical federation of 21 member municipalities and one electoral area (8 2002 GVRD SR). 3 Through the GVRD, 2 In general, Canada enjoys a surplus of natural capital, with a biocapacity of approximately 14 hectares per capita. For reference, this represents a biocapacity of almost 7.5 times what is available to the other six billion people on earth (6 Anielski 2004). 5 The GVRD is referred to as a single organization by this study but is in fact a body of three legal entities: the Greater Vancouver Water District (GVWD), the Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District (GVS&DD), and the Greater Vancouver Regional District. The former two own and command water storage lakes, pumping stations, water mains, air quality monitoring stations, wastewater treatment plants, sanitary sewers, solid waste transfer 5

the provincial energy utility BC Hydro, and senior governments, Greater Vancouver is also bound together by shared infrastructure that sustains its economic base (2 BCBC 2002). According to the Business Council of BC, the region is modestly under-performing economically within the Canadian context (2 BCBC 2002); however, future economic scenarios created by Urban Futures (I 2003) predict modest economic growth over the next thirty years." An employment distribution scenario created by Urban Futures (2003) relates the relative contribution of each municipality to regional economic activity and makes projections for the contribution of each towards future economic growth. On the basis of 2001 data, Vancouver provides approximately 36% of the region's employment, with Richmond at 12% and Burnaby at 11 % (15 UFI II 2003). By 2031, Vancouver is expected to offer 23% more employment, Richmond 37%, and Burnaby an additional 38% (15 UFI II 2003). The model predicts that Vancouver will continue to drive the regional economy over the next three decades. There is no indication that private and public sector actors in the region will address alternative economic models that are more ecologically sustainable in the same timeframe, which also indicates that regional consumption patterns are unlikely to meet global reduction targets for the developed north. 1.32 REGIONAL CONSUMPTION. The Greater Vancouver region is characterized by an ecological footprint roughly nineteen times its land area (86 Wackernagel and Rees 1996). It is estimated that the average Canadian requires six to eight hectares of productive land to support his or her consumer lifestyle; as a point of reference, the average human ecological footprint is estimated between 2.2 to 2.8 hectares, given that citizens of the world's poorest countries have average ecological footprints of less than half a hectare (WWF 2004; 12 Rees 2001). These figures clearly demonstrate the scale at which consumer lifestyles must be recalibrated. Put another way, if every person alive today consumed at the rate of an average person in the Greater Vancouver region, almost four more planets would be required to supply the demand (Rees 2004, pers. comm.). 5 Other jurisdictions have shown that this consumption is excessive: some developed Northern European countries in similar climatic conditions as British Columbia have managed to use 10% the energy as provincial residents do (9-3 Van. SOER 1995). Moreover, by 2031, the region's moderate stations, a landfill, and a Waste-to-Energy facility (GVRD SR 2002). The latter is responsible for regional growth, air quality, parks and related functions. 4 Urban Futures (UFI) analysts suggest that the combined influence of the projected population and changing demographics could fuel Greater Vancouver's labor force to grow between 30 to 36% over the next three decades. The scenario suggests that there will be a constraint in the range of one percent per year on employment growth, with any economic growth beyond this level relying on increases in productivity (viii UFI I 2003). s This assessment is based on average consumption in the United States. Canadian consumption patterns are relatively close to the US, and given that this is a very general measure, the approximation stands (15 Nierenberg and MacDonald 2004). 6

economic growth and rising population will drive the construction of nearly a fifth of a million additional housing units in Vancouver, Richmond, and Burnaby alone (5 UFI II 2003). 6 1.33 REGIONAL POPULATION. Managing demographic change promises to be one of the most important sustainability issues in the region in the future, given that the future needs and services demanded by the region's population in 2031 will be greater overall and considerably different from the requirements of current residents. Currently, there are approximately two million people who enjoy the region's reputation as one of the most desirable places in the world to live. 7 A model created by Urban Futures projects population for the Greater Vancouver Regional District to be just under three million by 2031, representing projected total growth of 44%. 8 Taken together, Vancouver, Richmond, and Burnaby represent almost half of the population (46.2%) of the Greater Vancouver region, on 12% of its geographical area. 9 None of these study municipalities are expected to take the majority of this growth, though each may expand between 20-45%.' The population over the age of 65 is expected to double relative to the number of people of working age." 6 Urban Futures (UFI) divided the Greater Vancouver region into eight "sub-regions" that follow jurisdictional boundaries (1 UFI I 2003) to model population rather than 21 member municipalities. UFI then created predictive scenarios of sub-regional population distribution (1 I 2003) based on life cycle trend analysis. First, the capacity of the existing housing stock in a sub-region to accommodate people was identified. The capacity of this stock was compared to the future housing demands of the sub-region's current population to identify both (a) the requirement for different forms of housing, and (b) the potential for the sub-region to accommodate additional population. In turn, this demonstrates the extent to which net new housing stock is required to accommodate projected population. The sub-regional distribution of housing indicates the distribution of population across Greater Vancouver and its sub-regions. ' The best available population estimate for the Greater Vancouver region (GVRD) is 2,126,806 (27 Urban Futures II 2003). The Mercer Human Resource Consulting Overall Quality of Life Report gave the GVRD a second place ranking overall in the world (iv GVRD SR 2003). Zurich, Switzerland was rated first, and the GVRD tied with Geneva and Vienna for second place. 8 The UFI reports use a "continuing recent trends" distribution scenario methodology to make predictions about housing, population and employment in eight sub-areas (based on municipal boundaries) of the Greater Vancouver Regional District over the next three decades (2001-2031). The methodology first accounts for demographic change of the current (2001 's) residents in each sub-area and their future pattern of occupancy demand by structure type (ground-oriented and apartment) as they age through the lifecycle of housing maintainership. The next step allocates growth in regional housing occupancy demand to the existing housing stock already in each subarea, with net additions based on the regional pattern of development as indicated by annual housing starts data for the past two decades. The reports rely on 2001 Canadian Census data (1 UFI II 2003). 5 Vancouver occupies 11,309 ha, or 4%, of the GVRD's land area of 275,681 ha and is anticipated to expand its current population of 545,671 by 21 % by 2031. Richmond occupies 12,420 ha, or 4.5% of the GVRD's land area and is anticipated to expand its current population of 164,345 by 45% by 2031. Finally, Burnaby occupies 8,845 ha, or 3%, of the GVRD's land area and is anticipated to expand its current population of 193,954 by 44% by 2031. ' Of the 909,000 additional residents projected for the GVRD over the coming three decades, it is estimated that the most rapidly growing area within the GVRD will be the Pitt Meadows-Maple Ridge sub-region. The Surrey- White Rock sub-region is predicted to see the greatest absolute growth at 252,000 new residents or 28% of overall regional growth (17 Urban Futures II 2003). " This population scenario for the GVRD shows the 65 plus population increasing by 425,000 people (from 12% to 22%) over the next thirty years due to increasing life expectancies, continued immigration, and the ongoing aging of GVRD residents (22 Urban Futures I 2003). 7

While each municipality and the regional district can expect to see variable impacts in the future, all share the overall economic, consumption, and population dynamics that are typical of the developed north. The expansionist economic worldview and the economic institutions that support it can be expected to remain dominant over the next three decades, underlining the need for a strategic approach to ecological sustainability that can begin breaking down the barriers to a more sustainable way of life. 1.4 TOWARDS A REGIONAL SUSTAINABILITY SOLUTION. A clear understanding of the solutions required at the global scale is needed to direct ecological sustainability efforts at a local and regional scale and calibrate them to the institutions that have a strategic opportunity to make a difference. Jepson Jr. (2004) posits that the long-standing arguments of ecological economics have been unable to challenge the dominance of the economic expansionist worldview and that integrating the ecological worldview into the institutional realm affords the major opportunity for change (7 2004). He argues that public and social institutions can and should influence the development of more sustainable values and beliefs in citizens to set in motion a feedback cycle wherein civil society transforms the "working rules" of economic institutions over time (Jepson jr. 2004). Even while institutions begin the often slow process of internal shift, sustainability practitioners remain tasked with lowering human population everywhere, and reducing fossil fuel-based energy and material consumption and waste production by 50% over the next several decades (5 Rees 2000). 12 Furthermore, if allowances are made for necessary growth in the developing world and the needs of an additional three to four billion people on the planet, practitioners in the industrialized north face the monumental task of influencing their communities to reduce their consumption by 80-90% (5 Rees 2000). With this global diagnostic in hand, and a strategic awareness of his or her regional sustainability conditions, the local and regional government sustainability practitioner is tasked with setting out practical ecological sustainability targets within the institution's jurisdiction and a process of systematic change within the institution itself. Jepson Jr. cautions against the common pitfalls of expecting too much, relying solely on expert reasoning, or triggering risk-averse responses in colleagues (9 2004); on the other hand, a process is needed that is grounded in science while respecting its limits, focused on the needs, concerns, and positive potential of people, and rigorous enough to contribute to the attainment of meaningful objectives. As a first step in meeting this challenge, I argue that practitioners should understand ecological sustainability as an end condition and responsibility as the organizing principle of change. 12 The term 'practitioner' is used rather than 'planner' to reflect the fact that many practitioners take on a planning function as part of their municipal or regional responsibilities. 8

1.5 CORPORATE ECOLOGICAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR LOCAL & REGIONAL GOVERNMENT. Institutional organizations like local and regional governments can and should evolve and adapt to become more ecologically sustainable by degrees as their focus sharpens and commitment strengthens; however, as a primary but often overlooked step, they need an understanding of their change strategy. The "buzz words" of dematerialization and energy efficiency may be used without a strategic understanding of how they relate to two broad organizing principles or strategies: technological innovation and responsibility. 1.51 TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND RESPONSIBILITY. While the technology strategy emphasizes innovation, the responsibility strategy prizes voluntary simplicity and husbandry. Taking behavioral responsibility for attaining reduction targets involves encouraging more resourceful use of materials and energy and purchasing less, and more ecologically responsible, supplies. I posit that technological and design innovation is an important strategy, so long as it is subordinated to an overarching culture of corporate responsibility: market-driven technology alone cannot solve the sustainability dilemma. Technological innovation is typically favored in the economic context of market capitalism as the source of solutions to the sustainability dilemma. This is not a new phenomenon: since industrialization and the wealth it created, an unbounded optimism about the supply of natural resources and the capabilities of science to continually provide technological solutions to scarcity has characterized North American culture in particular (45 Wilson 1988). E.O. Wilson further argues that wealth from industrialization has prevented widespread critical review and revision of the assumptions underlying economic growth and the development of more integrated and responsive institutions (45 1988). In any case, a range of efficiency and dematerialization strategies have been developed to produce products that reduce energy use, reduce the amount of material (especially virgin material) used in manufactured goods, and to increase the quality and longevity of service that the good is designed to provide. Operational and production techniques have been created to serve as guidelines for making better products; some of these include product stewardship, design for the environment, the ecoefficiency management strategy, and cleaner production. These initiatives all involve systematically combining a series of successive savings in materials and energy at different parts of the value chain from resource extraction through every intermediate step of processing and transportation, to final delivery and ultimately recovery of discarded energy and materials. The fundamental point is that each of these initiatives is based on the notion that achieving better ecological performance can be compatible with, and even complementary to a firm's ultimate goal of earning more profit, increased growth, and competitiveness in the market. 9

Extreme proponents of this strategy have suggested that efficiency gains are capable of rescuing the planet from the ecological consequences of growth 19. On the contrary, studies have demonstrated that generalized efficiency gains throughout the economy can result in higher incomes chasing cheaper goods and services. 13 Individuals and firms tend to respond to efficiency savings by using more of a good or service and/or redirecting savings to alternative forms of consumption, which counterproductively results in a net increase in gross consumption (4 Rees 2001; WRI 2004). These findings clearly demonstrate that a responsibility strategy is required to pursue meaningful and enduring change. 1.52 CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY THROUGH TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION? In an irony of public discourse, a global movement has adopted responsibility as an organizing principle and strategy for sustainability while largely pursuing market-driven technological innovation and economic growth. Echoing Jepson's comment on the term sustainability, responsibility has become so vague in meaning to protect the dominance of economic growth and consumption while referencing (without necessarily furthering) the yearnings of voluntary simplicity. Corporate Responsibility (CR) as a movement began in the early 1990s within the realm of private enterprise as a philosophy that firms and institutions have a responsibility to ensure that their business practices do not undermine social and ecological systems locally or globally (6 SustainAbility 2004). CR represents a major departure from the conventional accounting focus on a single bottom line of profit and loss to describe the performance of corporations in use since the 1500s (6 SustainAbility 2004). The origin of the movement was driven both by external forces, such as increasing government and consumer expectations, and the internal opportunities for efficiency and cost reduction in the form of higher profit margins, lowered liability risks for wastes and toxins, and labor or human rights issues. Conventional CR promises firms a good public image and brand identity in the marketplace, where they expect to gain a competitive advantage, and a higher profit, by providing emerging socially aware markets with innovative and responsible products and services. As such, CR subscribes to a shallow understanding of sustainability that does not question the market capitalist assumption of unlimited economic growth, nor address the causal link between human economic and consumptive activity and ecosystem degradation. ' In 1865, Jevons observed that the economical use of fuel did not equate to diminished consumption, but rather accelerated it. A contemporary study of five sophisticated economies over 1975-1996 demonstrated that resource savings realized from efficiency gains and economic restructuring were negated by population growth and increased per capita consumption (cited in 4 Rees 2001). 10

1.53 EMPHASIZING RESPONSIBILITY IN LOCAL & REGIONAL GOVERNMENT. While the concept and conventional application of Corporate Responsibility has failed to attain its full potential and has even subverted the importance of voluntary simplicity, I argue that the term should be repatriated rather than rejected. Like sustainability, corporate responsibility has also triumphed in the battle of big public ideas, and now work must be done to make it meaningful in ecological and practical terms. Despite its lack of depth in economic and ecological analysis, the Corporate Responsibility movement has generated prolific and detailed research on institutional change and management effectiveness. The literature proposes two main strategies: (1) leadership through sponsoring other organizations and individuals who are contributing to sustainability, and (2) leadership by example, in which firms or institutions model social and ecological values in their own organizations and operations (WBCSD 2004).' 4 I posit that the leadership by example strategy of Corporate Responsibility can be successfully applied to the local and regional government sectors as an organizing principle for action on ecological sustainability. The concept can be used to direct efforts to build a culture of responsibility from politicians to practitioners so that local and regional governments demonstrate how sustainable material and energy use targets can be attained in their own operations. Corporate Responsibility is particularly appropriate for the local and regional government sectors for two main reasons. The first, and seldom recognized, is that un-sustainability, or increasing ecological scarcity, is likely to threaten political stability and the viability of government (42 Homer-Dixon 1999). Homer-Dixon argues that scarcity causes social friction, a concept he defines as competition among powerful groups and elites to protect their narrow interests. This social friction impedes the ingenuity and adaptation of institutions to remedy the ecological degradation that characterizes un-sustainability (42). 15 Secondly, unlike private sector firms, governments are democratic entities with a fiduciary duty to plan for the future in order to safeguard human health and ecological integrity. Local and regional government planners, in particular, are professionally concerned with responding in a forward-thinking manner to the local symptoms of global sustainability problems, recognizing that all facets of planning for the welfare of humans have effects on ecological processes (Dubos 1981; Beatley 1998 cited in 505 Jepson Jr. 2001). Recasting the issue in recognition of the interdependence between humans and ecosystems, legal theorist Andrew Gage argues that ecological protection is related to the public right to life, liberty, and security of person (2003). Beyond the basic fact that humans require water, air, and food from productive land to survive, research has shown that the increasing amount of human-made " This often takes the form of grants and scholarships for innovative research and development and donations for community and environmental projects and services. 15 Homer-Dixon includes technology in his theory of adaptive failure. Scarcity can hinder institutional and technological adaptation. Rather than inspiring the wave of ingenuity predicted by economic optimists, environmental scarcity instead sometimes reduces the supply of ingenuity available in society (42). 11

substances, especially those that are acutely toxic, persistent, bio-accumulative, carcinogenic, mutagenic, and endocrine-disrupting (6 Boyd 2004), pose major threats to human health. Local and regional governments that strive for ecological sustainability targets also contribute to fulfilling their public trust responsibilities in health and ecosystem management. Local and regional governments have tripartite roles as regulators, service providers, and corporations; the corporate role exists for the sole purpose of carrying out other roles and provides the foundation for successfully doing so. Moreover, each of these roles presents opportunities for making sustainability progress. However, local and regional governments also have limitations on how they can take effective action toward ecological sustainability. They remain legally and politically subordinate to provincial and federal governments and economically to the pervasive influence of globalized international trade. In choosing a sustainability strategy, these institutions cannot consider directly extra-jurisdictional concerns, though they can seek to exert influence on them for strategic purposes. The leadership by example strategy of the Corporate Responsibility model demands that the corporate role of a local or regional sustainability practitioner is the logical starting point for action on sustainability. In Greater Vancouver, local and regional governments have a key opportunity to harness the insights from the Corporate Responsibility movement, ground them in the ecological sustainability framework, and take a lead corporate role in advancing a cultural shift towards sustainability in their jurisdictions. The functional jurisdiction of local governments in the region is enshrined in the provincial Community Charter and, in the case of the City of Vancouver, the Vancouver Charter. Each municipality has a Mayor and Council elected democratically on a three-year cycle on the basis of representation by population; Vancouver City Council comprises the Mayor and ten Councilors, while Richmond and Burnaby are each individually governed by a Mayor and eight Councilors. The Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD) has a unique function to provide services to its member municipalities, and municipalities deliver services to the taxpayer. These services mainly take the form of utility provision, namely drinking water, sewage treatment and solid waste disposal. In addition, the GVRD provides the strategic framework for regional growth and development and manages a policy and regulatory framework for regional air quality and pollution control. The GVRD has only indirect jurisdiction over energy-related issues in its mandate to manage regional air quality and increasingly, greenhouse gas emissions. Member municipalities and one electoral area form the GVRD's governing Board of Directors on the basis of representation by population.' 6 As such, Vancouver, Richmond, and Burnaby are active participants in the governance of the Greater Vancouver region and help set the direction of the GVRD by their political representation on 16 The number of Directors per municipality depends on the population of that municipality, as well as the weighting of each Director's vote. Each Director, an elected mayor or councilor, exercises one vote for every 20,000 population, to a maximum of five votes, capped at 100,000. Every municipality in the GVRD is represented on the Board, as is the electoral area, which elects a director to serve on the board for a three-year term. Thus, municipalities with large populations (such as the cities of Vancouver, Surrey, Richmond, Burnaby and Coquitlam) have more than one director. One municipality, Abbotsford, is a member of the GVRD for the parks function only (GVRD 2004). 12

the GVRD Board. In turn, the GVRD exerts significant informal influence and coordinative capacity among its member municipalities. 1.54 C E R THROUGH DEMATERIALIZATION AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY. With an eye to these jurisdictional niches and the prevailing political context of support for economic growth, the sustainability practitioner must investigate how to assist the local or regional government in becoming less material and energy intensive. In Greater Vancouver, addressing corporate consumption and waste production provide the strongest opportunities for local and regional governments to show leadership on sustainability. Due to limitations on the scope of research, this study will only address waste issues insofar as they are included in stories about procurement." In general, local and regional governments can take two approaches to reducing consumption of materials, water, and energy: supply side management and demand side management. The former is largely the realm of purchasing and planning and the latter with operations, maintenance, and behavioral training. Supply side management is concerned with making best value purchases that satisfy the multiple criteria of an organization's needs and preferences. Demand side management (DSM) involves educating individuals about the choices available to them and the ecological impacts of those choices. A successful DSM program can reduce and/or postpone the need for supply. DSM can also be effectively embedded within supply side management in the form of performance specifications or criteria that request more efficient and less wasteful and/or harmful products and services. In theory, supply and demand side management approaches are closely related. While conventionally dealt with as independent activities in practice, supply and demand side management objectives can work in tandem to achieve ecological sustainability targets. 1.6 OPERATIONALIZINC CER THROUGH SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT. Sustainability performance management is a process for "working out the details" of how an organization can employ dematerialization and energy efficiency as strategies for taking corporate ecological responsibility for action towards sustainability. The review of the literature thus far demonstrates that the corporate ecological responsibility model is a suitable instrument to organize the reduction of materials and energy and thus drive local and regional governments as corporations toward the destination of ecological sustainability. It sounds simple in theory, but it is well known that the planning context is characterized by ambiguous and poorly defined problems, incomplete information about alternatives, and limited time, skills, and resources. A strategic, systemic, and sensitive approach is " More specifically, the study considers stories about waste production and the management of waste as part of descriptions of "organizational culture" within study organizations but does not include waste production and waste management in the scoring system for system components or principles of sustainability performance management. The latter is discussed in detail in the remainder of Part I. 13

needed to assist practitioners in communicating about what they are trying to do and how they are trying to do it, nor measure their efforts in the challenging planning context over time to ensure their organization's change is effective and enduring. A survey of the literature on local and regional government management reveals that a systemic and strategic method to pursue corporate ecological sustainability in a North American jurisdiction has not yet been advanced or implemented. Over the past five years, the major North American planning journals have showcased research on corporate performance, or outcomes-based, management and evaluation for local and regional government, but not in relation to attaining ecological sustainability objectives. 18 On the other hand, discussions of sustainability performance have been initiated, but not yet in relation to measuring corporate activity, and not within a model of corporate responsibility. In 1999, Theodore Poister and Gregory Streib surveyed American cities to determine the extent to which performance management had become integrated into contemporary local government management to find that many local governments share a strong commitment to the effective use of performance measurements. Later, in 2001, David Ammons introduced an approach to performance management in local government based on setting targets and performance milestones, but with a comprehensive scope that encompassed municipal operations from animal control to police services. In 2002, C. Heinrich focused on the American federal public sector in his research of whether reliance on outcomes rather than program activity provided better information for management. He determined that measures of both were useful - the former for accurate estimates of program impacts, and the latter for leveraging better organizational performance (Heinrich 2002). A Canadian study by Mark Seasons (2003) focused on how organizational culture affects corporate monitoring and evaluation in local government, determining that significant obstacles such as the competition for limited resources often stand in the way. Another 2003 study by Ross Rubenstein et al examined the nature of the performance measures used to find that measures specifically adjusted to specific organizational and contextual conditions were technically superior to "raw" measures. Collectively, the research to date on performance management highlights that it is generally accepted as a management style for local and regional government in North America. Moreover, the research suggests that a performance management system should include technical elements such as targets, milestones, outcomes, and a monitoring and evaluation regimen, as well as softer considerations of the organizational culture and contextual conditions that influence program activity. On the other hand, a survey of the journal literature on local and regional government and sustainability reveals that research on measuring sustainability at the local and regional level has become popular but not yet applied corporately, aligned with performance management, or integrated into supply and The Journal of Planning Literature, the Journal of the American Planning Association, and Plan Canada. 14

demand side management. Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in 1992, the sustainability agenda has moved from national governments to local authorities (Lafferty and Eckerberg 1998; Ethier 2002). The conference introduced a sustainability agenda called the "Local Agenda 21", which focuses on changing lifestyles, production, consumption, and land-use patterns. The weight of research and practice to date has been focused on the land use agenda item in the form of community based growth management and "smart growth." 19 As one important example, Philip Berke and Maria Conroy (2000) undertook a study of thirty community-based (rather than corporate) comprehensive plans to determine the influence of sustainability as an organizing principle. They defined a set of local sustainability principles that addressed land use, regulation, and economic issues in the community, but did not address reduced consumption through managing supply and demand. Their discovery that plans which integrate sustainability as a concept did not significantly differ from plans that do not led them to conclude that sustainability was not effective as an organizing principle; however, they did not go so far as to suggest sustainability may be more effectively considered a destination or end condition (26 Berke & Conroy 2000). 20 In fact, the professional conversation on measuring sustainability has largely emphasized means of including sustainability or sustainability assessment, usually by indicators, in the planning or decision-making process rather than setting up a systemic means to track progress towards ecological sustainability as an end (Button 2002; Foxon et al 2002). As far as systematically organizing sustainability efforts is concerned, the North American literature has focused on the community, rather than the corporation, as the unit of analysis. Simon Bell and Stephen Morse (1999; 2003) and Okechukwu Ukaga and Chris Maser (2003) pioneered models for a local community-based planning process based on the use of sustainability indicators. In 2004, Kent Portnay pushed farthest in developing a "seriousness index" to analyze 24 American cities most reknowned for their sustainability efforts in order to determine how cities have planned for, implemented programs and policies, and measured progress towards what he terms environmental sustainability in their communities. As a brief note, European researchers have blazed a trail into corporate sustainability at the policy level; most notably, William Lafferty and Katrina Eckerberg (1998) have looked at the integration of environmental and sustainability policies into all functions of local government in European countries. Collectively, then, the research to date on North American local and regional government sustainability highlights the community as the focus of change efforts; moreover, while indicators, programs, and 19 Smart growth, also known as "new urbanism", proposes that neighborhoods, towns, and cities can be physically re-designed to produce more ecologically and socially responsible communities. New designs are proposed to accord with the context of a natural region and are based on eco-efficient technological innovation in buildings and infrastructure. 20 Based on a European study, Timothy O'Riordan and Heather Voisey argued that planners and politicians should use sustainability as an organizing principle, rather than a state to attain, in a context that embraces both ecological protection and economic growth (1998). 15

policies are identified in isolation as means of measuring and implementing sustainability efforts, they remain disconnected from the targets, milestones, outcomes, monitoring and evaluation, and attention to organizational culture that characterize successful performance management systems. 1.7 THE SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (SPMS) MODEL. In this section I advance a new model of a management system to fill an important gap in the research to date on North American local and regional government sustainability efforts: a strategic, systemic, and sensitive approach for corporate leadership on attaining meaningful and measurable ecological sustainability milestones. I have termed this model the Sustainability Performance Management System (SPMS) as it provides a specific structure of components and principles to guide systemic progress towards strategic ecological sustainability milestones. In order to have optimal systemic effectiveness, a SPM system must have distinctive components that are both individually developed and meaningfully linked together in an adaptive feedback cycle. I propose that each component, and the system as a whole, should be informed by five fundamental sustainability management principles that are outlined later in this Part. Organizational capacity, particularly in the form of human resources and structural organization, is also necessary for developing and maintaining an effective SPMS. Finally, there must be both a formal commitment on the part of the organization to the management system and an informal culture of support for the management system and its milestones across the organization. The remainder of this Part will discuss each of these components, principles, and organizational conditions in detail. 1.71 THE STRUCTURE OF A SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM. A systematic approach to sustainability performance management infuses management with coherence, thoroughness, and regularity. A systematic approach should be carefully differentiated from a comprehensive approach, which refers to the attempt to be inclusive and cover a broad scope of application. There are four basic components of a management system: (1) a framework, (2) tools, (3) an information system, and (4) a reporting function (105 MELP 1998). While each component of a SPMS serves an important individual function, it also has an adaptive intelligence for other components in the system. For this reason, the degree of cohesion or linkage between system components is as important as an individual component. The management system as a whole forms a continual feedback loop between each of its components, where performance tools are selected on the basis of their suitability to achieve the targets espoused by the management framework, an information system collates data collected on performance achieved by use of the tools, a reporting function culls the most pertinent information from the information system for formal communications purposes, and the framework is adapted on the basis of the report and feedback from its review. The system and its 16

components are illustrated in the following diagram: PERFORMANCE TOOLS MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK INFORMATION SYSTEM REPORTING & COMMUNICATION Figure 1-1 Management System Components 1.711 MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK. The purpose of a sustainability performance management framework is to clearly define its application for the corporation, articulate a strategic focus on one or more root causes of un-sustainability, lay out objectives that describe how the system will work within its jurisdiction to remedy or reverse one or more of these causes, and specify measurable targets for achievement. A framework may take the form of a corporate strategy, vision, or plan. Alternatively, a corporate framework may be embedded in a strategy, vision, or plan for broader application in the community or region. A World Bank and Environics International survey in 2002 found that two-thirds of sustainability experts polled believe that the most effective action governments could take on sustainability is the declaration of a long term, time-specific, and properly resourced national sustainability plan with measurable milestones (17 Bell and Morse 1999). An objective defines what matters in a decision context and should be both measurable and meaningful to those who use them (299 McDaniels 2000). 2I Objectives have three basic components: an 'object' (what is being valued), a direction of preference, and a decision context (302 McDaniels 2000). A target describes the measurable qualitative and quantitative dimensions of the state that meets the conditions of an objective or set of objectives. With the rapid proliferation and popularity of specific performance " In this study, the terms "objective" and "goal" are used interchangeably, as the Miriam Webster dictionary attributes the same meaning for each, namely, "the terminal point or end toward which effort is directed" (Miriam Webster 2004). A set of objectives should cover everything that matters in making the decision and should only involve ends that can be somehow controlled or influenced by the choice among the alternatives (302 McDaniels 2000). 17

tools, there is a tendency for the tools to drive and even structure the management process. On the contrary, the framework should be used to ensure that tools chosen have significant materiality or potential impact and are capable of achieving sustainability targets of total and per capita reductions in the consumption of materials and energy, and that multiple tools are streamlined and synchronized for optimum performance." An important issue for the choice of management framework is political acceptability or popularity. What may seem scientifically or technically accurate to practitioners may not be compelling to decisionmakers or the public at a given point in time. Political support is vital to ensuring that a SPMS endures over time. As an example, energy efficiency and climate change are both common frameworks that resonate to varying degrees with the ecological sustainability framework. In practice, tradeoffs are often made between ideal scope and priorities, and the messaging that is likely to earn the greatest political mileage and support. 1.712 PERFORMANCE TOOLS. Performance tools encompass the entire range of implementation vehicles that act and operate toward the achievement of the objectives and targets laid out in the management framework. Tools may take the form of guidelines, policies, resolutions, bylaws, programs, workshops, websites, and literature. The use of strategy allows for a tight focus and deployment of limited resources on what matters most at a given point in time out of what may be a dizzying range of attractive, interesting, or fashionable possibilities. 1.7121 STRATEGIC SELECTION OF PERFORMANCE TOOLS. I have demonstrated that the strategic opportunity for local and regional governments in Greater Vancouver to dematerialize and become more energy efficient is through coordinating the operational realms of corporate supply and demand side management. To date, the rapid development of sustainability-packaged tools of all types in local and regional government contexts that lack consensus on the nature of the sustainability dilemma has resulted in disjointed and piecemeal approaches to DSM and SSM. It is common for a public institution to have a broad and checkered range of tools that have been adopted over time with no indication of their relative priority. In particular, supply side and demand side management activities are often designed and implemented independently and not synergized for optimal ecological gains. Moreover, in some local and regional governments, DSM and SSM activities have been added on to programs with a strategic focus on environmental protection. While the integrity of ecosystems are at " Materiality is the term used for critical substantive issues and comes out of the financial accounting tradition: "something is material if it has the potential to affect your perception of the company and any decisions you might take as a result" (36 SustainAbility 2004). In this study, materiality is defined as a scope and specificity of action that has the potential to contribute to greater ecological sustainability in the immediate, short, and long terms. 18

the heart of both environmental protection (shallow sustainability) and ecological sustainability, I argue that managing for environmental protection and managing for sustainability are distinct activities with different purposes and strategies. This view falls on the ecological sustainability side of the fault line between ecological and shallow concepts of sustainability; as an example of the latter, Bell and Morse (1999; 2003) argue that the main difference between measuring the environment and sustainability is in the scope of the management system, rather than the strategic focus on human behavior. While environmental protection focuses directly on ecological conditions at the site, neighborhood, community, or regional level, ecological sustainability management focuses strategically on the underlying intermediate human causes of consumption and waste management that amounts to the entire network of lifestyle choices. In the latter, the sourcing, use, and disposal of materials, water, and energy should be linked to measurement, even by qualitative assessment, of ecological integrity at local, regional and global scales. This strategic difference should determine the selection and substance of what is included and how it is framed in all components of the performance management regime. Even performance tools that strategically focus on consumption and waste management differ in their degree of materiality or impact; in general, the more that tools are informed by the objectives and aligned with overall SPMS targets, the better they are likely to perform. Like the SPMS as a whole, the effectiveness of performance tools depends on organizational capacity, and the formal organizational commitment and informal culture of support for implementing them. The SPMS should articulate a clear basis of priority among tools and thus avoids conflicts between objectives (306 McCuiness et al 2002). Disparate tools should be strategically alignment to serve the common purpose articulated by the management framework, in order to ensure that they work together to achieve ecological sustainability targets. Supply side management is typically implemented through a purchasing tool or assessment framework, while demand side management is administered primarily through purchasing and education. Though often handled separately, DSM and SSM are mutually supportive: ecologically preferred supplies may reduce demand on energy, water, and materials, and DSM programs can promote efficiency and reduce or slow the need for additional supplies and infrastructure. Although a range of performance tools might be suitable for local and regional governments interested in adopting a supply and demand side management strategy, I argue that ecologically responsible purchasing and building offers one of the best opportunities for local and regional governments in Greater Vancouver at the present time. 1.7122 ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE PURCHASING & BUILDING. An ecologically responsible purchasing policy or program should provide direction on improving the efficiency of the procurement process and using relevant assessment tools, certification programs, accounting methods, and/or product-specific guidelines. In general terms, ecologically preferable products are defined as those that have minimal negative effects on human health and the environment 19

when compared to similar products in the same product category. One of the most important issues is the scope and materiality or impact of the policy or program. It has been fashionable in Canada for ecologically purchasing policies to cover products and services that are typically categorized as "corporate purchases": paper, coffee, cleaning products, and even apparel. I argue that an ecologically responsible purchasing policy or program should be sanctioned by council to include within its scope the development of ecologically responsible corporate facilities to serve the framework's corporate ecological sustainability objectives." Ecologically responsible facility development projects serve similar SSM and DSM objectives and targets at a larger scale, for the construction, maintenance, and space heating, cooling, and lighting of buildings have even greater materiality or impact on sustainability. 24 Buildings are one of the most significant sources of greenhouse gas emissions, produce air pollutants, generate solid and liquid waste, and consume large quantities of energy, materials, and regional land and water supply. In fact, approximately 40% of the energy and material thoroughput of the world economy are the result of the building sector (ASMI 1999 cited in v Woolliams 1999). Breaking it down further, current estimates hold that buildings are responsible for using the following global resources (City of Seattle cited in 1 Kelley 2002): 40% of global energy consumption; 30% of global raw materials (and 25% of global timber harvests); 35% of global C02 emissions; 16% of fresh water withdrawal; 40% of municipal solid waste; and, 50% of still- in-use ozone-depleting CFCs. In fact, both the building and transportation sectors individually account for 30% of all global energy use and are growing rapidly across the globe (WWI 2004). Anielski (2004) reports that energy demand makes up the largest portion of Canada's ecological footprint, at 55%; while transportation comprises 35% of total energy use, buildings follow closely at 27% (7 2004). However, in British Columbia, cities have far more control over building development than transportation management in their " There are many interchangeable terms for this concept: green purchasing, environmental purchasing, environmentally-responsible purchasing, green procurement, environmental procurement, environmentallyresponsible procurement. There is no universal definition of this concept. The concept of green, ethical, sustainable purchasing denotes a range of considerations that, to differing degrees, encompass some or all of: conventional financial concerns of best value for money (price and quality), availability, and functionality; environmental protection and life cycle impacts; and, ethical issues of labor and human rights and standards, poverty eradication, and fair trade (Vancouver EPP Report 2004). Purchasing policies that encompass "secondary objectives" such as ecological objectives are sometimes passed by resolution or bylaw by municipal councils, but are usually drawn up as policies within administration without legislative base. A policy may take a variety of forms, from a checklist of considerations, to a set performance guidelines or targets, to a resolution to approve certain types of contracting, to a bylaw with prescriptive directives or a combination thereof. 2 * There are many interchangeable words for this concept: "green buildings", "sustainable buildings", "energy efficient buildings" and "high performance buildings" are a few of the most common in Greater Vancouver. A civic building or corporate facility is defined in this study as a building owned and funded at least in part by a municipality or regional district. 20

communities. 25 Demonstrating leadership in managing corporate supply and demand for buildings effectively and tracking the ecological performance of buildings, then, is a strategic opportunity for local and regional governments. Moreover, growth predictions for Greater Vancouver indicate that the sooner local and regional governments lead the private development community, the better. Over the next thirty years, the City of Vancouver's housing stock is expected to grow by 34%, Burnaby's by 62%, and Richmond's by 65%. 26 This projected growth will bring about correlative increases in materials, water, and energy consumption that each study institution will be tasked with managing as effectively as possible (3 UFI II 2003). Over the last twenty years, innovators from many professions have demonstrated that there is major opportunity for dematerialization and energy efficiency in building construction, operation, and maintenance (Braungart and McDonough 2005; Woolliams 1999). Technological advances have been infused into a proliferation of new and more efficient products, devices, and systems for waste management, use of renewable energy sources, controlled heating and lighting, among other things (CAGBC 2004). A body of knowledge exists on how to apply technology with design to retrofit existing buildings and plan, design, and construct more ecologically responsible alternatives to conventional buildings. Depending on the design strategies and technologies employed, buildings may perform above standard in preventing pollution, including greenhouse gases and other air emissions, conserving energy and water, using renewable sources of energy, reducing wastewater and storm water flows, reusing and recycling materials, and producing less waste during construction, demolition and operation, in addition to other benefits. The overall ecological performance of buildings is optimal when design and technology solutions are partnered with behavioral strategies to reduce demand for energy and water and to reduce, reuse, and recycle waste. With existing expertise and technology, it is now possible to produce buildings that use 60% less energy, consume 30% less water and associated reduced waste water discharges, and produce 75% less waste during construction or demolition (CAGBC 2005). 1.7123 ECOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE IN NEW St RETROFIT BUILDING PROJECTS. In general terms, both retrofits and new construction have important, but different strategic purposes. Retrofit programs offer greater ecological gains for a greater number of buildings. Retrofit programs can make widespread energy and water savings gains in older stock buildings that may have been built on 25 In British Columbia, cities have no direct control to legislate over cars. Indirect control can be leveraged through parking, which is essentially a vehicle land use requirement. 26 The prediction model posits that Vancouver's housing stock will grow by 85,843 dwelling units, Burnaby 48,681 dwelling units, and Richmond by 38,798 dwelling units. A dwelling unit ranges from a condominium or apartment suite to a single family home. On the basis of the Urban Futures scenario, the CVRD's projected 44% population growth over the next three decades will drive growth in occupancy demand for housing. The model, devised by Urban Futures, is based on demographic change and consumer preferences (see footnote 44). 21

outdated and inefficient standards, technologies, and designs, and may have since developed leaks that contribute to wasted resources (Ross 2002, pers. comm.). On the other hand, new ecologically responsible construction typically focuses on piloting innovative technologies or designs. These "demonstration projects", in addition to achieving some reduction in conventional material, energy and/or water use and/or waste management, serve important purposes as educational tools and confidence-builders for the private development sector and prospective consumers. There is some crossgermination of these strategic purposes, in that retrofit programs can also serve demonstrative purposes. 1.7124 ADAPTING EXISTING PROGRAMS AND TOOLS FOR STRATEGIC PURPOSES. It is not common for local and regional governments to enshrine commitments to ecologically responsible facility development in policy, though a handful of local governments in Canada have taken this proactive and bold approach. 27 In fact, the definition of an ecologically responsible building has been a major source of analysis and many assessment tools including the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) framework have attempted to standardize the concept. 28 Of all the tools for new construction, LEED is the most explicitly performance-based and allows for measurement, monitoring, and documentation of progress achieved towards specific performance targets on: (1) sustainable site selection and development; (2) water efficiency; (3) energy efficiency and renewable energy; (4) green building material selection and recycling; and, (5) better indoor environmental quality. The system allocates credits for achievement of specified levels of performance; to this end, documentation is reviewed by the Canada Green Buildings Council to determine the level of certification: Certified (26-32 points), Silver (33-38), Gold (39-51) or Platinum (52+) (CAGBC 2005). 29 Where LEED certification is sought by local and regional governments for their institutional buildings, the Silver standard is the most common benchmark chosen (Mikkelsen 2004, pers. comm.). In the Greater Vancouver context, Sheltair estimates that if 80% of new buildings in the GVRD were designed and 2 The City of Calgary was the first municipality in Canada to officially commit to adopt a LEED Silver certification standard for most new corporate facilities. The City of Victoria and the City of Portland, Oregon have also adopted similar policies. The City of Vancouver has adopted a policy of building most new corporate facilities to a LEED Gold standard. To City of Vancouver Planner Dale Mikkelsen's knowledge, this is the highest commitment in North America (2004, pers. comm.). 28 Although the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) framework is the most comprehensive and generally accepted assessment tool in North America, a variety of other tools for defining and assessing ecologically responsible buildings have been developed. These are typically focused on energy efficiency, and include: (a) Natural Resources Canada's Commercial Building Incentive Program (CBIP); (b) the Canadian Home Builders' Association and Natural Resources Canada Office of Energy Efficiency's R-2000 Program; (c) BC Hydro's Power Smart Program; (d) EnergyStar Labeling Program, Canadian version; (e) Energuide for Houses Program; (f) ISO 14000 applied to buildings; (g) Building Environmental Performance Assessment Criteria Program (BEPAC); (h) BREEAM/Green Leaf, Canadian version; (h) GBTool (Dr. Raymond Cole); and, (i) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) standards for buildings. Other programs have been developed and popularized for use outside North America. 29 The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) framework was originally developed and administered by the US Green Building Council (USGBC), but now the Canada Green Building Council (CGBC) assess and registers LEED projects in Canada using Canadian measurement units and standards. The LEED framework has been adapted specifically for use in British Columbia (LEED-BC). 22

constructed to a LEED standard to 2025, the following savings in energy and materials (compared to the Business as Usual scenario) could be attained: 30 million gigajoules (GJ) electricity, 34 million GJ natural gas, 3.8 million tonnes of greenhouse gases, 132 million cubic meters (m3) of water, 112 million m3 of waste water, and 256 thousand tonnes of diverted demolition and construction waste (32-34 2002) 28. Collectively, then, building more ecologically responsible buildings represents an enormous opportunity for sustainability. In the realm of retrofits to existing buildings, the Energy Performance Contract system has become a popular performance-based tool for local and regional governments. Energy Service Contract Organizations (ESCOs) administer the contracts, that are structured to guarantee specific energy savings and up front costs. The contracts are typically designed to have carefully built-in incentives to make an attractive business case for the participating institution. With the help of the ESCO, the institution determines the maximum amount it can spend on obtaining a specified energy performance standard. The ESCO guarantees that it will attain this standard, and invests the institution's funds for the capital costs of the project. If the contractor can do with spending less, the institution gets the difference back. The ESCO does not require further upgrades from the institution than originally committed (in dollar terms) in order to achieve the guaranteed energy savings. Moreover, ESCOs typically have an open book policy to allow local or regional government purchasers to review all invoices and participate in tendering (Earle 2004, pers. comm.). At the time of writing, a LEED for Existing Buildings assessment tool is under development, which will provide a framework for retrofits to institutional projects (CAGBC 2005). Another major performance-based program for retrofits popular in Greater Vancouver is BC Hydro's Power Smart Program. Power Smart is an incentive-based program designed to encourage electricity customers to reduce electrical consumption. The program is essentially a supply and demand side management tool for BC Hydro in that it encourages energy conservation and delays the need for new, large-scale generation projects (BC Hydro 2005). For customers, Power Smart emphasizes the financial incentive of cost savings from deferred electricity use. The Power Smart Partner Program is a second generation initiative by BC Hydro designed for institutions such as governments, schools, universities, colleges, and hospitals. The Partner Program provides access to a variety of tools and resources and funding assistance for energy audits, re-commissioning and retrofits, and energy managers. As part of the program, BC Hydro commits to consulting with partners in establishing benchmarks to achieve specific targets in overall electrical energy efficiency and ensure that the targets are set using the appropriate metric data for partner organizational operations. However, the program is cost-driven in that a good conventional business case for proposed retrofit projects is one of the core criteria for 23

funding approval. Moreover, BC Hydro will not share costs for projects where efficiency gains can be realized in two years or less. In summary, performance tools should be strategically chosen for optimal ecological impact as laid out in the management framework's objectives and targets. In local and regional governments, supply and demand side functions can be synergized to implement dematerialization and energy efficiency strategies that cover small ticket items such as paper and coffee as well as larger investments such as corporate facilities with a clear sense of priority. As the next section will detail, the process and results of implementing the tools provides the raw data from which a SPMS information system can draw. 1.713 INFORMATION SYSTEMS. A sustainability information system should employ indicators to collect and organize data on the basis of what the management framework's objectives specify needs to be known. The system should also encompass both informal and formal subjective information. With attention to the unique purposes, potential, and limitations of subjective and objective information, the system should strive to integrate all information meaningfully into an overall picture of progress. 1.7131 COLLECTING Two TYPES OF INFORMATION. As earlier noted, C. Heinrich determined that measures of both outcomes and organizational activity were useful as part of a management system - the former for accurate estimates of program impacts, and the latter for leveraging better organizational performance (Heinrich 2002). In keeping with Heinrich's findings, I posit that a SPMS information system should stock two different categories of information: (a) baseline information on ecological conditions; and (b) organizational progress in meeting corporate ecological sustainability targets by means of its performance tools. It must be emphasized that objective performance measures on the outcomes of an organization's efforts should not be confused with the efforts of the organization itself, but rather should be discussed separately. Indicators are the most performance-based measures for ensuring that an information system stocks the data relevant to both categories. It should be underlined, then, that data in the information system should be the actual measurements or observations of the values of indicators (31 Bell and Morse 2003). 1.7132 COLLECTING BASELINE INFORMATION ON ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS. Indicators, indexes, and inventories have become the measurement methods of choice for taking stock of baseline ecological conditions in their jurisdictions (Jansen et al; Syers, Zinck and Farshad; Rennings and Wiggering cited in 23 Bell and Morse 1999). In fact, local and regional governments use indicators for many purposes that range from financial measurement to environmental and sustainability measurement. As has been noted earlier, existing efforts to use sustainability indicators are often 24

confused with conventional environmental protection work (EC 2004; MELP 1998) and simply focus on the biophysical qualities of environment such as the level of water and air pollution, soil erosion, or soil acidity or alkalinity. Many sustainability indexes are unfocused attempts to take stock of a broad array of social, economic, and environmental factors. On the contrary, I define a sustainability indicator as an indicator that links key human activities with their ecological effects. 1.7133 USING INDICATORS, INDEXES, AND INVENTORIES. Indicators were historically developed in the context of biological and environmental science (5 Bell and Morse 1999) when scientists learned that they could track change in complex systems by monitoring certain species that were particularly sensitive to changes in the environment (22 Bell and Morse 1999). Since then, indicators have been developed to measure the whole of a system by its key parts for many different purposes. In the same fashion as biophysical indicators, contemporary indexes are developed to simplify the millions of components and interactions in a given system that cannot be measured by focusing on key components and interactions that represent the system as a whole, expressed in values that readily allow for comparison (22 Bell and Morse 1999). In simple terms, indicators in a SPMS information system should answer the question: 'How can I make a reliable determination of whether things are getting better or worse?'. There are three basic indicator types: indicators that describe the current condition or state of a variable (for example, its physical or chemical properties), indicators that describe the rate of change of a variable, and indicators that measure both current conditions and rate of change. Indicators should be measurable, and the general consensus to date has been that sustainability indicators, like bio-indicators, should be quantitative. Ideally, each indicator should have a threshold (also termed a "reference condition" or a "baseline condition"), which is a numerical value that draws a line between "sustainable" and "unsustainable." The threshold value provides a framework for interpreting the data by calculating deviations of indicator values from their reference conditions to show performance compared to the target (48 Bell and Morse 1999). One of the key performance considerations in indicator development is ensuring that they are as practically effective and technically accurate as possible. Although the capacity and cost required to collect and collate information cost is only one of many practical issues, it is one of the most fundamental. Obtaining expert information can involve expensive studies and managing data can be time-consuming. In terms of technical accuracy, the chart below provides a survey of desired characteristics for indicators (Guy and Kilbert; Harger and Meyer 1992 cited in Bell and Morse 2003): 25

Desired Indicator Characteristics LINKED Choice of indicators should provide insight into the linkages between ecological, economic, and social factors POLICY RELEVANT Serve as a warning tools as well as a descriptors of an existing state; 50 designed to track progress toward policy objectives and targets; RESPONSIVE USER-FRIENDLY STABLE AND RELIABLE Ability to respond quickly and measurably to change; allow for trends to be determined over time; data for measurement should be available on a regular basis; regular measurements of indicators should be taken Number of indicators should be kept to a minimum with as little redundance as possible 31 Compiled according to a systematic method Figure 1-2 Desired Characteristics of Indicators in a SPMS It should be noted that there are a number of important epistemological issues raised by the claims of indicators to objectivity that are discussed in further detail in Part II. Mandelbaum observes that: "information systems discipline policy debates, defining what is possible to say in ways that will be understood across the field. Information systems are no less politically contentious than theories and models...and debates over the purported benefits of knowledge investments may mask deep political conflicts (189 2003)." 1.7134 ADAPTING EXISTING PROGRAMS FOR STRATEGIC PURPOSES. The Partners for Climate Protection Program (PCP) is one popular and important example of how local and regional governments in Canada can use an indicator-based inventory system to collect baseline information on ecological conditions (FCM 2004)The PCP program is essentially an emissions inventory tool administered nationally by the Federation of Canadian Municipalities. An emissions inventory is a comprehensive tracking system that measures progress on mitigating climate change through one key indicator that has both state and driving force properties: the amount of carbon dioxide (a major "greenhouse" gas) produced per year, measured in tonnes (RFF 2004). The program The selection and measurement of indicators may be a science in theory but in practice is subject to many pressures, agendas, and biases. Governments often wish to portray themselves in the best possible light, and to that end reference conditions may be set according to political agendas (30 Bell and Morse 1999). Powerful individuals or groups may set the agenda in terms of what sustainability indicators to include and what gaps to address (Crabtree and Bayfield 1998 cited in 47-48 Bell and Morse 1999). 31 The thoughtful articulation of a strategic purpose for the use of indicators should be an aid in making a simple, yet relevant, selection. Although there is variation, the figure of twenty indicators appears a great deal in the literature (38 Bell and Morse 1999; 302 McDaniels 2000). In choosing the number, a compromise must be struck between technical accuracy and relevance (depth of information to optimize credibility in drawing conclusions) and practicality (manageability, accessibility, and ease of presentation). Bell and Morse, however, characterize this compromise as an issue of what people would like to know and what people need to know (37 1999). 32 The PCP Program in Canada grew from the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives' (ICLEI) Cities for Climate Protection Campaign. This campaign was international in scope, including Canada with 135 participating municipalities around the world (ICLEI 2004). 26

has two inventory modules, one with a corporate focus, and the other scoped to the community or region. The program is designed to be a full emissions performance management system, with five milestones that range across inventory development to the creation of a local action plan to reduce emissions to monitoring and reporting on community progress. While some institutions have carried out aspects of the PCP program in relative isolation to other organizational initiatives, others have used adapted the program's climate change framework as their organization's sustainability focus. To date, however, the most sophisticated and well-known indicators specific to sustainability have been developed at international and national levels." 1.7135 COLLECTING INTORMATION ON ORGANIZATIONAL PROGRESS LN MEETING TARGETS. To collect information on organizational progress in meeting ecological sustainability targets by means of specific performance tools, indicators are a helpful but insufficient measurement method. In this aspect of the sustainability performance management information system, both subjective and objective data are important to help sustainability managers take stock of organizational effectiveness. Moreover, an information system devoid of people and sanitized of the subjective is likely to have little practical relevance or value in promoting the depth of engagement necessary to make change. To this end, the information system in a SPMS should strive to capture the holistic intelligence of mind, heart, and spirit that emerges through spontaneous communication and narrative (2 Campbell 1988; 152 Sandercock 2003; 59 Throgmorton 2003) that emphasizes caring, responsibility, honor, imagination, and idealism. 34 Just as indicators satisfy the need to track objective and factual information, I argue that narrative and storytelling are the measures of choice to track subjective information. 35 Stories underline the point that people are important. They have the potential to surface " Sustainability indexes have been developed at, and for, different levels of analysis. The international Bellagio Principles (1996) point to indicators as the standard method for measuring progress on sustainability. Some of most prominent international examples include: (a) the Dow Jones Sustainability Index; (b) the Environmental Sustainability Index; and, (c) the Global Reporting Index. Prominent national examples include: (a) Environment Canada's index (2001); and, (b) the National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy (NRTEE) index (2003). Provincially, the BC government used indicators in its SOER (MELP 1998). At the regional level, indicators have been created for the Georgia Basin-Puget Sound (1999) and Fraser Basin areas (FBC 2002; 2003). 14 A range of philosophers, including (but not limited to) Mandelbaum, Feyerabend, and Lyotard, have critiqued the social dominance of scientific objectivity in constructing perceptions of "reality" and "truth." In general, theorists range from rejecting any scientific claim to objectivity at one end to arguing for the recognition of other "ways of knowing" alongside scientific inquiry. Of particular salience to this study, Mandelbaum critiques the common notion that "the history of fields of knowledge is frequently told as a developmental journey from story and fact to theory and model (191 2003)." Planning theorist Sandercock adds that "the language traditionally used in planning practice has been a rational discourse that explicitly avoids the realm of emotions, which is of course the stuff of storytelling. If we think about that for half a minute, it is an extraordinary and bizarre feat to talk about...sustainability without talking about hostility and hope, compassion and caring, greed and nurturing" (153 Sandercock 2003). 15 There is a subtle divergence in viewpoint in the literature as to whether stories should be conceived of as measures of subjectivity in an information system, or as performance tools. While this study posits that they best serve the former role, Hammond argues that: "words do not mirror the world out there, they coordinate our actions. Professional languages function like tools (22 1998)." Forester holds that "stories are not just idle talk; they do work. They do work by organizing attention, practically and politically" (516 1996). To that end, informal 27

and evaluate individual and group assumptions, subvert or celebrate agendas, imagine future possibilities, and make personal and organizational meaning of forward progress. As one example, elaborate stories may be enthusiastically shared by practitioners who devote years to seeing an innovative ecologically responsible building progress from an idea to a reality. These stories typically communicate the insights, ironies, compromises, and lessons learned that come from the inevitable negotiation of assumptions and worldviews that takes place in breaking new ground. For these reasons, a SPM information system should stock stories that are related to performance tools and their use and sustainability performance management activity, as well as practitioner perspectives and feelings about the outcomes of their organizations' efforts. In summary, while an information system, as part of a SPM system, should be structured on the basis of what is intended to be reported out on, it should not be limited to this or treated as identical to the reporting function. While institutions commonly conceive of reports and information systems as identical, these components are distinctive and serve unique purposes. 1.714 REPORTING. A SPMS report should formally communicate performance on outcomes achieved on specific objectives set out in the management framework and present a clear overall view of the organization's progress in attaining its corporate sustainability targets. More specifically, reports should identify areas where local or regional performance is above or below set targets. In addition, reports may usefully identify information gaps and comment on research priorities to develop improved knowledge about regional sustainability over time. While this appears straightforward, it is common practice for reports to describe program activity or simply describe ecological conditions. In its 2004 international survey, SustainAbility found that most organizations failed to give any real insight into what they were reporting on and why they were doing so, resulting in reports cluttered with information of little apparent use. Bell and Morse observe that most reports convey "the notion of 'let's tell everyone about our indicators'...linking sustainable development indicators through to policy and change is still very much in its infancy (18 1999)." 1.7141 PURPOSEFUL AND A UDIENCE-SPECIFIC REPORTING. Reports should make "data withdrawals" from the information system for specific information needs and purposes. The substantive issues discussed in the report are likely to be relatively consistent from audience to audience. However, the literature suggests that the level of detail and presentation of information should be custom-designed and framed for different audiences with different needs, who will use the information in different ways for different purposes (16 Bell and Morse 2003). Given the storytelling strengthens the muscles of ecological citizenship and increases the capacity of practitioners to act, singly or together. 28

technical controversy over whether sustainability information should be aggregated or left as an itemized composite (1 7 Bell and Morse 2003), in addition to the many presentation formats available, sustainability practitioners should be careful to avoid making assumptions about a particular audience's information needs. Wherever possible, representatives from the intended audience should be consulted in advance about their information and presentation needs and preferences. This consultation should lead to the incorporation of specific feedback about preferred compromises between accessibility and accuracy and different blends and formats of subjective and objective information. As a rule of thumb, decision-makers need accessible and reliable information organized in a way that is immediately useful and tied to policy implications. The report should help councilors keep the "big picture" in sight instead of becoming enmeshed in idiosyncratic detail. Municipal and regional managers are likely to require a report that is more technical, more explicit about the assumptions on which information and conclusions are based, and relevant (although not limited) to their explicit areas of functional responsibility. Many state of the environment reports and sustainability reports produced to date have been unclear about their primary purpose and the audience they are intended to serve. Reports that attempt to be all things to all audiences may end up failing to meet any users' needs effectively. In any case, reports should be designed to assist practitioners and decision-makers to assess the effectiveness of current work and prioritize or recalibrate specific tools or the emphasis on system components or principles, as necessary. 1.7142 INTEGRATED AND ADAPTIVE REPORTING. Finally, while it is conventional for a long list of indicators to be developed and left as a composite in reports, a SPMS report should meaningfully integrate indicators in a well-designed index that presents a total picture of the impact of the organization's consumption and waste production on local, regional, and global ecological conditions. In this way, indicators can communicate the state and forces driving the sustainability system as a whole, taking compromises and tradeoffs explicitly into account, in terms of relative degrees of progress and attainment. A set of sustainability indicators is unlikely to share a common unit of measurement, and as a result, sustainability analysts must grapple with technical issues related to quantification in designing an integrated index of indicators. Moreover, presentation will involve a subjective element in prioritizing, choosing and organizing links between indicators. Reports should include a technical note on the methodology employed and subjective choices made, not as limitations or defects, but rather as products of a management intelligence decision about how the report has drawn its performance conclusions. No matter how sophisticated and seamless the visual end-products appear, practitioners must keep in mind that all sustainability indexes are devices for presentation and not representations of reality. They remain partial snapshots, and to some degree artificial and arbitrary. On the other hand, reports should also experiment with formal presentations of 29

relevant narrative that has a genuine promotional and motivational quality and celebrates individual leadership and/or positive dimensions of the organizational culture. Consistency and currency of reporting is important to ensure that the report serves its management purposes of decision support and system adaptation. The use of the same suite of indicators in the information system and reports provides a backbone for consistency over time. Frequency of updates should be contingent on the audience for which the report is intended; when the value of the measurement is no longer accurate or relevant for its management purpose, an update should be undertaken. Reports are an important tangible signifier of the existence of some form of sustainability performance management system. For this reason, reports should be visually engaging and accessible documents. The communications function of the performance management system is vital in connecting corporate performance to community effort. That being said, like information systems, reporting demands significant capacity and resources and the practical issue of cost-effectiveness must be kept in mind. In fact, for this reason a sustainability report itself is typically evidence of a significant degree of commitment to the concept and the management process. In conclusion, reporting only has value when it is feedback into learning, decision making, and system adaptation towards more effective performance in attaining ecological sustainability targets. 1.72 SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES. Each component of the SPMS and the system as a whole should be informed by the principles of sustainability. While a large number of sustainability principles can be found in the literature, I posit that there are five that are fundamentally important to sustainability performance management for local and regional government. The following section describes each principle in detail and references its origin in the literature. I begin with an overview of all five principles: SPECIFIC AND MEASURABLE CORPORATE DEMATERIALIZATION AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY TARGETS. I refer to this as the "performance principle." INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT TO ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY. I refer to this principle as the "people principle" and classify it into two parts: engagement and collaboration. Engagement harnesses holistic intelligence through interactive learning and communications to build individual commitment, while consultation and collaboration between interdisciplinary practitioners within the organization fosters organizational commitment. 30

TOTAL ECOLOGICAL VALUE AND LONG TERM LEGACY OVER SHORT TERM COST AND/OR COST RECOVERY. I refer to this principle as the "principle of reward and value" to denote that the SPMS model focuses on holistic rewards rather than on conventional risk management. INTEGRATED INFORMATION ACROSS DISCIPLINES AND TYPES. I refer to this principle as the "principle of integration", which includes (a) social, economic, and ecological information in decision-making and action; and, (b) empirically produced objective and experiential subjective information. CONTINUOUS AND CURRENT MANAGEMENT INFORMATION. I refer to this principle as the "principle of adaptation." The management system is ideally responsive to changing external conditions through consistent, regular updates of information and system reviews. The following section discusses each principle as it relates to managing local and regional government sustainability efforts for performance, people, reward and value, integration, and adaptation, respectively. 1.73 MANAGING FOR PERFORMANCE. Out of the range of strategies and actions an institution might take to address the sustainability situation, which have the most materiality or impact? Practitioners need to find a way to assess what really matters most, and focus effort on those areas. The principle of performance establishes specific and measurable targets related to reduced corporate consumption of materials, water, and energy. Performance is typically contrasted with prescription, the setting out of explicit rules or requirements for how something should be done (Heinrich 2002). A SPMS is performance-based in its emphasis on the end result. 36 The concept of performance advanced in this study departs significantly from its traditional business connotation, namely a finance-centered rather than people-centered pursuit of enhancing the organization's competitive position in a market economy (37 Arrowsmith 1988). In a SPMS the process of implementing performance tools is designed to serve the objectives and targets, while creating space for creative, innovative, and efficient approaches. Ideally, a SPMS ensures that its objectives and targets have high materiality or potential impact. This remains a major challenge for organizations who have committed to some form of corporate responsibility. Real performance management is still in its infancy: in a 2004 survey of reports from the top 50 international companies committed to corporate responsibility, SustainAbility (2004) found that most companies still fail to identify material strategic and financial risks and opportunities associated 36 The term "performance-based" has been used to describe a variety of approaches, some of which are unfortunately almost entirely rhetorical where prescriptions are relaxed and results are not monitored and/or enforced (WCEL 2002). 31

with economic, social and ecological impacts. The litmus test for the SPM system is that its activities result in an overall organizational reduction in ecological impact through reduced total consumption of materials, water, and energy and production of wastes. While this seems straightforward, net gains from innovative technologies are not always assured. Given their relative newness, performance of innovative technologies has not been tracked over time and in different contexts, leading to debate about performance effectiveness. Moreover, analysts have determined that organizations tend to respond to efficiency savings by using more of a good or service and/or redirecting efficiency-induced savings to alternative forms of consumption, higher wages, or lower prices or taxes, which leads to higher consumption by employees, taxpayers, or consumers' 1. While performance management is aimed at identifying critical issues and finding effective and creative means of addressing them, the performance principle recognizes that there are good reasons also encouraging simple and progressive steps rather than no action at all. Actions successfully taken, no matter if they are small, reinforce confidence in success that in turn, unleashes energy and momentum in continuing on the course of change. 1.74 MANAGING FOR PEOPLE. The literature on management and organizational change underlines the importance of taking a sensitive approach that recognizes the centrality of people and strives to develop shared commitment. As Jepson Jr. observes, "any top-down, one-size-fits-all attempt to [pursue] sustainable development...is likely to be met with significant opposition...because it will tend to elicit a risk-averse response (9 2004)." From an ecological point of view, cultural progress or technological innovation cannot change the fact that humans are interdependent with, and dependent upon, nature. Therefore, protecting the biosphere is necessary to protecting people; in turn, in order to protect the biosphere, sustainability management must put the primary emphasis on people rather than ecological conditions per se. In an organizational context, the people principle has a two-part focus on engagement and collaboration. The first part emphasizes engagement to bring practitioners individually, and the organization collectively, to the next stage of commitment to ecological sustainability. To that end, a SPMS engages holistic intelligence through interactive learning and communications. The second part emphasizes consultation and collaboration between interdisciplinary practitioners within the organization. The following diagram distinguishes between the two dimensions of the people principle: 32

COLLABORATION DIMENSION ENGAGEMENT DIMENSION Figure 1-3 The People Principle - Ladder of Involvement In the above Figure 1-3, interactive training refers to the provision of experiential learning opportunities for practitioners; communications refers to the practice of informing practitioners of sustainability performance management activity; consultation refers to the solicitation of review and feedback from practitioners on management activity; and, finally, collaboration refers to shared responsibility for collective planning, design, and decision-making on aspects of sustainability performance management. The ladder diagram is not intended to represent a value judgment that the collaboration dimension in a SPMS is preferential. On the contrary, a SPMS views both dimensions as fulfilling the people principle in different ways. 1.741 NURTURING INDIVIDUAL COMMITMENT. The engagement dimension of the people principle puts its primary focus on the individual practitioner. While professional training, knowledge and practical skills are important capacity issues for individuals and organizations implementing sustainability performance management, this is not the focus of this principle. Rather, the focus is on shepherding practitioners through the stages of personal and professional commitment to ecological sustainability through an experiential process of increasing awareness and transformation of values and behavioral habits. The components of a SPMS and the system as a whole builds in opportunities to bring together practitioners and political executives to learn 33

interactively together and form networks that facilitate coordinated action, as well as communicate about the sustainability performance management process. Many behavioral models emphasize the use of systemic disincentives and incentives to influence individual choices. While I agree with the literature that argues that institutions and systems should financially reward positive choices and tax self-serving and destructive behavior, I argue that restricting change strategies to behavioral sticks and carrots that construct individuals as self interested rational utility maximizers is insufficient and ultimately ineffective. These behavioral strategies are simplistic and discourage, rather than foster, leadership. Moreover, over consumption of materials, water, and energy and waste production are embedded in culture and lifestyle and as such, are resistant to change. Genuine and enduring transformation requires engaging and fostering holistic intelligence that can discern ways forward in complex situations, make tradeoffs between materialism and meaning, and take actions that involve compromise, sacrifice, and inconvenience in service of a more compelling purpose. 1.7411 DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF ECOLOGICAL CHAMPIONSHIP. I build on notions developed by planning theorist James Throgmorton (2003) to represent the development of individual commitment to sustainability as a process, positing that this process has five distinct stages. Different practitioners may progress through these stages at different paces, and some may never proceed past a given stage. Moreover, this model does not suggest that practitioners come to an understanding of the whole sustainability picture in a linear way; rather, practitioners may come to a understand certain dimensions through this process and then cycle back through the process as other aspects of sustainability are encountered. The diagram below portrays the process as beginning from a base stage of ecological unconsciousness and culminating with ecological championship, as the strongest stage of commitment to ecological sustainability: CHAMPIONSHIP CITIZENSHIP CONSCIOUSNESS CONSCIENTIZATION UNCONSCIOUSNESS Figure 1-4 Stages of Commitment to Ecological Sustainability Unconsciousness. At the stage of unconsciousness, there is awareness of the sustainability situation, and as a result no conscious commitment to ecological sustainability. Throgmorton describes individuals in this state as 34

"spatially and psychologically disconnected from the resources that sustain them, consumers and citizens [that] drift blissfully along in a kind of...'technological somnambulism' [with a] tendency to repress or exaggerate environmental effects and connections (50 2003)." The unconscious state is characterized by a slow and continual filtration and processing of experience and knowledge and evaluation, ordering, and integration of a miscellany of observations, feelings, perceptions, and opinions (A19 Rosenhan and Seligman 1984). Conscientization. Conscientization describes the moment of insight when unconscious processing results in an ecological connection that emerges to consciousness. I credit Paulo Friere (1921-1997) with the term and build upon it to define the process in which individuals as knowing subjects achieve a deepening awareness both of the ecological reality which shapes their lives, and of their capacity to transform that reality through action upon it. Conscientization encompasses an awareness of the global sustainability dilemma, an awareness of a range of solutions for change, and an affirmation of individual empowerment to act cooperatively, responsibly, and well (A-1 AVP 1986). Practitioners concerned with empowerment in public institutions may have to work against established hierarchies that characterize the institutional grain. However, the benefits of encouraging free thinking, adopting a style of mutual learning, and creating practical and experiential opportunities promise to be most effective in generating deep transformation of lifestyle and consumer behaviors at the root of the sustainability crisis. Consciousness. At the stage of consciousness, individuals are aware of their own dependence upon the integrity of the biosphere and the causal relationships between their behavior, health, and ecosystem integrity. Ecological, or 'environmental', consciousness is a term that has gained currency among sustainability theorists (Winner 1986 and Buell 2001, cited in Throgmorton 2003). Drawing from these theorists, I argue that ecological consciousness unites the long-standing philosophical division between human culture and nature; as Joseph Campbell observes: "if you will think of ourselves as coming out of the earth, rather than having been thrown in here from somewhere else, you see that we are the earth, we are the consciousness of the earth (40 Campbell 1988)." Borrowing aspects of a framework created by Campbell, I posit that this awareness is characterized by a renewed sense of awe and wonder at the universe; conscious effort to understand the nature of the universe, particularly the relationships between social, economic, and ecological realms, with not only scientific inquiry but other ways of knowing; concern to validate a social order that supports sustainability, encourages empowerment, and invites participation; and, commitment to a standard for individual behavior that is both rationally aligned with sustainability targets and generative of imagination, inspiration, and wholeness (38 1988). Using the terms of ecological economist William Rees, in the stage of ecological consciousness, individuals and organizations become aware of the fact that they are implicated in "a maladaptive cultural myth" (14 2001) that must be changed at individual, organizational, and cultural levels. 35

Citizenship. At the stage of citizenship, individuals take steps to act on their conscious awareness of the sustainability situation and make positive choices in their personal and professional roles. This may take the form of complying with solutions that are proposed by organizational management or peers, or external colleagues. Championship. Finally, at the stage of championship, individuals move from compliance with solutions to becoming the creators of solutions and stewards of their implementation. Ecological champions enthusiastically embrace fundamental sustainability principles and test them out in personal and professional situations. They are responsive to opportunities, be they new and innovative research and technologies, funding sources, or best practices from other jurisdictions, and are able to balance this with a systematic approach to change. They both enjoy and are energized by achievements, challenges, and rewards. The champion perseveres with a trial and error attitude. They are able to withstand scrutiny, conflict, and criticism when moving forward on principle in the context of some existing organizational support. Finally, they are proud of their organizations and prioritize collective accomplishment over individual actions. Hammond makes the important observation that "people are generally proud to belong to their organization. That source of pride is often the most untapped natural resource within the organization. People want the organization to do purposeful work and they want to be a recognized part of it (50 Hammond 1998)." To that end, champions persuade, advocate, encourage, and coordinate the efforts of others. Ultimately, the principle of people is concerned with transforming practitioners into ecological champions. At the scale of the organization, ecological championship translates to corporate ecological responsibility. 1.742 NURTURING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE. The engagement dimension of the people principle also strives to bring the organization collectively to the next stage of commitment to ecological sustainability. In effect, this amounts to many individual efforts that bring about a transformation in the organizational culture. Moreover, the quality of individual championship and the culture of ecological responsibility have an important impact on capacity. The stronger the culture of ecological responsibility, the greater the organization's ability to manage sustainability performance - and have fun doing so. Capacity is further discussed in this Part's discussion of Organizational Capacity and Culture. Given that organizational cultures reflect the prevailing values of the dominant global culture, building a culture of ecological sustainability involves consciously going against the flow. As William Ruckelshaus, former United States Environmental Protection Agency administrator, observes, achieving sustainability will require 36

"a modification of society comparable in scale to only two other changes: the Agricultural Revolution of the late Neolithic, and the Industrial Revolution of the past two centuries. These revolutions were gradual, spontaneous, and largely unconscious. This one will have to be a fully conscious operation (cited in 33 Boyd 2004)." While I agree with Ruckelhaus' view that attaining ecological sustainability will require a cultural shift at the global level, I do not suggest that it is desirable to replace the dominant culture with another worldview that "dominates" other cultures across the globe, nor to downplay or disrespect the variations in consciousness and values in diverse cultures. On the contrary, managing for people demands that a sustainability performance management system be critical, while remaining respectful, and culturally relevant. An organizational culture of corporate ecological responsibility is best conceptualized as a dynamic, living network characterized by an affirmative and inclusive way of working rather than as a static state (21 Cooperrider and Whitney 1999). Drawing from the Appreciative Inquiry (Al) theory of organizational culture and change, I argue that positive and vision-directed change is more effective, enduring, and human-centered than the conventional problem-solving approach. The ideal organizational way of working focuses on abundance, opportunities, potential, possibility, and positive precedents, rather than problem-solving, as motivation for change. Problem-solving approaches tend to be backward rather than forward looking, require enormous concentrations of resources on criticism and correction, and may contribute to negative organizational cultures (21 Cooperrider and Whitney 1999). Instead of building a culture attuned to scarcity and using less, an affirmative organizational culture employing a supply and demand side management sustainability strategy is attuned to achieving more: more quality of life for current and future generations, more natural beauty, more health, more leisure time and less work, more meaning instead of materialism. An organization forms a group culture that influences, and is influenced by its structure, degree and extent of capacity, and the individuals within it. Put another way, organizations and individuals mutually influence each other in the process of change. Organizational change theorists hold that organizations typically operate according to collectively held assumptions and norms that cause the group to think and act in certain ways (13 Hammond 1998) and influence individuals to conform to group behavior in order to belong. For enduring effectiveness, a sustainability management system must be owned and implemented by practitioners across the organization. Application of this principle may foster a milieu of empowerment, where management is willing to question and recalibrate conventional values and practices that do not support the agency of individual practitioners to take responsibility and ownership for change. To this end, managers willing to adopt a more facilitative rather than authoritative role in 37

order to create space for experimentation and innovation may see positive results among staff (19 Hammond 1998). 37 That being said, in the realm of local and regional government, commitment to ecological sustainability at the political and administrative executive levels is essential for the success of a SPMS. Council or Board leadership is the most fundamental aspect of moving sustainability performance management forward in local or regional government. These executive bodies are accountable to the public electorate and have the ultimate authority to set the direction of the institution - and ensure that the institution follows through. Ecological champions on Council who demonstrate strong support for sustainability performance management support and enable practitioners in the organization to make tracks into new and unfamiliar territory and may be able to successfully persuade fellow Councilors to formally support a SPMS or make strong formal commitments to SPM tools. Without a champion on Council, practitioners can still monitor sustainability performance and adopt tools but must do so informally. On the other hand, ecological champions in the bureaucracy may influence the political views and decisions of Council. In essence, then, the organizational culture is marked by a circular flow of influence between Council and practitioners. 1.743 INTERDISCIPLINARY COLLABORATION. The collaboration dimension of the people principle specifically refers to consultation with and collaboration of interdisciplinary practitioners in developing and maintaining a sustainability performance management system. In this dimension of the people principle, involvement ranges across a spectrum with consultation at the minimal end, and collaboration at the optimal end. The benefits of collaboration are the authenticity and political credibility of the SPMS and its tools; synchronization of the organizations' activities for long term gains in efficiency and effectiveness in attaining sustainability milestones; and, better project decisions for certain types of complex purchasing. As one important example, buildings require an extended multi-stage process involving a network of practitioners. The sharing of information and wisdom, as part of the collaborative process, can build team support for unconventional practices and innovative technologies. Moreover, aside from differences in training and background experience, practitioners at all levels of an organization may respond to risk and innovation differently, may be more or less effective in influencing the elected officials on Council or on the Board, and may be more or less inclined to form collaborative internal relationships. Working together allows individuals to balance strengths and weaknesses and learn from each other. 57 While it is outside the scope of research to provide a critique of hierarchy and technocracy as barriers to implementing sustainability, it suffices to note that the sustainability performance management system (SPMS) concept advanced in this study questions their dominance without suggesting that they be replaced with an alternate ideology and structure. 38

While collaboration is important in all components of a SPMS, it is most essential in establishing the management framework and implementing performance tools. As far as the framework is concerned, collaboration addresses the issue of making sure that a broad range of visions and values are taken into account in specifying the SPMS' objectives and targets. In terms of tools, collaboration can streamline the implementation of common tools or disparate tools with common goals. In many cases, barriers to collaboration are cognitive, that is, attitudes of individualism and isolation become habitual, familiar and convenient. The structure of organizations may also pose opportunities or barriers to practitioner collaboration. Within the bureaucracy, the organizational structure, and the degree to which its administrative units are integrated or segregated, also affects organizational capacity. The structure may provide for more or less discretion in different management roles, and depending on the individual attitudes and capacity of persons in those roles performance management may be stronger or weaker as a result. Where units and personnel tasked with a SPMS exist, the longevity of these in the organization and the extent of institutional memory within them are contributing factors. The conventional local and regional government structure is based on functional and professional 'silos', where departments act as relatively autonomous units with discrete realms of responsibility. As one important example, corporate administration in a local or regional government may work closely with the central purchasing department, if the organization has one, or may work in relative isolation. Moreover, many local and regional governments distribute the authority to make corporate purchases between the central purchasing department and departmental managers. Demand side management is often driven by an environment or sustainability department, office, unit, or even individual, where these exist. Energy efficiency and dematerialization-focused strategies and technologies may be carried out by engineering departments, and parks departments may be tasked with looking after water conservation programs. The corporate administrative office may manage greenhouse gas emissions or this issue may be dealt with as part of air quality management or as part of the energy efficiency management portfolio. In many cases ecological sustainability efforts appear to be scattered, without an overall to harmonize, synchronize and streamline independent efforts arising out of individual departments or even individual staff members. In a SPMS, all administrative units have opportunity to bring together demand and supply side management more closely and optimize the implementation of tools. Structural barriers can be overcome, and collaboration enhanced, by creating interdepartmental advisory committees, task forces, or design and review teams. A SPMS may also contemplate restructuring the organization to better coordinate collaboration among practitioners in its administrative units. By whatever means they have chosen to do so, local and regional governments that have moved towards a form of 39

interdisciplinary teamwork may be in a stronger position to build the cultural support necessary to realize sustainability targets. 1.75 MANAGING FOR REWARD AND VALUE. The principle of reward and value emphasizes commitment to total ecological value and long term legacy over short term cost and/or cost recovery. The principle reframes conventional risk assessment to a balanced pursuit of the rewards of measurable progress using alternative assessment tools that take ecological value into account. In this study, the terms reward and value are discussed at the conceptual level as attitudes guiding group and economic behavior in the context of local and regional government. Implementing the principle of reward and value requires the willingness to change existing organizational structures and practices in a challenging financial context. McGuiness et al observe of the Canadian context that "municipalities lack the comparatively bottomless resources of more senior levels of government. They also have less capacity to spread risk and cost. Despite declining real revenues, the demands upon them have been increasing steadily in recent years due to the practice of downloading (390 2002)." In this procurement context, a SPMS serves several important purposes: first, to infuse an emphasis on responsibility into the proclivity to rely on technological solutions; second, to apply strategic priorities to certain supply categories and among criteria on the basis of identified sustainability targets; and third, to emphasize efficiency and streamlining between supply side and demand side management endeavors. Regardless of external conditions, change is typically difficult for organizations because it introduces uncertainty, and the human psyche has a naturally tendency to anticipate negative implications from change and find risk aversive (63 Bazerman 1994). In particular, people respond more cautiously when risky outcomes are defined in terms of losses versus gains or in terms of uncertainty versus certainty. People also respond differently to the timing of good and bad outcomes, seeking good outcomes now and bad outcomes later. This research underscores that when combined with a conceptual framework of problems rather than opportunities, risks may be perceived as threats, leading to defensiveness and isolation (21 Hammond). While the logic of identifying inefficiencies and defects may be appropriate for working on issues of technology and finance, the logic of affirmation promises the most success in working with people. Using both forms of logic appropriately, organizations can evolve to embrace rewards rather than fear risks, and to recognize and capture opportunities. While developing and maintaining a sustainability performance management system does not have to be flashy or expensive, considerable human resources and dedicated financial resources are required to ensure that it is done thoroughly and made enduring and adaptive over time. To ensure its own sustainability, the system itself must make demonstrable successes to Councils and Boards and 40

administrative executives responsible for allocating limited dollars. This underlines the importance of purposeful and custom-designed reporting. 1.751 COST EXPECTATIONS FOR PERFORMANCE TOOLS. While all components of a SPMS may be informed by the principle of reward and value, this principle is most germane to the selection and design of performance tools. Many ecologically preferred products and services are 'allowed' to be more expensive than standard products in the same category in the marketplace; as a consequence, practitioners must often contemplate higher prices in order to obtain ecologically preferred supplies. While some purchasers are willing to accept a percentage premium for ecologically preferred products in certain categories, such as office supplies, others take a cost neutral or cost recovery approach. 38 In fact, performance tools for demand and supply side management are commonly informed by the voluntary market approach, calibrated to reduce costs to the organization or recover the costs of implementation; stimulate the market for certain products and services; and, influence consumer choice through use of financial incentives and disincentives. In striving to suit the paradigm of individual self-interest on which the capitalist system relies, the principle of long term, conscientious commitment and alternative valuation is often undermined and the highest potential of individuals and organizations to influence change left untapped. The SPMS model posits that, at the least, reliance on the voluntary market approach should not limit the full potential of tools in making change, nor become the working philosophy shaping a sustainability performance management system. Cost is one of the primary conventional benchmarks of success in purchasing and especially in capital projects such as buildings. While still unpopular, it is also incontestably true that it is in the long term public interest to turn down cheaper and superficially priced products in the short term in favor of a healthy ecosphere and human environment. There are also well-known and defensible techniques and systems to support ecologically responsible supply side management, as well as credible business cases for green building in particular. Many of these business cases, however, emphasize cost savings or cost recovery. Expectations for direct cost savings are based on the premise that an ecologically responsible building that employs energy efficiency strategies will require less energy to operate and, as a result, require less cost to operate over its lifetime. Energy efficiency strategies are also expected to partially shelter the owner against future increases in utility prices. 39 Indirect cost savings are typically assessed through worker productivity gains and reduced health care cost as well as directly from reduced use of energy or Other resources. Since institutions have dedicated tax revenue and typically own their buildings over the long term, institutions are better positioned to raise funds for increased up-front 38 A common, though controversial, rule of thumb used to account for the increased cost of achieving secondary policy objectives is to allow for 10% greater cost margin, where objectives can be demonstrated to provide benefits in excess of 10% of the value of the procurement (Lalonde 2004, pers. comm.; 83 Arrowsmith 1988). 39 In fact, energy prices typically provide the strongest cost incentive for building green. Unfortunately, energy prices in British Columbia are among the lowest in the world and in combination with Greater Vancouver's mild climate, are still too low to make a strong business case (3 Sheltair 2002). 41

capital costs and over time will recover the savings from reduced operating costs through lowered energy use. While demonstrating opportunities for financial savings has obvious practical value, an undue emphasis on this may have the negative effect of acting as a limiting factor to the full potential of the government to realize its leadership potential in taking responsibility for sustainability. In any case, despite the ubiquitous argument that ecologically responsible buildings can be cost neutral compared to conventional buildings, the record in Greater Vancouver suggests that financing green buildings with sophisticated features often means contemplating payback periods outside the range of typical investment portfolios.' 10 This has triggered concerns over debt management, despite the fact that local and regional governments at present have significant opportunity to obtain funding for green innovation in public buildings or buildings on public land. Support from external funders has been able to mitigate, if not entirely banish, the financial risks associated with price premiums. 4 ' 1.752 VALUING SUSTAINABILITY IN LOCAL AND REGIONAL GOVERNMENT PROCUREMENT. The last decade and a half of implementing "environmental" purchasing tools in Canada and nascent ethical and sustainable purchasing tools provide evidence that a conceptual shift from counting up costs and benefits to balancing risks with rewards is already well underway. Ecological economists and alternative financial analysts have recognized that contemporary prices are largely based on comparative advantage and labor costs and do not accurately reflect ecological costs (also known as "negative externalities") such as air pollution, or other adverse effects on third parties (53 McGuiness et al 2002; 4 Rees 2001; 49 Throgmorton 2003). These proponents argue that "internalizing the externalities", or including estimates of ecological cost, will result in prices that better reflect relative scarcity or abundance. Recalibrated higher prices are expected to result in more conservative consumer behavior which will lead to conservation of the affected resources and stimulate the search for substitutes (4 Rees 2001; 49 Throgmorton 2003). A number of methods have been developed to integrate values from the ecological economic paradigm into the prevailing expansionist economic paradigm, the most popular of which are life cycle analysis 42, full cost accounting 43, and the triple bottom line method 44. However, 40 A vigorous debate surrounds the issue of price premiums for green buildings, with some proponents arguing that these buildings are cost-neutral or only marginally more expensive to build than conventional buildings. The range of sophistication in technical and design issues that an ecologically responsible may employ makes a simple analysis of the building cost issue impossible. 41 Requirements from external funders may also influence the setting of thresholds and performance specifications in projects and purchases. As a case in point, there are improvement thresholds for institutions seeking grants from senior levels of government, for example, the Canadian Building Improvement Program (CBIP) (45 Sheltair 2002). As a result, improvement thresholds can play an essential role in putting together a business case that includes assistance in offsetting incremental capital costs. If partner funding from a senior level of government has been secured for the project, the funder may have specifications for the building project as well. 42 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is an evaluation tool that measures the total energy and material used to create a product or service and, depending on the species of tool, may employ both qualitative and quantitative terms {Material Input per Unit Service (MIPS) (Sutherland 2004). 42

regardless of these tools, central and decentralized supply side managers ultimately work within the dominant economic growth paradigm which subordinates sustainability considerations to market determinations of price and value. In reality, major legal and political barriers to reforming perverse subsidies, taxes and pricing policies have proven difficult to overcome in practice. Low resource prices are partially the result of globalization and trade but they also result from counterproductive direct and indirect subsidies to industry (4 Rees 2001). For this reason, local and regional government purchasers striving to influence the transformation of outdated, ineffective, and limited concepts and techniques to achieve ecological sustainability milestones work in a challenging context. First, the training and professionally mandated responsibilities of practitioners in a municipal or regional context may contribute towards a conservative approach to change. A SPMS will require municipal and regional practitioners to learn new techniques and new conceptual instruments, and to accept new principles to guide daily decision-making. Managing for reward and value requires practitioners to push past conventional understandings of risk implicit in the quality control and procedural fairness functions. There are essentially two major, interrelated categories of risk: technical risk, and financial risk. While the former is concerned with the safety, functionality, and durability of the technology purchased, the latter is concerned with issues of resource allocation and debt. Where traditional risk management tools stifle imagination and innovation, and fail to account for the full value of biodiversity and ecosystem services, managing for reward and value means identifying better techniques for decision-making and calculating the potential of experimenting with new and relatively untried technologies. A SPMS ideally encourages practitioners to recognize that much of risk and liability is perceived rather than real. Purchasers in particular can maintain a healthy balance between taking risks and avoiding risks, acknowledging that some risks are required to pursue an institution's missions, excellence, success, and sustainability (5 Perryman 2004)." 5 Particularly in the supply management profession, conservatism means systematically managing for quality control and procedural fairness. In a nutshell, the focus is on risk management, which is mandated by law and further supported by a suite of accepted policies and procedures at both the Ai Full cost accounting (FCA) was developed as a systematic approach for identifying, summing, and reporting the many types of costs incurred to provide solid waste management services but has now also been applied to a range of capital projects. The conventional cash flow accounting (also called general fund accounting) system was found to inadequately account for up-front costs, operating costs, back-end costs, ecological costs (including the cost of site remediation), contingent costs, and social costs (EPA 2003). " Triple bottom line accounting is a method that envisions the three 'bottom lines' of society, economy, and environment as unstable and fluctuating, with the environment the ultimate 'bottom line' (SustainAbility 2004). A popular user of the method in the region is BC Hydro (BC Hydro 2005). 45 Liability is a complex legal issue that denotes obligation and responsibility and closely relates to risk taking and risk avoidance. From the formal standpoint, purchasers have some professional protection from the inherent risks of contracting. The purchasing contract usually requires contractors to indemnify the government against any losses it incurs as a result of the contractor's activities in performing the contract (Mitchell 1951 cited in 5 Arrowsmith 1988). 43

professional and organizational levels." 6 These instruments assist in preventing slipshod decision-making and in ensuring that suppliers chosen will be credible and consistently available. Procedural fairness ensures equity and accessibility to prospective suppliers and promises a competitive process in certain circumstances. The notion of fairness in supply side management is linked to market competition in the Canadian context, where it is believed to result in the achievement of best value and serve the public interest most reliably (60 Arrowsmith 1988). Quality control presents both opportunities and challenges for SSM and DSM in a local or regional government SPMS. Practitioners are obligated to assess products and proposals for services, including professional services related to building design and construction, with the conventional framework of quality and price. The conventional understanding of value is that goods and services should be primarily acquired on the best value available (61 Arrowsmith 1988) where value is a function of quality and price. Put in another way, value is equivalent to benefit minus cost (53 McGuiness et al 2002). In an active market, value is typically construed more broadly, but in a slack market value and price may be seen as equivalent. All other considerations in purchasing are classed as "secondary policy objectives" that support general social, political, and economic objectives of government not directly connected with the actual purchase (81 Arrowsmith 1988). Furthermore, the inclusion of ecological considerations within the class of secondary policy objectives has only occurred during the two decades. However, using price as a determinant of value poses major problems for valuing ecological sustainability. Market prices, to varying degrees depending on the product or service, are influenced by global trends outside the jurisdiction of local and regional governments. Unless a product or service explicitly makes an effort to do so, ecological costs are typically not internalized into market prices for goods and services as the ecological effects of resource extraction and production are often dispersed in time, between places, and among different social groups. To date there is no generally accepted means of quantifying the many life support services and values of the ecosphere into monetary terms. This is not to suggest that no attempts to do so have been made; however, these have been justly criticized for being over-simplistic and reductionist. It has proven very difficult to cost and discount factors that create changes in an ecosystem that are outside of human control; furthermore, costing futurity is even more difficult, given that costs of treatment and personnel are likely to change in the future for many reasons. As far as quality for good value is concerned, for these reasons it can be difficult to determine best value in ecological, financial, and technical terms. Using one of several recognized valuation techniques for products and services may assist practitioners in making defensible decisions. The two most recognized 46 Municipal and regional government purchasers and councils are mutually bound by legislation intended to serve as a social safety net against corruption, fraud, and favoritism. To this end, legislation defines how, as decisionmakers, purchasers must (a) use their powers only for specific, articulated purposes, and (b) act according to a standard of fairness. 44

valuation techniques are life cycle analysis and full cost accounting, which incorporate ecological costs incurred from resource extraction to manufacturing, distribution, and disposal into the balance sheet. Certification systems may also assist in making alternative procurement defensible by providing a consistent, independent, scientific, and publicly acceptable performance standard. 47 Some important examples include the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) system for buildings, or product labels such as Energy Star or Environmental Choice. Quality considerations may encourage municipal purchasers to produce their own specifications for goods and services, especially for large capital purchases such as buildings, to serve the specific targets and objectives of their SPMS. 48 These specifications may reference or replicate the established standards of respected certification systems, or identify equivalencies for prospective suppliers. Purchasers also have the opportunity to monitor the ecological performance of suppliers and negotiate for terms that set higher-than-conventional ecological standards for design, manufacturing or construction, and disposal or demolition. Even further, they can require suppliers to purchase ecologically preferred products further down the supply chain. One major opportunity for supply chain management is through use of the standard prequalification process for prospective contractors. This is essentially a pre-screening process that helps ensure that all bidders are technically and financially competent and have the integrity to complete the contract on the terms offered, and could extend to bidders that have demonstrated organizational ecological certification (ISO 14000) and/or the capacity to meet ecological performance specifications and criteria. Through prequalification, the institution could list, recognize, and reward suppliers demonstrating corporate ecological responsibility. In compliance with requirements for procedural fairness, however, institutions would retain the right to reject pre-qualified bidders in a competitive tendering process. Despite the fact that alternative financial techniques and systems are available to support ecologically responsible supply side management, use of these techniques does not guarantee that practitioners will prioritize purchases on the basis of long term, rather than short term reward and value. An enduring commitment at individual and collective levels is necessary for the organization to succeed in making 47 There are many recognized environmental certification and labeling systems. Examples at the level of organizational certification include IS0140001. At the product category level, the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) are two examples of wood certification. The use of accepted assessment tools and techniques, and the recognition of certification schemes, makes transparent and accountable the criteria upon which proposals and bids will be evaluated and is a further means of ensuring that a fair process is offered to all prospective sellers/service providers. 48 An ecologically responsible purchasing tool may or may not include performance-based or prescriptive specifications for different products categories or types. A performance-based specification outlines targets, benchmarks, and metrics for different dimensions of a good or service, and leaves it up to the project proponent to devise and efficient way of meeting the target. On the other hand, a prescriptive specification outlines the means for producing or building something. The most salient example is building design and construction guidelines such as encompassed in the BC Building Code. Local and regional governments have discretion as to how they articulate specifications: the local government may describe a list of desired list of features in the form of objectives, specifications, or open-ended questions about cost and value. Alternatively, institutions may not specify a budget in part to encourage creative solutions to situations at a range of prices. 45

initially difficult and inconvenient sacrifices or compromises in service of an investment that may not bear immediate fruit. 1.753 BALANCING RISK ANALYSIS WITH A REWARD Focus. The original use of environmental management systems was as protection for governments against environmental risk and lawsuits (Knight 2004, pers. comm.). A conventional environmental management system (EMS) forced the manager to focus attention on issues of greatest significance and risk. Knight reflects that, "while in an EMS, exposure may be the greatest concern, in a sustainability management system it might be opportunity (2004, pers. comm.)." Put another way, managing for sustainability performance moves from a risk-avoidance mentality to a reward-maximization mentality. A SPMS can provide the principled and functional support practitioners need to be translate opportunity into action and seize rewards rather than simply guard against risks. Wider organizational support for tracking performance on ecological sustainability can motivate purchasers to be more creative in entertaining alternative ideas and solutions, more willing to experience some trial and error, and more comfortable in navigating the inevitable tensions and differences of value and priority that may emerge and cause frustration, delays, anxiety, and even additional costs. In the interview phase of this study, local and regional government practitioners emphasized three themes: (a) turning technical risks into rewards; (b) turning financial risks into balanced investments; and, (c) turning fear of failure into the quest for success, particularly as regards professional reputation and program durability. 1.7531 TURNING TECHNICAL RISKS INTO REWARDS. In general, local and regional governments perceive risk in integrating ecological performance requirements with purchasing and building. The concerns range from possible interruptions in critical supplies, unmanageably increased costs and lack of administrative resources to handle the increased complexity of purchasing, technological legitimacy and functionality, and the protection of existing assets, such as corporate equipment and the warranties safeguarding it. One salient example of reframing risk assessment to a reward focus in technological functionality is provided by a story told by Bob Lalonde of the GVRD: With the environmental procurement policy, the Purchasing Department is asking engineers to look some of their assumptions about risk. Construction contracting is a good example. In construction tenders, specifications over the years used to always have a statement to the effect that 'materials should be new and unused'. So that's where we started to say to the engineers developing the sp do you need that? Do you want to start thinking the opposite way now? We said that encouraging used, old material, whatever you want to call it, as acceptable is even a better, a further step (200 pers. comm.). 46

Lalonde explains that the original rationale for the requirement for new materials was to avoid risk associated with something that had not been guaranteed to be previously checked and inspected. The underlying issue of safety had, over time, become synonymous with new goods, and this in turn had crystallized into an attitudinal barrier towards recycled and reconditioned goods. Through dialogue and a more careful analysis, the barrier could be overcome. 1.7532 TURNING FINANCIAL RISKS INTO BALANCED INVESTMENTS. The basic assumption underlying perceptions of financial risk is that the implementation of ecologically responsible tools and projects may prevent the institution from providing essential services, compromise other programs, or require increased taxation. In the literature, the weight of research emphasis is on the costs associated with retrofit and new building projects. Moreover, there is a widespread recognition among interviewees that conventional pricing does not adequately account for ecological issues and that other techniques, such as life cycle analysis are necessary to adequately account for them. In a largely independent fashion, most practitioners interviewed were actively grappling with the challenge of valuing ecological sustainability and transforming their concept of sound business practice; none claimed to have the issue of costing the environment figured out. 49 However, the most progressive organizations appear to have accepted the fact that ecological sustainability issues cannot be numerically captured on the accounting sheet, and that thinking in terms of risk and reward is most helpful. For new ecologically responsible construction, cost data is typically difficult to quantify and compare across buildings, as each building is highly specific in terms of its performance targets, technologies chosen, and long term pay-back goals. Buildings that incorporate innovative demonstration items, such as green roofs or technology for renewable energy capture, are likely to be considerably more expensive. Dale Mikkelsen, Planner at the City of Vancouver, notes that "there are a lot of numbers floating around out there, there's projects that have been done to a LEED certified standard that are 15% above conventional cost, but that's because they've gone and chosen certain technologies to make a particular statement. They are aware of that. But if you are trying to do a cost-cutters version of LEED, you can do a fairly economical LEED certified building (2004, pers. comm.). Typically, new projects undertaken by study organizations were completed before performance and cost tracking systems were put in place. As a result, there is no experiential or theoretical knowledge to date that can provide a reliable estimate of where the dollar stops to achieve a certain ecological performance standard in a new civic facility. As one example, the rule of thumb for a LEED Cold building is 49 One interviewee commented, with some irritation, "we don't wish to be bound by some magic formula. How do you really measure the benefits to the environment?." Ironically, while this statement was a reaction against management infrastructure to guide decision-making, the words suggest a conscientization to a different way of thinking, namely reward-focused thinking, about sustainability. 47

considered to typically involve a price premium of between 8% and 12% (3 Richmond Draft CB Report 2004). The question has also been framed the other way: what percentage of reduction in energy consumption is economically viable? In this framework, viability equates to cost recovery scenario where savings from deferred energy use repay the capital improvements. This has been estimated to be 20% on average (7 Corporate CCAP 2004). The increased capital costs associated with price premiums requires that institutions consider longer debt repayment terms, or payback periods, than they would for conventional projects. The case organizations affirm that in the current market context, external funding is an essential source of support to reduce payback periods and thus enable implementation of ecologically responsible performance tools, as well as sustainability performance management system development. The most common funding partners mentioned were BC Hydro and Natural Resources Canada's Commercial Building Incentive Program (CBIP). Hogg explains that he is able to make retrofits "work on paper with grants", and his colleague Naysmith at the City of Richmond explains that his payback periods are cut in half with the help of external funding. The conditions attached to funding, in some cases, may be further drivers for sustainability. In the experience of Burnaby, Earle explains that "we talked about pilots and doing a pilot project, and decided to go with the whole bundle because of the granting structure with BC Hydro and Natural Resources Canada (2004, pers. comm.)." 1.7533 TURNING FEAR OF FAILURE INTO THE QUEST FOR SUCCESS. In the conversations with practitioners, concerns about failure were related specifically to professional reputation and credibility in managerial decision-making and the continued viability of present and future initiatives. In general, practitioners felt that both reputation and program durability was contingent on success. While reputation is important, it may present a perceptual rather than a real barrier to a focus on reward and value. Knight observes that "most municipal staff members are coping with an overload of sometimes conflicting information on a daily basis. The typical manager strives to make decisions that actually are dealing with critical issues within the context of the concern about demonstrating success." However, ecological champions with the quality of being challenge-fueled were able to take both accolades and criticism in stride without letting it deter them from performance goals. While appreciative of and energized by achievements, and rewards, the champions were also able to persevere in an atmosphere of scrutiny, conflict, and criticism when technical, practical, or financial investments turned into temporary failures. The champions embody Robert F. Kennedy's remark that "to adhere to standards, to idealism, to vision, in the face of immediate dangers takes great courage and takes selfconfidence. But we also know that only those who dare to fail greatly, can ever achieve greatly (cited in 33-34 Boyd 2004)." 48

Recognition that systems and tools must demonstrate success can lead to strategic choices about how to scope components and targets for short term as well as long term gains. The adoption of a new type of management system may be somewhat overwhelming and is likely to involve some trial and error as it evolves and adapts to a specific organizational context. However, like the premium capital cost of a legacy building that will pay off in long term savings, the infusion of a performance management system across an organization can be expected to pay off in tangible progress towards a healthier future. Practitioners Knight and Wark describe the pressure to demonstrate success. Knight holds that "staff members are reluctant to initiate an activity or a program that stands a strong risk of being kyboshed for fear that Council and fellow colleagues will be disappointed and disheartened and resources will be wasted, worsening the chances for future initiatives, until perhaps a new Council takes office (2004, pers. comm.)." From her vantage point as municipal planner, Wark observes that the taint of failure can retard forward momentum on innovative projects, and prefers a cautionary approach to change. In her words, "if [ecological sustainability projects] don't work for other reasons, then the baby gets thrown out with the bathwater...so I think that when we're designing any aspect of a community facility or a city facility we need to make sure that all things are covered off, otherwise the whole concept gets thrown out (2004, pers. comm.)." While performance management is aimed at identifying critical issues and finding effective and creative means of addressing them, Knight believes that there are good reasons for "picking the low-hanging fruit", or taking simple and easy actions rather than focusing first on addressing critical issues (2004, pers. comm.). Knight cautions that "if you try to tackle the hardest thing and it takes you two years to get through it and everybody is very disillusioned and it's a hard-fought battle, you lose a lot of momentum in the organization." She says: "so you can do market transformation and leadership but I think you need to do it around both things that can be done, and a couple things that might have bigger impact and take a little bit more challenge...sometimes also it's just good to have some successes...for organizations and the people who are the champions inside organizations to be able to do something that show results quickly (Knight 2004, pers. comm.)." As the Appreciative Inquiry model for organizational change argues, success unleashes energy, confidence, and momentum in continuing on the course of change, which is inherently uncomfortable for most people. Change may mean incremental change rather than revolution, but does not preclude unprecedented breakthroughs. Durable and demonstrable success starts a cycle where seeing may result in believing, that not only fosters continued support for the particular initiative that has demonstrated success but for future initiatives in service of similar purposes. In other terms, positive outcomes are generative of further institutional capacity and cultural support. This "cycle of success" is capable of propelling organizations through the stages of sustainability performance management implementation and ensuring that the critical issues remain in sight. 49

1.76 MANAGING FOR INTEGRATION. The principle of integration emphasizes connectivity between social, economic, and ecological information and empirically produced objective and subjective information. All categories and types of information may be integrated responsibly in the information system and reporting components of a SPMS. Integrated information presents a multidimensional view of the planning context and how sustainability performance management priorities have required tradeoffs among the other objectives of corporate administration. It is now well-established that sustainability efforts - even those guided by the shallow concept of sustainability - are best developed on the basis of information from social, economic, and ecological disciplines. For this reason, I will focus this discussion on the integration of objective and subjective information types in sustainability performance management. 1.761 INTEGRATING SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE INFORMATION TYPES. Ideally, subjective and objective information are integrated in a sustainability performance management system to reflect the recognition that practical definitions, meaningful mileposts, and clear targets are necessary but not sufficient to fully catalyze an organization's cultural shift towards ecological sustainability. To be effective, a SPMS must integrate ethics, imagination, and individual subjective experience with the best of objective science in both informal and formal ways. Chambers makes the critical point that in integrating the consciously objective with the subjective, "the key is to know whether, where and how the two knowledges can be combined (cited in 119 Bell and Morse 1999)." In the SPMS, the assumptions behind subjective and objective information are recognized without value judgments that suppress or privilege one way of knowing over another. 50 Therefore, in the SPMS model, the relevance and effectiveness of both subjective ways of knowing and objective, factual information are optimized by using both types of information in specific situations for specific purposes. 1.762 STORLES AS SUBJECTIVE INFORMA TION. Although attempts have been made to systematize viewpoints and values into specific formats for information systems, I posit that formal narratives, and particularly informal dialogue and tale-telling so Practitioner perspectives on what ways of knowing are valid and what ways are not often represent an epistemological 'fork in the road' between holism and reductionism. Without denying the utility of factual and technical knowledge, I posit that the conventional system of scientific validation, and in fact the modern history of the development of knowledge, is reductionist, reducing expressions about complex phenomena to simple and objective terms. A wealth of study from both scientific and philosophical disciplines has confirmed that the reductionist claim to objectivity is impossible, that reality is subjectively constructed, and that information analysts are deeply involved in the phenomena they are analyzing. Despite this clear argumentation, northern culture continues to place an exaggerated trust in the efficacy of the methods of natural science in managing performance towards sustainability and has correspondingly failed to embrace experiential subjectivity in ways that are meaningful. Without irresponsibly embracing a purely relativist position, this study posits that a SPMS be based on the holistic view that human systems should reflect the multidimensional physical, intellectual, and subjective or emotional attributes of holistic intelligence. 50

have the most promise for a SPMS. 51 Narrative and dialogue also support the people principle by inviting holistic intelligence into daily decision-making, igniting dialogue and relationship, empowering personal agency, and emboldening legitimate critique. Storytelling among practitioners encourages individuals and groups to value their own and others' experiences and practical wisdom and thus nurtures the evolution of ecological consciousness and championship. For this to happen, stories must first be acknowledged as methods with value and purpose. Buddrus points out that adopting this way of working is unlikely to be a simple process of adding on a new skill or technique but rather "requires fundamental cognitive and emotional reorientation (85 cited in Bell and Morse 1999)." Although planning theorists now celebrate the potential of storytelling for the profession (6 Eckstein and Throgmorton 2003), professional planners do not yet recognized stories as "information" or tools for measurement in practice. The theory provides no explicit indication of how stories might be integrated with more objective data for sustainability performance management purposes. Without attempting to be comprehensive on this subject, I posit that narrative and dialogue have identifiable and specific purposes that deserve expression in both formal and informal aspects of the information system and reporting components of a SPMS. I do not claim that all practitioner stories reflect or attain this potential but rather argue that a clearer and more specific understanding of the potential of storytelling in the practitioner environment can contribute to a more effective SPMS. While narrative by definition resists reductionist classification, it can be identified as serving three specific purposes in the practitioner environment: connectivity/integration, promotion and persuasion, and subversion. 52 Stories are by nature integrative: instead of reducing observable reality into categories and classifications, stories may celebrate holistic intelligence, linking rational thought with the discourse of conscious and unconscious expectations, passions, emotion, ethics, and experience. As such, they may introduce a fresh and fertile contrast to the predictability of the scientific method and the typicality of standard procedures, pre-formatted techniques and devices. 53 The nuances of interrelationship, contingency, and synergy in stories may inspire creativity: in the midst of the telling, narrators and 51 Two of many examples of structured frameworks for subjective information include: Value Focused Thinking (McDaniels and Keeney 1992) and Systematic Sustainability Analysis (Bell and Morse 1999; 2003). These two frameworks are based on the notion that variable perceptions of different stakeholders are legitimate as long as justified, and are collated into a spreadsheet for analysis. 52 The purposive qualities of storytelling advanced in this study resonate to a great degree with the philosophy of Appreciate Inquiry (Al). Al emphasizes narrative and storytelling, but focuses exclusively on stories that generate new and positive images of an organization and its future. In fact, an explicit goal of Al is to create a "narrative-rich culture with a ratio of five positive stories to every negative one" (8-9 Hammond 1998). However, I argue that subversive stories are also powerful in creating change. Clear and constructive critiques are not inherently negative, are often necessary, and do not fall into the category of deficit-based thinking. Stories may usefully assign blame to those who do not fulfill their obligations, and deride apathy. Moreover, what is considered positive and negative may vary depending on viewpoint and organizational position. For example, conservative authorities that benefit from their role in a hierarchical organization may find egalitarian narrative "negative" and may not share the view they should be "positive change catalysts...invited to participate equally as one of the many essential voices at the table" as is suggested by Al (19 Hammond 1998). 53 That is not to suggest that stories do not have logic of their own: storytelling arises from a universal need to create coherence from complex reality beyond facts and analysis (Dukes 2003). 51

listeners may awaken to ideas, have epiphanies, and imagine new solutions. In addition, stories may serve as catalysts for conversation and dialogue that bring practitioners into relationship, nurturing reciprocal understanding, shared knowledge, and mutual trust (Habermas 1984, cited in 188 Allmendinger 2002). Storytelling promotes the priority of the personal. Practitioner stories begin with the first person "I" of personal experience; they emphasize rather than suppress the subjective voice, and may uphold the speaker as a competent protagonist in a landscape of risks, conflicts, and challenges. Compromise and success are both promoted by practitioners who have made the journey through complex negotiations between real and ideal at a given place and time. For these reasons, stories can persuade, elicit pride and praise, empower and strengthen identities and agency, and assign responsibility and sometimes blame (Eckstein 2003; Hammond 1998). Together, the accumulation of stories may promote a legacy of personal and institutional memory of lessons learned, deals struck, and obstacles overcome that strengthens the organization's cycle of success. Finally, stories may be subversive. They arise to illustrate meaning but may communicate more and different meanings than are consciously intended. They may break rules, abandon procedural and political correctness, and any other instrument that represses authentic expression and individual freedom. In a bureaucratic government context designed to "emphasize and reinforce the status quo and act as a constraint upon change" (24 Allmendinger 2002), stories are the wily and unruly tools of contradiction, trickery, satire, irony, and criticism. Stories may "defamiliarize the familiar" (Eckstein cited in 58 Throgmorton 2003), questioning authority and hierarchy, and destabilizing the semblance of stability and uniformity in the organization. With a clearer understanding of their purposes, how might narrative and dialogue be used to optimal purpose in a SPMS? To optimize their value as complements to more objective information, subjective information in story form is best left unfettered by formalization. Rather, stories might be seen as the continual livening force within a SPM information system, acting and reacting on more objective data and events as the planning context changes over time. Narrative may be as private as a practitioner journal that represents a subjective information system, as public as a speech to fellow staff members, or simply the shared dialogue between colleagues. The informal play of the latter form of storytelling instills a continual mutual feedback cycle of posing and answering the question 'how are we doing - together?'. As spontaneous accounts, informal stories knit together the relationships and experiences of everyday work, which supports the reporting component: as Throgmorton observes: "if we do not encounter one another routinely as part of our everyday lives, we will grow increasingly ignorant, fearful, and distrustful of one another...we will find ourselves crying and shouting at one another in more formal settings, completely unable to understand our differing points of view (57 2003)." 52

While documents may lend credibility and cohesion to management, dialogue and stories generate responsive critical inquiry from actual agents of change. For all of these reasons, stories should not be prescribed as techniques, but rather invited and acknowledged as having a central place in learning and communication. In service of the latter, local governments can provide practitioner-employees with training in communication, listening, and valuing 'alternative' information sources and ways of knowing. On a final note, there is a place for narrative and other subjective forms of information in the formal reporting component of a SPMS. Planning theorists have supported this in principle while remaining silent on how the spirit and purpose of story are best presented. Leone Sandercock urges that "we ought to be using storytelling techniques more when we write up (as government or consulting reports) the deliberations that have gone into community consultations...even as research reports [stories] have a profound place in the work of the city-building professions as we try to build more sustainable cities for the twenty-first century (164 2003)." Very recent, and regionally indigenous, sustainability reports have attempted to formally incorporate stories in written communications and reports, but there is no evidence that these reports have used stories formally as an information collection tool; rather, stories are treated as composites alongside indicators with no explicit indication of how they might be integrated or used in tandem to form the basis of tracking sustainability performance. 54 An additional consideration is that the relative mix, form, substance, detail, and depth of the subjective and objective information should be adapted for the different needs of different audiences. Including subjective information in formal written communications may involve breaking down the conceptual barriers between "technical reports" and "stories", conventionally considered to be discrete genres with unique formats intended to serve different social purposes. While a lineage of epistemological critique supports this, I argue that values about different ways of knowing and expectations and assumptions about reliability and validity should be made clear as information is integrated. In other words, practitioners should be responsible in articulating the limitations and purposes of each way of knowing in formal documents. 1.77 MANAGING FOR ADAPTATION. The principle of adaptation holds that the management system should respond to changing internal and external conditions and that the information within it should be subject to consistent and regular 54 Two regional examples of organizations that have attempted to make formal use of stories as part of sustainability performance management are: (a) the GVRD; and (b) the Fraser Basin Council (FBC). The GVRD profiled fifty regional and corporate sustainability stories on its Sustainable Region Initiative website (GVRD SRI 2004). The FBC included narrative in its 2004 Sustainability Report on the Fraser Basin region. In both cases, the narratives are oriented to display results but lack an experiential or personal touch; moreover, both are provided for public engagement purposes (presumably to enhance the accessibility of more technical indicators to a lay audience) and not directed towards a practitioner audience (FBC 2004). In the GVRD sustainability stories, key lessons learned are articulated, hinting towards the purposive qualities of storytelling. While these initiatives represent a first effort at acknowledging the importance of storytelling, they simultaneously reveal that the role of stories is as yet limited and not well understood or accepted. 53

updates. An adaptive SPMS provides a constant supply of relevant and current information for decisionmaking. For optimal effectiveness, a sustainability performance management system should synchronize with other change/review mechanisms to take advantage of strategic opportunities. This principle makes the simple but emphatic point that performance management is never perfect, never static, and never complete. Rather, it is best viewed as a living and evolving effort that must adapt to a changing biophysical context, changing human dynamics and influences on the biosphere, and modified practical and academic understanding of how to optimally manage human activity and institutions (108 Bell and Morse 1999). Systems theory points out that relationships in a system bring about co-evolutionary change: while practitioners may adapt the SPM system over time to be more effective, the SPM system will adapt practitioners to be more effective (155 Bell and Morse 1999). 1.771 THE TIME IS Now, THE PLACE IS HERE. The most important aspect of adaptation in performance management is the degree and direction in which the public institution is moving on the sustainability spectrum. A performance management system should be immediately implemented regardless of incomplete knowledge. It is common for managers and decision makers to resist moving forward in the face of uncertainty, administrative inconvenience and even some political resistance. To this, Homer-Dixon (55 1999) cautions that "no matter how much research is devoted to understanding...[sustainability] trends, policymakers cannot escape significant uncertainty surrounding estimates of their future directions. For this reason, they should not demand precise estimates before making decisions about major environmental problems, because that strategy will simply delay policy decisions indefinitely." Setting meaningful and realistic expectations about the pace and scope of change when implementing systemic sustainability performance management is likely to be an important concern for local and regional governments. From a practical perspective, incrementalism offers many advantages to public institutions. Acting City of Vancouver Sustainability Manager Mark Holland notes that "public policy is a Titanic and one moves it slowly and turns course slowly - to do otherwise could cause great upheaval and unnecessary problems (2004, pers. comm.). One problem is insufficient organizational capacity and human resources to do the work, which can lead to concerns about fear of failure in reputation and program performance. As Part III will discuss in further detail, the City of Vancouver's pace of change provides a case in point. Holland notes that staff burnout has been a real problem and at present "we're moving so fast on so many things...that we're all running close to exhaustion mark (2004, pers. comm.)." Overwork affects not only the health of individuals but the long term health of the organization and its cycle of success. As Holland explains, when people burn out, "people quit and things fail. If any green project fails you can kiss the project good-bye or think about doing anything like that for a very long time. You can't have a massively burned out team trying to make a difference off the side of their desk (2004, pers. comm.)." 54

However, the principle of adaptation demands that the broader regional and global context be taken into account. While compromise and incrementalism may seem most manageable in the immediate term from the organizational perspective, it may not be capable of addressing the increasing urgency of global and regional un-sustainability. The research on systems theory and change concludes that changes to biophysical systems are typically sudden. A latent period where the system becomes increasingly agitated is typically followed by a rapid and irreversible shift, the timing and outcome of which is often uncertain. If perturbed beyond its realm of stability, the system will respond by either emerging in an indeterminate fashion into something new and unpredictable or disintegrating in a determinate fashion, destroying all the sub-systems previously supported by it but leaving the systems below it unaffected. These reactions are irreversible, meaning that while new and similar systems can evolve, their unique qualities will never exactly match that of a previously defined system. In other words, as global or regional biophysical systems, the social and economic systems that depend on them can be expected to be dramatically effected. However, as Rees characterizes it, high-income industrial societies like Canada have yet to come seriously to grips with the concept of sustainable development or the policies required to achieve it (Email 2002). On the contrary, Canada is implicated in "a growthoriented development paradigm promoted by powerful corporate interests and supported by government policies favoring deregulation, economic specialization, more liberal international trade, and globalization (2 Rees Email 2002)." To meaningfully address the sustainability dilemma, local and regional governments need to put significant organizational resources in place to phase in an adaptive system for sustainability performance management. 1.772 ADAPTING SYSTEM COMPONENTS. All components of a SPMS require adaptation over time; however, the function of each component calls for a different timeline for review. The management framework must be adapted as the conceptual understanding of ecological sustainability changes or external conditions suggest that targets and objectives be modified. Performance tools must be adapted according to their relative success in achieving objectives and targets are evaluated. However, the greatest emphasis on adaptation must be directed to the information system component. Taking a regular and consistent approach to monitoring key indicators allows for cumulative and synergistic effects to be tracked over time. Furthermore, the information system should be continually "updated" with spontaneous dialogue and narrative to ensure that the organization is learning from its experiences and efforts. 1.773 UPDATING THE SPM INFORMATION SYSTEM. How often should a report be updated? Ideally, reports are updated when the information they present is no longer relevant to the audience for which they are intended. However, to ensure a baseline of adaptation, a SPMS should commit to updating reports on a regular time cycle. As a point of 55

comparison, private sector business reporting occurs on a quarterly basis and annual reports are produced as a matter of course. In practice, local and regional government commitments to set timelines, where they have been made, typically range from every year to every five years. Whatever choice an institution makes, the principles of accountability and consistency should be observed. To the extent that SPMS reporting is tied to the rotation of corporate business plans, capital plans and strategic financing plans, and the Official Community Plan review cycle, they are likely to be more effective in providing information at critical decision-making and participation junctures. In addition, a regular process to review the methodology and content of the information system and reporting should be established. As this Part has identified, the assumptions of shallow sustainability and ecological sustainability lead to different understandings of the sustainability dilemma and, by extension, different solutions. As a result, subjective stories will begin to shift and the objective indicators chosen to represent each model will differ. As ecological consciousness of the current state of un-sustainability broadens and deepens, indicators that more accurately reflect the principles of strong/ecological sustainability must be chosen to serve the requirements of more strategic and incisive change. 1.78 ORGANIZATIONAL CAPACITY AND CULTURE. As both Seasons (2003) and Rubenstein et al (2003) pointed out in their individual studies on city management, attention to organizational culture and capacity are critically important to the successful implementation and functioning of a performance management system. Furthermore, the importance of organizational capacity to sustainability efforts has been internationally recognized. The international Bellagio Principles for Sustainable Development specify that "institutional capacity in order to monitor progress towards sustainable development needs to be assured (1996)", underlining the widespread recognition that capacity is a key issue for sustainability performance management. In simple terms, an organization's capacity is its facility or power to perform (Miriam Webster 2004). In reality, capacity is a complex concept that could encompass a wide range of interrelated factors, from legislated jurisdiction to revenue base and program budgets to the number and training of employees, to name only a few. The degree of informal influence that individual employees and entities have, not to mention the degree of political support from Council, also relate to capacity. An organization forms a group culture that influences, and is influenced by its structure, degree and extent of capacity, and the individuals within it. However, these issues will be discussed in this study as dimensions of the organizational culture. It follows that building human resources capacity takes two basic forms: (1) hiring one or more individuals and/or structuring an entity tasked with coordinating and disseminating ecological objectives and information throughout the institution; and, (2) providing professional development in sustainability performance management for existing managerial staff, particularly in engineering, planning, parks management and purchasing roles. 56

1.79 SUMMARY: FROM SUSTAINABILITY DIAGNOSIS TO SUSTAINABILITY CURE. This Part demonstrates that the sustainability dilemma of the 21 st century is not only a vague and theoretical global condition but a very practical set of trends playing out in Canada's Greater Vancouver region. Cutting through the jumble of facts and opinions strewn between the ecological economic paradigm and the expansionist economic paradigm, I posit that sustainability is a physical, ecological condition rather than a principle or an idea, and that the current condition of un-sustainability is driven by the economic growth assumptions of global market capitalism that reinforce increasingly consumptive behavior among a rising global population. In Greater Vancouver, as the trajectory of economic and population growth, and over-consumption of materials and energy (and production of their associated wastes) continues unabated, local and regional government practitioners are professionally called upon to work out the details of how to take preventative measures within their own jurisdictions. To date, the literature on sustainability and performance management has not supplied a practical model for how local and regional governments can adopt a strategic and systematic method to make a corporate contribution toward achieving ecological sustainability milestones. This Part has outlined the Sustainability Performance Management System model with its distinctive components, principles, and considerations of organizational culture and capacity as an approach and tool for how local and regional governments can make a meaningful corporate contribution toward achieving ecological sustainability milestones. The next Part on research methods will illuminate how the SPMS model is used to assess the sustainability efforts of three local governments - the cities of Vancouver, Richmond, and Burnaby - and the Greater Vancouver Regional District. The case assessment is intended to demonstrate the practical value of the model and shed insight on how these organizations can improve their existing efforts. 57

Part II Research Method for Assessing Sustainability Performance Management in Four Case Organizations 2.1 INTRODUCTION. The aim of Part II is to provide detailed information on the methods used and justification for their selection in order to demonstrate the credibility of this study in its assessment of corporate ecological responsibility and sustainability performance management." In the following discussion, I locate this study within its theoretical lineage, articulate the rationale behind the research process, and make a case for the generalizability and application of the study conclusions. 2.2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD. Research methodology can be classified in various ways but the most generally accepted distinction is made between qualitative and quantitative research/ 6 Unlike quantitative research, which relies on the gathering and analysis of numerical data, qualitative research involves the interpretation of discourse, language, and behavior and is generally accepted as the methodology of choice in the social sciences (370 Robson 1993). This study is based on interpretive qualitative research." As a form of interpretive research, this study reflects the premise that access to reality (given or socially constructed) is only through social constructions such as language, consciousness and shared meanings. As such, in this study I attempt to understand phenomena through the meanings that people assign to them. In service of the research, several specific techniques or methods were used to gather and integrate subjective and more objective information. I employed the following methods in this study: A literature review of theory and textual analysis of documentary information; Semi-structured interviews within the context of the case approach; Semiotic analysis of primary data and researcher reflections and observations and, ss Shipman (1988 cited in Myers 2004) defines research credibility as the provision of sufficient information on the methods used and the justification for their use, including information on codification of the methods of data collection and approaches to analysis. 56 There are other distinctions made. Examples include: objective versus subjective; nomothetic (discovery of general laws) versus idiographic (concerned with the uniqueness of each particular situation); prediction and control versus explanation and understanding; and, outsider perspective versus insider perspective (Burrell and Morgan 1979, cited in Myers 2004). 57 Orlikowski and Baroudi (1991 cited in Myers 2004) propose that there are three categories of qualitative research, based on the underlying research epistemology of each: positivist, critical, and interpretive. Often, in practice, more than one category is employed in a single study. 58

An assessment tool for performance evaluation of individual case studies. While this multiplicity provided opportunity for greater access to more information from a wider variety of sources and the potential for greater accuracy, it also demanded a more careful discipline of making assumptions and limitations explicit in order to advance defensible conclusions. 2.3 OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS. I developed an initial conceptual framework from a review of the literature, to ground this study in communicative and collaborative planning theory. Interviews and researcher reflections were integrated in a case approach. After the collection and analysis of primary research and researcher reflections was completed, I revised the conceptual framework to reflect the new insights and information gained. On the basis of this framework, a scoring system was developed as a tool to evaluate the effectiveness of the sustainability performance management system (SPMS) of each study organization. Through use of a semi-structured interview method, four organizations were canvassed and twelve practitioners interviewed. Case information for each organization was collated, shaped by semiotic analysis and supplemented with researcher reflections. As a final step, the scoring system was applied, and a score assigned to each organization. 2.4 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH. The research statement and framework for inquiry for this study evolved throughout the process of research. I initiated this study with the following research statement: Increasing global environmental scarcity and degradation has demanded that regions take a proactiv response to sustainability in their own realms and beyond. Local and regional governments have ke opportunities and responsibilities in their roles as corporations - as well as service providers and regulators - to reduce consumption of materials and energy. The most effective means of taking corporate ecological responsibility is through a strategic, systemic, and sensitive sustainability performance management approach. On the basis of this statement, there were several basic questions I wanted to both explore and test: Has an effective management system for North American local and regional governments been devi to organize and track corporate performance on ecological sustainability milestones? If so, what do it look like? If not, what could this performance management system for sustainability look like, an how could it be practically applied to the real local government context of the cities of Vancouver, Richmond, and Burnaby, and the regional government context of the Greater Vancouver Regional District? To satisfy these research questions, I developed the Sustainability Performance Management System (SPMS) as a model to guide sustainability performance management system development in local 59

and regional government and as a tool to assess the existing sustainability efforts of the Greater Vancouver Regional District and the cities of Vancouver, Richmond, and Burnaby. A secondary purpose of applying the SPMS model to case research was to determine its theoretical applicability to actual local and regional government contexts. 2.5 THEORETICAL LINEAGE: COMMUNICATIVE/COLLABORATIVE PLANNING. With the research statement and questions and insights from the literature review as guideposts, I chose the communicative and collaborative planning paradigm as the theoretical basis for developing my primary research strategy. The communicative/collaborative planning paradigm is a set of normative theories about the process and substance of planning. The paradigm supports democracy, social justice, and ecological sustainability (197 Allmendinger 2002) as end targets of planning efforts. In terms of process, the paradigm is based on a pastiche of concepts, including those developed by Habermas, Friedmann, and Forester/ 8 These proponents critique, but do not discredit modernist or mainstream assumptions and practices in planning. 59 In general, they challenge the mainstream organizational culture in local and regional governments where "practice is still dominated by the concern to be seen as 'objective' or 'scientific' (Camhis 1979 cited in 193 Allmendinger 2002)." In contrast, these proponents advocate for the use of so-called objective scientific and evidentiary principles alongside more human-centered and alternative ways of knowing, including narrative and dialogue. While this study emerges from the discipline of community and regional planning, the term "practitioner" is preferred over "planner" since many regional and municipal practitioners are not professional planners but carry out a planning function as part of other professional backgrounds. Seminal theorist jurgen Habermas advanced the concept of communicative rationality as a means of bringing together a complex mix of cultures and discourses into meaningful interaction (185 Allmendinger 2002). 60 This type of rationality moves away from an individualized, subject-object 58 The paradigm has been built on the contributions of other key thinkers but for the purposes of this study, discussion will be limited to these three proponents. For example, Allmendinger (2002) credits Foucault's theory on power relations and Giddens theory on social networks as major contributions to the communicative/collaborative planning paradigm. 59 Modernist planning is also known as "enlightenment planning" or "rational comprehensive planning" and is concerned with applied scientific rationality (158 Allmendinger 2002). At the other extreme, the postmodern view of rationality and truth is that both are socially produced: "truth is to be understood as a system of ordered procedures for the production, regulation, distribution, circulation and operation of statements" (Fontana and Pasquino 1991 cited in 11 Allmendinger 2002). 60 Habermas has two fundamental concepts: the lifeworld and the system. The lifeworld is a symbolic network in which subjects interact and through shared practical knowledge coordinate social action. The realm of personal relationships is one dimension of the lifeworld. The system, such as the capitalist economy or bureaucratic administration, operates through power and interest and forms the context within which the lifeworld operates. Habermas (1987) holds that the system dominates the lifeworld (though it was created from the rationalization of the lifeworld) and restricts the scope for communicative action. Communicative action, which allows people to "develop, confirm, and renew their memberships in social groups" (cited in 187 Allmendinger 2002) vies against 60

conception of reason to a form of reasoning developed within intersubjective communication. As such, communicative rationality encompasses other ways of knowing and thinking than rationality; in particular, it celebrates narratives and stories as means of conveying knowledge, and building reciprocal understanding, trust and accord (188 Allmendinger 2002). I adopt Habermas' epistemological understanding of subjectivity and objectivity as well as his emphasis on communication in the practice of planning and management. John Friedmann (1987) supplies pointed critiques of scientific objectivity and value neutrality from within the planning profession. As a brief summary, he holds that the construction of knowledge must be regarded as an intensely social process based on communication. As a result, practitioners have no claim to privileged access to objective knowledge and have a responsibility to attend to other knowledges that relate experiences, beliefs, and visions. Finally, John Forester advanced the concept of deliberative storytelling among planning practitioners as a means of sharing practical wisdom and accomplishing everyday tasks. Forester builds on individual narrative with a theory of group narrative. He theorizes that "planners do not simply tell individual tales, they work together to construct politically shaped, shared "working" accounts - commonly considered, deliberative stories of the tasks, situations, and opportunities at hand (516 Forester 1996)." These narratives embody a holistic group intelligence that integrates facts, opinions, and emotions, reconstructs selectively what the problems at hand really are, and casts group members with identities as agents of change (or not). In this study I adopt the convincing collective argument of these theorists that there is a politically contentious aspect to objective information - scientific methods and tools, models, and information systems - on the one hand, and a practical application for narrative and dialogue in support of planning on the other. 2.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK. A conceptual framework is both an inductive tool that draws general conclusions from particular instances and a dialogical and diagrammatic arrangement of the main features and dimensions of a case study and its presumed relationships (150 Robson 1993). In this study, the research questions directed a review of the literature that, in combination with insights from the communicative/collaborative planning paradigm, provided a conceptual framework for the primary research. The conceptual framework was later revised to incorporate the most salient themes emerging from the primary data collection process. instrumental rationality. The primacy of communicative action allows the lifeworld to reclaim ground lost to the system. 61

The conceptual framework was also based on a theoretical framework with specific assumptions and prescriptions about how the world operates or should be (9 Allmendinger 2002). The normative assumptions were taken from the communicative/collaborative planning paradigm. The prescriptive assumption was made that my sustainability performance management model is the most effective means of measuring and making progress on ecological sustainability within a regional or local government corporation. According to Martin and Turner (1986 cited in Myers 2004), grounded theory is "an inductive, theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations or data." As such, the conceptual framework for this study was both grounded in theory, and tested and modified according to the related experiences of current practitioners. The following diagram is a representation of the logic of the conceptual framework as an instrument panel in a vehicle, where corporate ecological responsibility is metaphorically the vehicle for traveling towards a destination of ecological sustainability. The steering wheel represents supply side and demand side management, the major strategy directing the course of the journey. The six gage instrument panel on the dashboard of the vehicle represents the principles of the sustainability performance management system used to "drive" the vehicle and monitor its performance. [...over//] 62

Figure 11-1 Conceptual Framework 2.7 CASE APPROACH. The "case study" is a popular and well-recognized method for qualitative research that is suitable for focusing on individuals and organizations; in fact, Valsiner (1986 cited in 56 Robson 1993) claims that "the study of individual cases has always been the major (albeit often unrecognized) strategy in the advancement of knowledge about human beings." 6 ' In this study, I use the term case study to describe both (a) a research method that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, and (b) units of analysis, namely three municipalities and one regional district. 61 Case studies may serve purposes in more quantitative studies, e.g. statistical generalization 63

One of the most important advantages of the case approach is its flexible and iterative design (5 Robson 1993). Although organizations have discrete boundaries, other boundaries of scope and boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident and must be set on the basis of the emergent focus of the enquiry (Lincoln and Guba cited in 61 Robson 1993). As a form of inductive data analysis, use of the case approach enabled me to include my own reflections (Lincoln and Guba cited in 61 Robson 1993). To some extent, I adopt in this study the ethnographic objective "to develop a theory about how participants accomplish the various actions taking place in the group (148 Robson 1993)."" Directed by the research problems, each of the four case studies involves four dimensions of enquiry: (1) the study of an organization as the unit of analysis, including its structure, capacity, and culture; (2) the study of individual roles and attitudes; and, (3) the study of the relationship of individuals to the organization. Collectively, these dimensions were integrated to determine the degree of effectiveness of sustainability efforts in each case organization as compared to my model of a Sustainability Performance Management System. 2.71 CASE SELECTION. I employed a purposive selection strategy to decide which cases to investigate. In purposive selection, my judgement as to typicality or interest of actors and processes in local and regional government institutions is the principle of selection (141 Robson 1993). The selection strategy used is grounded in theory, and based on the conceptual framework. A regional framework for multiple case selection was chosen on the basis of the theoretical view that the region is the appropriate geographic unit for the study of progress towards sustainability (Throgmorton 2003; McCloskey 1993; Aberley 1993). The Greater Vancouver Regional District was selected on the basis that it is the government authority defining what constitutes a region in this geographic area as well as the fact that it met three selection criteria. The municipalities were selected for this study on the basis that they belonged to the GVRD and met the three selection criteria. It is important to underline that to my knowledge, no organizations have implemented a formal sustainability performance management regime as I have proposed in Part I of this study. Rather, each of the following criteria indicated to me that, to some degree, the organization had taken steps towards corporate ecological responsibility. These criteria include: the establishment of institutional capacity to implement sustainability, such as a sustainability or environmental planner, or a sustainability or environmental department or unit; " Ethnographies and case studies have many similiarities. Robson (148 1993) defines the goal of an ethnography as "a theory about how participants accomplish the various actions taking place in the group." The distinguishing feature of ethnography, however, is that the researcher spends a significant amount of time in the field observing, dialoguing, and absorbing the contextual features. 64

the creation of an environmental or sustainability report, suggesting that a systematic inventory of environmental/sustainability issues and indicators had been undertaken. State of the environment reports are not the same as sustainability reports. They have been introduced in this study because they represent efforts to communicate about ecological conditions; and, the implementation of a corporate level resolution or policy on environmentally responsible procurement. The Greater Vancouver Regional District and each of the local governments selected - the City of Vancouver, the City of Richmond, and the City of Burnaby - satisfied these three criteria. 2.72 INTERVIEW METHOD. I chose the interview method for this study for practical and normative reasons. Qualitative case studies depend on discourse, both textual and verbal, as the units of data to be analyzed to draw conclusions about the subject under investigation. Interviews are essentially "invitations to storytelling" (Portelli, cited in 27 Eckstein 2003) that is "initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information and focused by him on content specified by research objectives of a systematic description, prediction or explanation (Cannel and Kahn, cited in 228 Robson 1993)." For my purposes, interviews presented the most effective means of finding out information in a proactive, timely, and cost-effective manner. In this study, I employed a semi-structured or focused interview approach to allow the interview agenda to be set by both myself and the interviewee according to the principles of dialogue. I based my interview style on the principles of Appreciative Inquiry and dialogue." Accordingly, the design of interviews and collection of primary data was based the philosophy of dialogue as "purposeful talk that involves openness, listening, making meaning and learning together" (1 Dukes 2003) where people "gain an understanding of the issues, and most importantly, the people behind the issues - their real beliefs, values, goals and fears." I attempted to balance the reliability imperative to minimize subject error and bias with the model of mutual and affirmative learning. In practice, I adopted a respectful demeanor, but did not support or agree with the interviewee's opinions. Finally, I minimized factual error by confirming, where possible, oral statements with written reports, meeting minutes, and other documentary or web-based sources. In the semi-structured interview, the interviewer has clearly defined purposes, but seeks to achieve them through some flexibility in wording and in the order of presentation of questions (227 Robson 1993). 63 1 note that the more conventional distinction made between interview styles is respondent versus informant (Powney and Watts 1987, cited in 231 Robson 1993). In the respondent interview, the interviewer sets the agenda and remains in control throughout the whole process. In informant interviews the interviewer creates space for the interviewee to set the agenda and express perceptions (231 Robson 1993). Al and dialogue break down this distinction and adopt aspects of both styles. 65

For this study, I developed an interview questionnaire to ensure beforehand that questions would be strategically aligned with the research problems. The questionnaire was not intended as a framework for standardization. Rather, questions were designed to elicit opinions and attitudes and experiences related to collaboration and working relationships as well as the more technical aspects of performance management and conceptual notions of sustainability. At the beginning of each interview, I attempted to ground the dialogue in the interviewee's experience by inviting the interviewee to begin by describing his or her professional role. The order of questions was organic and determined by the flow of conversation. Each main question was open-ended, to provide no restriction on the content or manner of the reply other than on the subject area. Please see Appendix C for the interview questionnaire. 2.73 INTERVIEWEE SELECTION. In order to triangulate the data and obtain a diversity of perspectives from each municipality, this study sought to obtain three people from each municipality to speak to the research problems. More than one perspective was sought in order to balance one subjective view with the others and look for instances of Habermasian "intersubjective awareness." The selection method employed was dimensional (141 Robson 1993), where the various dimensions - in this case practitioner role - were incorporated into the sampling procedure so that at least one representative of every role was included in this study. I deemed that the practitioner roles most germane to this study were those directly involved with designing management systems, coordinating aspects of what I term sustainability performance management, or implementing what I term performance tools. These roles included managers of purchasing or materials management, building, environmental or sustainability coordination, or corporate administration. Regional and municipal organizational charts gave some indication of how intellectual capital and responsibility was located in the organization, but some trial and error and internal referral was necessary to find a representative sample of perspectives. Formal structures were found to differ slightly among municipalities, as well as the location of informal expertise. I developed several criteria to guide my selection of interviewees: I recognized the selected individuals from environmentally responsible purchasing and/or building polices and environmental/sustainability reports produced by that municipality; I examined web-based organizational charts to identify potential interviewees based on their roles and responsibilities within each municipality in purchasing, building, and environmental management; 66

In some cases, I asked personal contacts to recommend potential interviewees. At the end of each interview, I asked the interviewee if any other colleague(s)' roles would be relevant to this study (particularly if information gaps were identified over the course of the interview); and, I received formal consent and willingness to participate in this study. 64 Prospective participants meeting the fourth criteria and at least one other of these criteria were tabulated into a list and a shortlist was made of possible contacts. At the outset, a range of possible contacts were identified to ensure that enough people would participate in this study if the first choice contact was unavailable or unwilling to participate. I established a working rule to call a short-listed prospective interviewee three times; if the call or email still remained unanswered after the third call, the person was removed from the list as unavailable to participate. In total, I contacted and invited twenty individuals to participate in this study. Of these twenty, I interviewed twelve. Due to lack of availability, not all formal roles were represented in each municipality. In the Greater Vancouver Regional District sample, purchasing, environmental management, and corporate administration were represented; in the City of Vancouver, purchasing, planning, and environmental management were represented; in the City of Richmond, buildings and environmental management were represented, but not purchasing; and, finally, in the City Of Burnaby, purchasing and environmental management were represented. Eleven interviews were conducted in-person and one interview was conducted by telephone. The latter was selected as a practical solution to data collection timelines and geographic constraints. With the exception of the telephone interview, all interviews were taped after approval was received from the interviewee. I selected the in-person approach in order to better personalize the subject matter, build better rapport with the interviewee, and observe communication tone and style more closely in service of gaining more accurate insights into the second implicit research problem on communicating about progress toward sustainability. In-person interviews were held at in or near the local or regional government offices of the interviewees. In three instances, interviews were conducted at restaurants in the vicinity of the local government headquarters, at the choice of the interviewee. Each participant was asked for thirty minutes of their time; however, in practice, interviews ranged from thirty minutes to one and a half hours. 2.74 EVALUATION METHOD I: SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS & RESEARCHER REFLECTIONS. This study makes no attempt to evaluate the substantive effectiveness of each organization's programs and policies (i.e. the total number of tonnes of greenhouse gases produced per year); rather, the 64 All interviewees signed the University of British Columbia Research Ethics Board's formal Consent Form. 67

emphasis is on using specific criteria (see Appendix D) to evaluate the extent and degree of effectiveness of each organization's sustainability performance management system (SPMS) in service of corporate ecological responsibility. Analysis of information in each case organization was shaped by the semiotic tradition. Semiotics is concerned with interpreting subjective and experiential meanings as they are expressed in written and verbal discourse. Two basic forms were employed in this study: (a) content analysis, and (b) discourse analysis. Content analysis is concerned with the discovery of regularities in the primary data (Krippendorf 1980 cited in 273 Robson 1993). In this study, I searched for structures and patterns in the text and made inferences about meaning and significance on the basis of these regularities. Discourse analysis is concerned with the characteristics of language and focuses on how statements represent a particular kind of knowledge about a topic (Hall cited in 287 Robson 1993). In particular, I focused on the narrative discourse of practitioner-interviewees. A narrative, or story, is a "verbal expression...that narrate[s] the unfolding of events over some passage of time and in some particular location. Stories use language to frame what has happened to a set of characters in a particular time and place (Miriam Webster 2004)." Through content and discourse aspects of semiotic analysis, in combination with researcher reflections and observations, I was able to discern essential meanings and conceptual categories from the primary data. As has been already noted, these categories were used to revise and modify the original conceptual framework guiding the research. 2.75 EVALUATION METHOD II: SCORING TOOL. With the shaping and categorization of information related to sustainability efforts in the regional and local government case studies complete, I required a further evaluation tool to (a) draw conclusions on relative individual and comparative effectiveness within and between case units; and (b) shed insight on how these organizations can improve their existing efforts; and, (c) demonstrate the practical value of the model. To serve these purposes, I developed a scoring system on the basis of the principles, components, and organizational conditions of the Sustainability Performance Management System model. The scoring system is designed to take a qualitative measure of the independent effectiveness of each of the four components of a SPMS according to the five sustainability principles described in Part I. In review, the four components of a SPMS are (1) the management framework; (2) performance tools; (3) an information system; and (4) reporting. While anticipated initiatives are discussed as part of the case descriptions, the scoring system only takes into account initiatives that the local government already completed or are actively in progress. Components of a SPMS were given different relative weight. For details, see Appendix D. Two additional parameters were included in a measure of overall effectiveness 68

of the system, namely the cohesion between system components and organizational capacity. In reality, capacity is a complex concept that could encompass a wide range of interrelated factors, from legislated jurisdiction to revenue base and program budgets to the number and training of employees, to name only a few. However, in the case assessment component of this study, I take a simple focus on the number of full time employees tasked specifically with sustainability/environment coordination or management and their authoritative position in the formal organizational structure and the number of departmental managers with material responsibility for DSM and SSM that fit the profile of ecological citizens or champions. I applied scores for system cohesion and organizational capacity as more general measures without any specific criteria. Organizational culture is dealt with separately as a measure of system effectiveness rather than a component of a SPMS system. Finally, an overall rating is given for each case organization. It should be noted that the rating of organizations is specific to their management systems and should not be interpreted as a measure of corporate ecological responsibility; on the contrary, managing performance is only one aspect of corporate responsibility. For all ratings, I allowed a measurement specificity of integers only (no decimal places). I attained the overall score for system effectiveness by converting the sum of all points into a percentage value and then giving the value a rating of minimal (0-20%), weak (21-39%), medium (40-59%), strong (60-79%), or optimal (80-100%). The five sustainability principles in short form are managing for (1) performance, (2) people (engagement and collaboration), (3) reward and value, (4) integration, and (5) adaptation. The scoring system also measures the degree of emphasis on each individual SPM principle. I used a simple weighting system to convey that some principles had a greater degree of importance to the effectiveness of certain components of the system than others. For further details, see Appendix D. It should be noted that consideration of a broader range of performance tools in the scope of research, or different performance tools, could yield different ratings for the case organizations. The scoring system uses numerical values from one to five to assign a rating to each parameter. While numerical values are used, the scoring system is essentially qualitative in nature. A series of criteria were developed to score the degree of adoption of each of the five sustainability principles in various components of the management system (framework, tools, information system, and reporting). On the basis of my review of the literature, I consider the principles of performance, and people the highest priority and accordingly gave them the most weighting in the scoring system. Given the subjective and qualitative nature of the ranking system, I considered basic averaging and generic estimation sufficient for the purposes of the evaluation. It should be noted that a more statistically sophisticated scoring system might produce different results but was not within the scope or capacity of the present study. 69

2.8 LIMITATIONS ON CONCLUSIONS. To optimize credibility, I attended to high standards of accuracy, reliability, and validity within the assumptions and expectations of interpretive research. Interpretive research does not predefine dependent and independent variables, but focuses on the full complexity of human sense making as a situation emerges (Kaplan and Maxwell 1994 cited in Myers 2004). The interpretive theoretical model acknowledges that errors and biases are inherent in the process and are unavoidable to some degree; as a result, the approach is explicit about assumptions and limitations, without striving to design the research to eliminate them. Validity holds that the description of data should be open and unbiased, the assumptions identified and articulated, and a logical argument pieced together (67 Robson 1993). Validity asks the questions: are the findings really about what they appear to be about? The two major types of validity are internal and external validity. Internal validity is concerned with determinations of cause and effect, whether A causes B, or B causes A. External validity refers to a study's claim to generalizability, or the extent to which the findings of the enquiry are more generally applicable, for example, in other contexts, situations, or times, or to persons other than those directly involved (66 Robson 1993). Since this study involves multiple case studies and makes comparisons between them, generalizability is a critical issue. The case studies must be viewed in their own right, not as samples from a population (5 Robson 1993); in other words, this study claims theoretical or analytical, rather than literal or statistical, replication across cases (379 Robson 1993). I argue that conclusions drawn from the research analysis and evaluation may be generalized to other member municipalities within the Greater Vancouver Regional District, to other regions in British Columbia, and to a more limited extent other regional jurisdictions in Canada. The subject matter is universal enough and the regulatory and cultural context across the province and the nation is similar enough to justify this broad generalization. Reliability is the second essential test of research validity, the test of logic. A study cannot be valid if it is not reliable. Compromises of reliability may arise from the subject, in this case the interviewees, or from the researcher (object). Subject error occurs when the subject's performance is subject to random factors, and subject bias occurs when the subject is motivated to perform in certain ways rather than performing from a condition of neutrality. Observer error occurs when the observer's performance/ability is subject to random factors, and observer bias occurs when the conscious or unconscious ideologies, preferences, perspectives, and viewpoints of the observer affect the participants in a study. Observer error leads to additional limitations that were recognized and dealt with consciously in the research process: limitations on the amount of data that could be gathered and analyzed; a tendency to attend to information on the basis of its availability; a tendency to devalue incomplete information; a tendency to ignore information conflicting with hypotheses already held, and 70

to emphasize information that confirms them; a tendency to strive for internal consistency and a tendency to discount the novel and unusual; a tendency to ignore the fact that some sources are more reliable than others (uneven reliability); a tendency to over or under-react to new information; a tendency to place excessive confidence in one's judgment when once it is made; and, finally, a tendency to interpret or conflate co-occurrence as correlation (Sadler 1981 cited in Myers 2004). In this study I took responsible steps wherever possible to minimize error and bias, and guard against "specious certainty" (290 Robson 1993) but cannot claim that these factors were eliminated completely. I employed a triangulation strategy as a system of checks and balances to optimize validity and reliability." Triangulation garners various accounts of participants with different roles and combines them with the researcher's own perceptions and understandings to culminate in an agreed and negotiated account (74 Allmendinger 2002). This satisfies the interpretive theoretical understanding of objectivity as "intersubjective agreement" (74 Allmendinger 2002). In this study, I balanced one subjective view with at least two other views in the same organization; moreover, subjective information was further balanced with more empirical data where appropriate. Attitudinal subjective information, such as risk orientation, is not appropriate for triangulation. It must be emphasized, then, that this study contains the risk attitudes and stories of only three individuals in each organization, and the attitudes of these individuals should not be taken to reflect the overall risk orientation of the respective organization. At best, this study presents "a well written case study report with a clear analytical framework [that] holds promise for making contact with the more implicit and informal understandings held by readers who are able to see parallels with the situation in which they work or otherwise have knowledge about (73 Allmendinger 2002)." Ultimately, the rigor of the research process is intended to serve the purpose of research: to provide a model or "road map" for peer municipalities and regional governments to develop a strategic, systemic, and sensitive sustainability performance management approach to reducing consumption of materials and energy. 65 The term triangulation was originally taken from surveying practice and redefined as a research method for "finding out where something is by getting a 'fix' on it from two or more places" (290 Robson 1993). 71

Part III Presentation of Case Assessments of One District and Three Cities in Greater Vancouver 3.1 INTRODUCTION. I undertook the case research to investigate whether the Greater Vancouver Regional District and the cities of Vancouver, Richmond, and Burnaby have effective management systems in place to organize and track corporate performance on ecological sustainability milestones. To that end, I assessed each case institution or organization according to my model of a Sustainability Performance Management System and gave each a relative rating of effectiveness compared to the model. This rating facilitates a comparative analysis and discussion of the four cases studied in the following Part. Collectively, the case research demonstrates that a suite of what I term sustainability performance management activities have been implemented in these institutions. To date, however, none of the institutions subscribes to a systematic management strategy for sustainability. Only one of the institutions actively subscribes to an environmental management system (EMS). Although a vital culture of sustainability championship is evident among the practitioners interviewed, the concept remains poorly understood and the management strategies employed in its service, scattered. Furthermore, the case studies reveal that despite each institution's existing management infrastructure, very few of the practitioners interviewed are able to make connections between their departmental initiatives and the overall management system. Rather, most practitioners interviewed grapple independently with the challenge of using the sustainability principles identified in this model, and others, within their business practices. Finally, each of the study organizations has taken a unique approach to what I term sustainability performance management with different strengths and weaknesses, suggesting that each institution has much to learn from its peers in this study. This Part presents the case studies according to the components, principles, and organizational conditions of the Sustainability Performance Management model for analytical simplicity; however, it should be kept in mind that this conceptual framework is mine and not the framework in use by the case institution described. I present the findings from each case unit in the order of its relative rating from highest to lowest beginning with the City of Richmond, and followed by the Greater Vancouver Regional District, the City of Vancouver, and the City of Burnaby. 72

The City of Richmond 3.21 CULTURE OF ECOLOGICAL CITIZENSHIP. Richmond is widely known across the region and even nationally as an environmental, if not a sustainability, leader (Knight 2004, pers. comm.; NRCAN 2003). Richmond takes corporate responsibility seriously, while instilling a sense of pride and fun in practitioners, who enthusiastically make individual contributions with a collective sense of purpose. The City's culture of ecological citizenship receives an optimal rating in this study. Richmond demonstrates a high degree of environmental citizenship in its approach to managing itself as a corporation, and ecological principles generally inform the discretionary decisions of departmental managers. While Vancouver has relied largely on detailed corporate plans to lead the corporation towards ecological sustainability, Richmond employs a handful of clear and simple messages and informal strategies to guide change, and has even produced a Statement of Environmental Culture (2002). The most memorable story told by a City of Richmond practitioner as part of the study interviews was a narrative about people and participation in sustainability management. The tale positions the City at the forefront of what I term sustainability performance management in the region. It also reveals the City's firm orientation towards performance, its emphasis on depth and breadth of practitioner engagement, and its value for adaptation. The story is set in the Facilities Maintenance department and told by the departmental manager: / took one of the guys here with me to a course on energy management. What the course did more than anything was to help us learn how to recognize opportunities. The message was: opportunitie are there, all you have to do is recognize them. After taking that course, I've made a point of invol stattin training opportunities and giving them different jobs to do. Right now I'm in the middle of a project to replace all of the incandescent light bulb in our City facilities with compact fluorescents an to replace failed EXIT lights with newer LED (Light-Emitting Diode) technology. LED EXIT lights bec available in 1995, and I went and changed over all our EXIT lights to LED at that time; I think we w the first municipality in BC to do that. Well, the first generation of the LED product wasn't perfect. Some of them failed. And because our stores didn't carry LED replacements, the replacements that went back in were incandescent. So I've taken a janitor away from his janitorial jobs and I've had h go out and do the audit of what incandescent lights and EXIT lights need replacing. Now he's seen what needs to be changed. I'm going to get him to go back and change all the lamps. So once he made all the changes, I'll show him what a difference these changes have made. He gets a comple picture. He will be able to see what a difference he's made. When you start doing that, people star think differently. These guys in my department have taken this notion of energy efficiency and run it. They're coming back to me and saying: "We should do this and we should do that. By all accounts, one of the most successful initiatives Richmond undertook to build a culture of ecological citizenship and performance was its City visioning process. The process was tied to the review of Richmond's Official Community Plan in 1997 (2 Rich. SOER 1998) and widely involved public citizens 73

and City practitioners. 66 Since then, the simple trio of vision, mission, and core values has been absorbed into daily operations and employee perspectives, serving as both an informal and formal anchor for organizational priorities, strategies, and actions. As Hogg declares, "We believe it...there's a lot of buying into this mission statement. I'm seeing this from the staff (2004, pers. comm.)." Naysmith concurs that "all of our departments are heading in the same direction...each department works to how it sees itself contributing to the overall vision (2004, pers. comm.)." The vision is "for the City of Richmond to be the most appealing, livable, and well-managed community in Canada (Richmond 2004)." 67 In turn, the mission is "to protect and enhance the City's livability and economic well-being for current and future generations through visionary leadership and responsible decision making; accountable and sustainable fiscal practice; the development of a unique and beautiful city; product and service excellence and efficiency; and community consultation (Richmond 2004)." Finally, a set of core values "govern the way the City makes decisions, how we interact with others, and how we conduct ourselves" (Richmond 2004): PEOPLE. The emphasis on people means involving the community, supporting and encouraging staff growth and development, and appreciating efforts and successes; EXCELLENCE. The emphasis on excellence means practicing continuous improvement in people, products, services, and accomplishments, and taking responsibility for ourselves and our work; LEADERSHIP. The emphasis on leadership means demonstrating honesty, integrity, and respect, communicating openly and promoting a visionary attitude at all levels; TEAM. The emphasis on team means encouraging the power of cooperation and concern for fellow staff members throughout the organization, building on strengths and collective knowledge, and focusing on a common goal; and, INNOVATION. The emphasis on innovation means challenging the status quo, assumptions, systems, and the way we do things, taking well-managed risks and unleashing creativity, and learning from others and from past experiences (Richmond 2004). Although the visioning process and its messaging products do not reference sustainability, they affirm a competitive drive for excellence within a culture that equates consideration of human impacts on the environment with excellence. Facilities Development Manager David Naysmith explains: 66 Each staff person interviewed in Richmond brought the city vision into their discussion of performance management. 67 The vision statement for the City of Richmond is meant to provide a clear image of where the organization is heading; in contrast, the mission statement defines the purpose of the organization (Richmond 2004). 74

When we're talking about being livable, environment comes into that equation. Anything I can do that would improve the environment would improve liveability and contribute towards our vision. The City also has a number of core values and we try to consider those values in what we do. So, when I'm looking at a green building...everything about a green building supports innovation, leadership, everything. So from that perspective, from our overall strategy, I'm in a no-lose position. I can go forward with a green building and I have all of this material, all of this supporting infrastructure behind me that says 'this is what we should be doing and it's going to cost us a little bit more, but it's exactly where we want to be'. Now we're building 2 V' century buildings that will, for future generations, prove to be assets as opposed to problems (2004, pers. comm.)." Richmond's competitive vision statement to be the most well-managed municipality in Canada imbues a healthy performance orientation without detracting from the positive influence and cooperation that Richmond demonstrates to its regional peers. Finally, Richmond's culture is earmarked by a "people first" attitude that is pervasive throughout the organization and its guiding documents. In particular, Hogg identifies that it is the core value of recognition, above all others, that "feeds people, feeds the fire" and has contributed to Richmond's legacy of success (2004, pers. comm.). 3.22 ORGANIZATIONAL CAPACITY. The City of Richmond demonstrates a conventional hierarchical structure that is headed by Council, corporate administration and subdivided into functional departments, divisions, and sections. Approval by Council is the fundamental measure of what is considered credible and accepted in the organization. Environmental Coordinator Elliott observes that Council's approval of performance tools such as the Green Purchasing Guide encourages more hesitant individuals towards ecological citizenship (2004, pers. comm.). Richmond earns a strong rating for its organizational capacity despite the fact that its roster of approximately 1000 full time employees and 700 part time and auxiliary staff (102 Rich. SOER 2001) seems minimal in comparison to Vancouver. Through emphasis on nurturing extensive and enduring relationships with other governments and organizations, and by optimizing the effectiveness of its own human resources, Richmond is a very capable organization for its size. In Richmond, sustainability performance is driven by both the central coordinating unit, called the Emergency and Environmental Programs Department (EEPD), and by functional departmental managers. The EEPD is organized under the umbrella of Engineering & Public Works (Richmond 2004). In general, the EEPD is more concerned with coordinating components of Richmond's informal environmental management system, and functional managers are more concerned with creating and implementing performance tools. The EPD is very small, with only two staff positions that are largely tasked with assisting departmental managers with research and "seeding" new environmental initiatives by making persuasive presentations to key practitioners in the organization (Elliott 2004, pers. comm.). Both Corporate Programs Management Department and Engineering and Public Works are key players in Richmond's environmental performance management. The former oversees central Purchasing, 75

which secures materials, supplies, equipment, and services and manages construction contracts and consulting services. Major purchasing activities, such as the purchase of corporate facilities, are carried out in a collaborative process involving central Purchasing and departmental managers. Richmond has a stock of 145 city-owned buildings, which amounts to about 1.5 million square feet with a replacement value of over $200 million (Naysmith 2004, pers. comm.). 68 The EPD serves as an auxiliary collaborator in providing purchasing teams with voluntary environmental guidelines for prospective contractors. In turn, Engineering staff were consulted in the preparation process for environmental purchasing guidelines in the form of a one-day seminar (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.). Engineering and Public Works oversees the Engineering Department, which in turn manages two divisions: the Facility Operations and Maintenance division, and the Facility Planning and Construction division (Richmond 2004). The former is mainly focused on maintaining and retrofitting existing facilities, while the latter is focused on planning new facilities, replacing the components of existing buildings over the facility life cycle (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.; Naysmith 2004, pers. comm.). For a detailed chart of the organizational structure, see Appendix E. The organizational way of working is defined by a management structure formally sanctioned by Council and a voluntary style of collaboration among departmental managers and the EEPD. Departmental managers David Naysmith and Phil Hogg appreciate the flexibility of their discretion over degree of adoption of environmental considerations (2004 pers. comm.). The EEPD is recognized as an agent of advocacy and influence rather than authority or enforcement (Naysmith 2004, pers. comm.). Moreover, the corporate wide tools it may suggest are voluntary rather than prescriptive; as Elliott reflects, "if it were any other way, it would become a joke (2004, pers. comm.)." Naysmith views the organization as anchored in a common purpose but sees room for improvement in interdepartmental collaboration: "communications between the departments and the strategies they are working on doesn't necessarily trickle down. What I will say is that all of our departments are heading in the same direction...everything we do we believe contributes to our city vision (2004, pers. comm.)." His colleague Hogg reveals a more optimistic perspective, noting that he and interdepartmental staff "cross paths quite often. Just because I work in Facilities doesn't mean that I don't wander a bit because where-ever I see an area I can lend some expertise I'll go there and do that...i'll say have you thought about doing this or doing that. It's very well received...and I get calls from [staff members] and they discuss initiatives they're doing and we talk (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.)." 3.23 SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT. The City of Richmond's sustainability efforts rates highest of all the case organizations when assessed against the SPMS model proposed in Part I of this study. Richmond receives an overall rating of strong. While Richmond has not been anxious to adopt sustainability language, its work under the rubric of the This number is higher if small substations are included (Naysmith 2004, pers. comm.). 76

environment relates directly to ecological sustainability priorities and has shown a very high standard of excellence and thoroughness. Richmond earns a strong rating on its framework and performance tools, a medium rating on its information system, and a strong rating for reporting. Richmond has custom designed measurable indicators to guide its sustainability efforts in the community and to a lesser extent, as a corporation. The latter two components received a slightly lower score due to the fact that they were characterized by less practitioner collaboration, less depth and breadth of engagement, and less integration of information than other components. With Richmond's development of an informal environmental management system (Elliott 2004, pers. comm.), all components of what I term a SPMS are integrated optimally. This study rates Richmond's sustainability efforts optimal on adaptation, strong on integration, people, and reward and value, and medium on performance. The following chart summarizes sustainability performance management in Richmond: RICHMOND PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT COMPONENT EST. DESCRIPTION MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK 1997-1998; 2002 PERFORMANCE"TOOLS; 2000 1998 2003 City Vision, Mission, & Core Values (from OCP Review) Environmental Management Strategy Employee Training: Associated with Green Purchasing Guide City Visioning Conservation Challenge Purchasing Policies: 2000 2000 Environmental Purchasing Policy Green Purchasing Guide Other Policies & Bylaws: 1991 2005? Energy Conservation Policy Green Buildings Policy Retrofit/Construction Projects: 1997+ 1995 2000 Power Smart retrofits Thompson Community Center LEED City Hall INFORMAIION SYSUM 2001 Partners for Climate Protection REPORTINC. 1998 2001 State of the Environment State of the Environment Update Figure 111-1 Sustainability Performance Management in Richmond 77

Richmond has the opportunity to build on its sustainability performance management in two major areas. The first is to define and further shape its environmental protection work in terms of ecological sustainability. The second is to improve on the integration of information, by integrating indicators and incorporating narrative in its reporting and communications, and generally adding a more participatory aspect to the existing technocratic focus that characterizes the work of the Emergency and Environmental Programs Department. 3.231 MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK. The City of Richmond is the sole organization in this study with an active performance management framework and system. This framework receives an optimal rating in this study. This Environmental Management Strategy (EMS) framework was developed by a core team of staff in March 2002, and though not formally adopted by Council, it provides a strong working framework for staff. 69 The EMS is also infused by the performance oriented suite of vision, mission, and core values for the City. Like Vancouver, Richmond's drive toward environmental management was catalyzed by the amalgamation of the City's former Environmental Health Department (EHD) with the Regional Health Board. In 1999, a City Environmental Coordination Committee was struck to conduct an environmental services review and found that, without its former EHD, "the City's approach to environmental issues had become uncoordinated, responsibilities were not clearly defined, and an overall sense of priority and direction with respect to environmental issues was lacking (2 Richmond Report 2002)." An interdepartmental staff committee in collaboration with the City's Environmental Coordination Committee and Council's Advisory Committee on the Environment (ACE) developed the EMS and its guiding framework. 70 Richmond considered striking a multidisciplinary steering committee (2 Richmond Report 2002) to steward its implementation and performance over time; however, the Emergency and Environmental Programs Department (EEPD) stepped into this role. The EEPD was charged with ensuring that the framework and system was responsive to change, for example, to new information, changes in community values or priorities, new legislation, evolving concepts, and performance results (2 Richmond Report 2002). To assist in the development of the EMS framework, environmental management plans and strategies from other jurisdictions were reviewed (2 Richmond Report 2002) and shaped into a format suitable for Richmond. 7 ' The framework development process was made relatively cost-effective in that it combined 69 Before developing its EMS, Richmond dealt with environmental issues under its Strategic Management Plan that included the objective to "develop principles and standards for City capital projects that ensure safety, conservation, environmental consideration and sustainability" (4 Richmond Report 2000). 70 Richmond's Advisory Committee on the Environment supported the proposed framework (3 Richmond Report 2002). 71 Other jurisdictions included in the review were the Vancouver Airport, City of Toronto, City of Seattle, and the City of Scottsdale, among others (3 Richmond Report 2000). The EMS was originally envisioned as coordinating city initiatives according to their relationship to specific environmental issue areas (water, air, land, vegetation and 78

a portion of the Emergency and Environmental Programs Department budget with a $35k provincial government Green Communities Initiative grant (3 Richmond Report 2002). Naysmith believes that the EMS is synchronized with the visioning process and as such provides a meaningful and coherent anchor and foundation for his managerial decision-making (2004, pers. comm.). The framework amounts to a strategic action plan and a coordinating mechanism for otherwise disparate departmental projects; in other words, the framework does not add new initiatives but rather packages existing initiatives into five strategic areas. These areas, illustrated in Figure 111-2, include managing effectively, developing green, protecting natural resources, greening corporate practices, and engaging the community. [...over//] wildlife, and energy) (2 Richmond Report 2001), but was eventually organized by management function: (a) Environmental Vision and Goals; (b) Assessment of Current Situation; and, (c) Action Plan and Recommendations. The final section includes discussion of objectives, targets, and benchmarks, priority ranking, resource requirements, and expected results. 79

Figure 111-2 Richmond's Environmental Management Strategy The framework provides individual practitioners with the support and credibility required for rewardfocused innovation. As Naysmith observes, "although I don't refer to it every day, I'm aware that it's there. The framework expresses Council's highest priorities...financial sustainability and environmental sustainability (2004, pers. comm.)." Importantly, the principle of adaptation is embedded in the framework (Richmond Report 2002). Other principles are explicitly suggested but not prescribed in the framework: integration of social, economic, and environmental considerations in decision-making, the precautionary principle, the principle of adaptive management, ecosystem-based management, transparent and accountable management, and community engagement (Richmond Report 2002). The EMS framework outlines a mechanism for its annual review (3 Richmond Report 2002), but to date no changes have been considered necessary (Elliott 2004, pers. comm.). Importantly, to ensure that 80

Richmond's EMS framework was meaningfully implemented, it was ground into detailed workplans that were opened up to ACE and the broader community for review. Despite the fact that Richmond has not yet defined and shaped its environmental protection work in terms of ecological sustainability, its approach to devising a performance management system is optimal. 3.232 PERFORMANCE TOOLS. This study also gives Richmond a strong rating for its performance tools. Though the City's toolbox is not expansive in size, each one of its tools has been well-chosen and designed and used with thoroughness, creativity, and precision. As an overview, Richmond has an energy conservation policy responsible for a comprehensive retrofit program that has allowed Richmond to almost completely replace old, inefficient technology in all facilities. The City has also been most comprehensive in its approach to ecologically responsible purchasing, taking the initiative to bolster its environmental purchasing policy with a detailed Green Purchasing Guide in collaboration with the GVRD. Richmond was proactive in experimenting with ecologically responsible innovative technologies and the LEED system for buildings, and is now poised to adopt a comprehensive green buildings policy for most new corporate facilities. In 2004, Richmond held a corporate Conservation Challenge initiative to involve and engage practitioners in energy conservation with support from BC Hydro and the GVRD. The objective of the 24 week Challenge was to promote energy and water conservation primarily for Richmond City employees, but was also open to Richmond citizens. Hogg observes that the purpose of the Challenge was "not just so that staff can make a difference at work, it's so that they can take the stuff home with them (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.)." The Challenge kicked off with a barbeque at Richmond City Hall in October 2004. Hydro staffed a variety of booths at the event to showcase different Power Smart initiatives. Over seven hundred participants were given a specific set of challenges: (a) install the 365,000 compact fluorescent light bulbs donated at the event; (b) turn in 8,000 old fridges; (c) reduce water use by 5% over the same period last year; and, (d) leave personal vehicles at home one day a week and take alternative transportation (52 GVRD SR 2003). Following the Challenge, BC Hydro also sponsored training programs for Richmond facility staff in energy awareness (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.). 3.2321 ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE PURCHASING. Richmond experimented with ad-hoc ecologically responsible purchasing throughout the 1990s (Richmond Report 2000), and in 2000 adopted its formal policy, a companion Green Purchasing Guide, and an implementation training program for corporate and departmental staff. The City initiated the project as part of its planned environmental management system as a cost-effective way to demonstrate 81

corporate responsibility (Richmond Report 2000; Rich. SOER 2001). 72 Ecological purchasing is defined more broadly than DSM and SSM as a practice of "selecting those goods and services which promote a healthier community and environment (1 Richmond GPG 2000)." DSM and SSM considerations are implicitly considered in the more specific definition of ecologically preferred goods as those "that are more responsible to the environment in the way that they are made, used, transported, stored and packaged and disposed of (4 Richmond Report 2000)." The Guide generally covers the scope of corporate purchasing, from janitorial products, to vehicles and maintenance, to furniture, office equipment, and supplies (GPG 2000). The Guide discusses energy efficient lighting and lighting systems; general building maintenance (roofing, walls, insulating, landscaping etcetera), and construction, renovation, and demolition independently but does not encompass new ecologically responsible building. The Guide is voluntary, referencing, but not requiring certification of environmentally preferential products. Most importantly, the Guide suggests a set of principles to guide all purchasing activity. 73 There has been no formal evaluation of the Guide and its influence by the GVRD or Richmond to date, though it was recognized with an Environmental Award from the Canadian Association of Municipal Administrators' US Filter awards program for excellence in municipal administration (NRCAN 2003). Updates to the Guide are expected to be undertaken soon, but will likely only involve small technical amendments to reflect changes in certification programs such as Energy Star, given that this label is now in use in Canada (Elliott 2004, pers. comm.). Since producing the guide, Richmond has prepared a statement of Environmental Terms and Conditions of Contract (ETCC) to include with all major Requests for Tender and Requests for Proposal. The statement suggests the Green Purchasing Guide as a resource for prospective contractors and suppliers. It is supplemented with a voluntary Bidders' Environmental Questionnaire for prospective suppliers. This document's eighteen questions relate to life cycle analysis, packaging, and the environmental attributes of the company (ETCC 2001). These form the basis for eight evaluation criteria which "are deemed to be of equal value and will amount to 10% of the total Bid Evaluation Process (ETCC 2001)." While Richmond has not yet followed Vancouver's lead in prescriptively managing its supply chain, the City's ETCC emphasizes priority placed on suppliers who have an environmental policy statement approved at the executive level and implemented across the company or who have pursued environmental certification such as ISO 14001 (ETCC 2001). Both Elliott and Naysmith report that the ETCC is in practice more of an assessment tool to take stock of the ecological performance of a product rather than 72 This referred to Richmond's Strategic Management Plan and the Energy Conservation Policy (4 Richmond Report 2000). Richmond approached the GVRD to produce a technical and practical guide for purchasing ecologically preferred products and in 2000 the Green Purchasing Guide was completed as a collaborative effort. 73 Readers are encouraged to: "reduce consumption-buy only what you need; give preference to products that are durable, re-useable and/or contain maximum recycled content; give preference to products that are energy efficient; give preference to products that reduce or eliminate toxicity and minimize emissions to air and water; and, finally, adopt a life-cycle perspective-consider costs and environmental impacts over the lifetime of a product from how the product is produced, packaged, transported, maintained, re-used and disposed of (14-15 GPG 2000). 82

a decision-making tool. According to Elliott, the questionnaire and specification sheet have had a very limited impact to date; she notes that "only one in a hundred bidders fill it out, most don't know how to answer the questions (2004, pers. comm.). Naysmith observes that lowest cost is still the rule of thumb in decision-making, although he anticipates that "as the program grows, as people get more familiar with it...as we get more comfortable and more familiar, and more green products come on the marketplace, we can start specifying those and [applying] stronger weighting based on environmental superiority (2004, pers. comm.)." 3.2322 ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE BUILDINGS. Richmond's achievements in applying ecological principles to its corporate facility design, planning, and purchasing can be categorized into two realms of activity: retrofit projects, and new building policies and projects. Although it was a pioneer in green building in the region, Richmond's emphasis to date has been on extensive energy and water conservation-focused retrofits of existing facilities, mainly through BC Hydro's Power Smart program. The introduction of an Energy Conservation Policy (1991) for the corporation marks the beginning of Richmond's journey along the trajectory of corporate ecological responsibility. The Policy commits the City to the efficient use of energy in the planning and operating of all its facilities. It requires that life cycle costs be considered and that high efficiency products and systems be preferred when making purchasing decisions (NRCAN 2003; 1 Richmond Report 1991). The policy is based on the cost recovery premise that retrofits will pay for their premium costs over the usable life of the technology. While the policy commits the corporation to technological upgrades and equipment maintenance and repair, there is an equivalent emphasis on staff decision-making, continuous education, and conservation behavior. The policy progressively builds participation and performance into its language, encouraging "all employees to suggest and initiate projects that will save energy...and monitor energy consumption...[and] performance (1 Richmond Report 1991)." Over the past decade and a half, the flexible language of the policy has allowed it to adapt to changing energy efficiency standards and remain current. In Hogg's words, "I don't think there is an area in the City that isn't looking to be more efficient (2004, pers. comm.)." While Richmond began experimenting with energy efficiency retrofits even before it participated in Power Smart or adopted its environmental management strategy (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.), BC Hydro has been a key partners in Richmond's success in achieving several generations of retrofits. Naysmith observes that in 1997, Power Smart became the City's first performance-based program (2004, pers. comm.). As part of the program, BC Hydro performed an energy audit on the City between 1997 and 2002 and found that it had reduced energy consumption (electricity usage per square foot) by 33%, largely as a result of a cost saving strategy to redistribute resources to other capital projects (2004, pers. 83

comm.). In fact, the corporation saved $500k on average in annual electricity costs (BC Hydro 2005). During this period, Richmond implemented lighting retrofits, redesigned lighting in parkades, and installed direct digital controls at various City facilities to control heating, ventilation and air conditioning. 74 In 2003, Richmond was designated the first Power Smart certified municipality and in fulfillment of this role has taken on another performance contract to reduce energy consumption by 15% over the next four years (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.)through Power Smart, Richmond has advanced solutions that emphasize responsibility, participation, and collaboration as well as technology. Hogg is conscious of the fact that Richmond's primary relationship with BC Hydro has driven its priority focus on electricity-related energy efficiency initiatives, and that other forms of energy used by the City have received less attention. 76 Cost has been a major driver, since funding relationships and the business case for potential savings, rather than strict sustainability performance results, have been the major factor in setting directions for action. A further implication is that tracking and monitoring systems for electricity are far more advanced in Richmond than for natural gas and other fuel sources. 77 Richmond has received financial and technical support from other sources, which further influence the nature and goals of energy efficiency initiatives. The GVRD assisted Richmond with investigating the feasibility of introducing solar heating technology to three municipal pools: two indoor pools in the Minoru Aquatic Complex and one indoor pool at Watermania. 78 The GVRD has indicated that it will provide continued financial assistance for the installation of solar heating at Watermania (4 GVRD NR 2004). ' 4 Hogg is particularly enthusiastic about the energy savings potential of newer computerized technology such as direct digital control, occupancy sensors, and an energy management system program that allows staff to track energy use patterns (BC Hydro 2005). A sophisticated mechanism to program heating for specific user time slots in five major community facilities enjoyed special recognition from BC Hydro (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.). The City of Richmond has acquired the Bookit software system that is programmed to link with direct digital controls for heating, ventilating, and cooling equipment. The software tracks bookings for facility space, thus avoiding energy waste when buildings are not being used. 75 The Power Smart distinction has only been given to five organizations in British Columbia and according to BC Hydro "is reserved for organizations who show exceptional leadership in energy efficiency within their industries" (BC Hydro 2005). Fulfillment of the contract will enable Richmond to rank among the top 10% of municipalities in Canada for energy efficiency (NRCAN 2003; BC Hydro 2005). To accomplish these targets, Richmond plans to recommission older buildings, purchase low-power-consumption flat-screen computer monitors for City staff, install energy efficient controls on vending machines in City facilities, launch an energy awareness campaign for employees, and further upgrade equipment and lighting to save an additional $40k per year (NRCAN 2003; BC Hydro 2005). 76 Natural gas is an important example. Natural gas reduction initiatives at Richmond are largely focused on regular preventative equipment maintenance and servicing on all equipment to ensure maximum performance, with major inspections twice a year, once for the heating season and once for the cooling season (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.). " Hogg notes that in several facilities, natural gas use and electricity use are related such that efficiency measure for electricity concurrently reduce consumption in natural gas (2004, pers. comm.). 78 The GVRD initiated an assessment of a variety of municipal pools around the region to investigate whether a business case and technical feasibility could be determined for using renewable solar energy as a heat source to complement conventional heating for pool facilities, among other efficiency upgrades. Three of Richmond's municipal pools, namely two indoor pools in the Minoru Aquatic Complex and one indoor pool at Watermania, were included in the GVRD's study (GVRD RFP 2002). 84

Finally, waste reduction is another goal of the Facilities Maintenance department, particularly with regard to the reuse and recycling of construction and demolition waste. Hogg notes that "the City buys a lot of homes for different reasons." And then when we go to demolish the homes we want somebody to recycle the stuff. We try to reuse some of the stuff...why buy new plywood? (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.). He notes that sorting and recovery of waste is considerably more expensive than conventional demolition but is something that the City is committed to doing on principle. At the time of writing, Richmond was in the process of six deconstruction projects (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.). The City of Richmond first experimented with green features in its Thompson Community Center 80 (1995) and piloted the use of LEED for corporate facilities in the region with its City Hall 8 ' (2000). Two additional buildings are in the design phase, a Community Safety Headquarters and Firehall, and both contemplate LEED certification for the completed project. Naysmith characterizes the Community Center project as a "haphazard" use of innovative technology that did not adequately allow for premium costs and a total quality project, nor application and refinement over time in other corporate facilities. As an innovative pilot, the project did not enjoy an entirely smooth process of design, construction, and post-completion functionality. Naysmith frankly acknowledges that the project was managed in such a way that the choice of geothermal technology necessitated the "sacrifice of a number of other areas of building quality...and the quality of the finished product (2004, pers. comm.)." The gymnasium floor was a case in point; Naysmith relates that "the gymnasium floor was lowered in standard in order to make the cost allocations a little more flexible and now we're in a position where we have to replace the gym floor (2004, pers. comm.)." As far as Naysmith is aware, no study has been done to determine the extent of energy savings and associated costs realized by the geothermal technology, in comparison to a traditional gas-fired boiler installation. Learning from this experience, he has become an advocate for a more systematic and consistent approach. 79 Many homes are purchased by the City to acquire land for parkland or roads, to name only two examples. The homes are typically maintained until enough property is acquired to put the City's capital project in place (Hogg 2004, pers. comm.). 80 The Thompson Community Center (1995) was constructed as a 21,291 square foot replacement building on an 8.1 acre site. The Center uses geothermal heating technology; in fact, according to Naysmith, the Center was "one of the first buildings in the Lower Mainland, if not the first, that used geothermal heat" (2004, pers. comm.). 81 In May 2000, the City of Richmond completed its new 11,150 m2 City Hall project, which was certified LEED. City Hall is a complex comprised of four buildings, a west terrace, meeting house, galleria, and tower. The complex's sustainability strategy is mainly focused on energy efficiency but also encompasses water and materials efficiency strategies, waste reduction, and extensive landscaping that includes water gardens (GBBC 2005). The project received some funding assistance to alleviate the increased capital costs. In total, the project came in at almost $31 million. However, the efficiency strategies built into the project were expected to result in about $33k savings per year (GBBC 2005). City Hall as enjoyed numerous delegations and accolades since opening (2 Draft Richmond Report 2004), including the Governor General Medal for Architecture and the Lieutenant-Governor General of BC Award (Richmond 2004). 85

In 2004, Naysmith drafted a Sustainable 'Green' Building Policy for City owned Facilities, a systemic corporate green buildings policy similar to the one recently adopted by the City of Vancouver. 82 The municipality is developing a green buildings policy similar to the one developed by the City of Vancouver but with a target of LEED Silver for all new civic facilities over 500 square meters. The draft policy is consciously intended to serve the goals of the environmental management strategy, as well as the city vision and the City's objectives for the upcoming 2010 Olympics (Naysmith 2004, pers. comm.; 2 Draft Richmond Report 2004). Naysmith views LEED as a performance standard able to measure the degree of success that will make implementation of the policy effective and ultimately "the continued improvement by which to achieve our ultimate vision for the City (2 Draft Richmond Report 2004)." He has formed a Task Force in the City with the Environmental Management Department and Planning on board, as well as "a few of the other people from departments I generally work with" in order to discuss and obtain feedback on the draft policy. It is important to Naysmith that "when I go forward, it's not my report, it's more of a collective report" to Council (2004, pers. comm.). However, cost is an important concern for the corporation. Practitioners in Richmond closely scrutinize costs and admit that cost is the major consideration for purchases and projects. Hogg observes that "the General Manager wants to see an increased or increasing revenue stream and reduced costs, [which] drives continued program success (2004, pers. comm.). Naysmith reports that "what we try to do is look at projects from a financial perspective and then look at the environmental considerations secondarily (2004, pers. comm.)." He cites his work on the solar pool retrofit as an example, where the gains from energy savings are intended to be used to offset the capital cost of the retrofit project on a ten year payback and secondarily reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Hogg concurs, observing that "when you focus primarily on one area, you are actually fixing other areas as well: there's reduced energy consumption, there's reduced greenhouse gas emissions, there's client comfort because you're improving things for them (2004, pers. comm.)." Both practitioners make a practice of converting their cost savings, into a companion ecological measure, particularly where energy and emissions are concerned. Moreover, practitioners note that costs are assessed within a life cycle analysis framework. Hogg relates a story about one of his meetings with a committee of Council where he was selling the need for the inclusion of energy efficiency features in new buildings: "/ said, 'Here are the report cards of the projects we've done; here are the accurate annual savings date; here are the dollars and cents in grants I've received. And Council asked me, 'With our new buildings now, are we focused on introducing energy efficiency?'. And I said, 'Yes we are'. That ve Councilor had previously told me that when Council is making a decision on a new facility and they a 82 Naysmith cautions that the document is still a draft and that the City of Vancouver must be credited as permission was granted to copy aspects of their report (2004, pers. comm.). The draft generally contemplated that the City of Richmond should consider a requirement of LEED Silver with formal registration and certification through LEED BC and the CGBC for all new City owned or leased buildings greater than 500 square meters; and that the principles of sustainable green building design using LEED silver be applied to new City buildings smaller than 500 meters2 (3 Draft Richmond Report 2004). 86

looking at the capital budget, they're saying 'You can only have three millions dollars to spend on it, and that's it'. One of the first things that gets cut if the project is over budget is the energy part. If you're hard line on the three millions dollars the first thing that gets cut is the energy efficiency stuff that's in the building. So I said, 'We would be making a mistake by only talking about the capital cost of the building. We should be giving you the standard cost of construction and the standard cost of operating the building for ten years. We build a building and we keep it forever - so why don't we look at the forever picture? And that's what we have been doing. I can guarantee you that in ten years, the energy efficient building is going to be the cheaper of the two. And beyond that it's all money in the pocket'. So, the Councilor understood that" (2004, pers. comm.). Richmond was one of the earliest municipalities in the region to work with pilot projects for innovative technologies; however, the emphasis on the cost recovery led to problems in the past. As one important example, corners were cut to finance geothermal heating for the Thompson Community Center because the overall project budget was not expanded to allow for a cost premium for the building. Practitioners in Richmond learned from this example and built its LEED certified city hall half a decade later, although Naysmith acknowledges, "to be quite honest I think, when our environmental City Hall was constructed, our approach was rather unusual...it was built with a long term view (Naysmith 2004, pers. comm.). At the present time, in keeping with the cost recovery focus, practitioners look to the increasing favorability of market conditions to promote further initiatives. Naysmith observes that "more and more the market is producing environmental products...so as products become more and more effective and their prices start to drop as a result of mass producing, they become more attractive for organizations like ourselves to use (2004, pers. comm.)." Naysmith observes that the Facilities Planning Department in Richmond is at a critical juncture as far as financing green projects is concerned. He notes that "one of our issues at the moment is...in all of our buildings, 1.5 million square feet, we have about $27 million dollars of outstanding requirements of work, that we should...that we need to address (2004, pers. comm.). However, on the other hand, Richmond is preparing for a bold commitment to build new corporate facilities to a LEED Silver standard, which is estimated to involve an incremental cost of 2-5% (3 Draft Richmond Report 2004). The growing acceptance of a price premium for sustainable choices signals a move towards a reward and investment framework. Richmond staff are now working on two further LEED standard civic facility projects in the design phase: a Community Safety Headquarters Building (LEED Gold or Platinum) and a firehall (LEED standard TBA) (4 Draft Richmond Report 2004). Facilities Planning manager, David Naysmith, views these buildings as legacy facilities, and is careful to note that the legacy is both personal and organizational. Naysmith realistically reflects that "my contribution to the City's vision is to try to lead that whole building legacy...we've got $27 million of work we could do, if there was $27 million laying around, then we could upgrade every building and repair every building so that all of our buildings look as good and are 87

as up to date as City Hall. But the reality is, we don't have the funding and there's not sufficient money in the City's coffers to say 'here's 27 million dollars, go out and fix everything'. So what we try to do is to balance what makes sense, what we should fix, our priorities, and use some of that other money in order to progress to the next level so that we're not faced with the same problem twenty years down the road...that's our game plan (Naysmith 2004, pers. comm.). It should be noted that the City has not yet investigated ecologically responsible development at the neighborhood scale. In summary, the City of Richmond's sustainability performance tools are collectively rated optimal in effectiveness. The tools are directed toward DSM and SSM in service of sustainability and have been dynamically adapted and applied over time. In the field of electricity generation, DSM strategies are oriented to performance with specific and measurable targets. Richmond has the opportunity to further improve its performance by ensuring that tools extend to other key sectors of energy and material consumption. The responsibility focus and staff training have informally integrated subjective information into the use of performance tools. Richmond's emphasis on people and participation and integration is outstanding and readily reflected in the engaged and enthusiastic attitude of practitioners. 3.233 INFORMATION SYSTEM. This study rates the City of Richmond's information system medium in effectiveness. Like the other case organizations, Richmond does not indicate that it conceives of an information system separate from its two State of the Environment reports (1998; 2001). The information system follows the format for reporting, as a means of "synthesizing] baseline information on Richmond's environmental assets, identifying] the human pressures affecting those assets, and providing] a framework for measuring change (1 Rich. SOER 1998)." The information system is balanced in terms of objective and subjective information; it encompasses indicators, as well as ecological values from public Official Community Plan and city visioning processes (Richmond Report 2001). Indicators chosen to organize the information system's body of collated baseline data attain a high technical standard, have been shaped to the City context, and in some cases have been aligned with performance targets. Indicators were chosen for the report on the basis of their ability to measure change with reliable and available data, their direct relationship to Richmond's environmental priorities, their repeatability in future, and finally, their ability to communicate about how local programs affect the environment (SOER 1998). Moreover, indicators for each topic were rated according to public importance and the extent to which the City could reasonably influence the indicator. Eight topics, involving fourteen indicators, were selected by the City for the first 1998 report. The 2001 edition of the SOER builds upon the information presented in the first edition and provides eight additional indicators for a total of twenty-two (SOER 1998; SOER 2001). Richmond's corporate performance record for DSM 88

and SSM is largely encapsulated within the category of City Environmental Practices. 83 This category was not measured by indicators in 1998; however, in 2001, two indicators were put forward: (a) energy consumption at selected city-operated facilities, and (b) number and proportion of vehicles in the City Fleet that utilize natural gas fuels (102 SOER 2001). 84 Actual procurement of environmentally friendly materials is listed as a potential indicator 85 for future reports. Neither report claims to be inclusive of all possible issues or indicators, but rather contemplate including further indicators in future. Since its last SOE report, Richmond has collected other types of sustainability information have been collected; it remains to be seen whether this information will be integrated with the next SOER update. Richmond joined the FCM's Partners for Climate Protection performance-based program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in 2001 at the recommendation of the Emergency and Environmental Programs Department and at the time of writing is nearing completion of both a corporate and community emissions inventory (Daykin 2005, pers. comm.). Richmond viewed joining the PCP program as a means of fulfilling and strengthening its EMS framework by "linking existing City initiatives relating to energy management across City departments, and to link these initiatives to a specified unified objective with measurable targets (4 Richmond Report 2001)." It remains to be seen whether future SOER updates will incorporate emissions inventory data. 3.234 REPORTING. The City of Richmond has shaped a specialized reporting format based on a composite index of indicators to communicate its environmental performance record and has committed to regular updates on a three year cycle. The City's first State of the Environment Report was produced in 1998 with the help of AXYS Environmental Consulting and its citizen Advisory Committee on the Environment (ACE) and then updated it in 2001. 86 Reporting is now considered a core component of Richmond's environmental management framework (1 SOER 1998), which was initiated between in the first and second reports. The second report indicates that it is intended to assist in decision-making regarding budgetary priorities (SOER 2001). This study gives Richmond's reporting a strong effectiveness rating. Like its peers, Richmond references sustainability in its SOER but does not define it or explain how it will shape the reporting and management process. Population growth and consumption concerns, both major sustainability issues, are identified as the context for reporting (1 SOER 1998) and the rationale for 8i The report employs community-based demand side management indicators (Rich. SOER 2001) for water consumption, residential solid waste, wastewater, and energy consumption at the community scale. The update cycle allows for the measurement of trends in resource consumption in the community. 8< 85 Rationale for selection was the availability of good data (102 SOER 2001). The second report notes Richmond's Purchasing Policy, which was developed in the interim between reports. 86 AXYS provided the report format, project management support, and final report preparation (SOER 1998; SOER 2001). 89

structuring the report into a discussion of environmental assets and environmental stressors, or pressures on those assets (1 SOER 1998). 87 Almost in spite of itself, the report takes the form of a comprehensive survey rather than a strategic focus and encompasses both a corporate and community scope. 88 Both reports use a normative scoring system to summarize the performance of each indicator and provide a basis for comparison with results from past (in the case of the 2001 report) and future years. 89 The report claims that "as a general rule, Richmond aims to reduce its overall impact on the environment (105 SOER 2001)." The reports strategically focus on the quantifying the status of local natural resources and the demands on them and clarifying general priorities for reducing demand and other pressures. When targets have been developed for various issue areas, more specific priorities will be set for performance tools. While Richmond expects to devise "a complete set of meaningful, achievable targets" for managing demand and other pressures, and monitor the effectiveness of performance tools to continue those that are working and adjust and test with further monitoring those that are not (SOER 1998; SOER 2001), it has not yet fully done so. None of the practitioners interviewed placed the SOER as a component of the City environmental management system, not even EEPD Coordinator Elliott, working out of the department that spearheads both reporting and the EMS. Departmental managers Naysmith and Hogg view the reports as philosophical documents and do not rely upon them for technical information (2004, pers. comm.). Given the attention to accuracy and technical standard in the reports, this is somewhat surprising. Moreover, for all the technical excellence in the choice of indicators, the report is silent on how they should be interpreted in reference to a sustainable future. Indicators are presented in a simple list with no attempt at integration toward an overall view of corporate ecological sustainability performance. For example, the 2001 report cautions that ratings "do not imply a measure of sustainability"; at a minimum the report suggests that "the available information has allowed us to determine whether we are heading in the right direction - toward sustainable living - or moving in the wrong direction - away from a more sustainable future (1 SOER 2001)." Richmond's reporting process indicates that managing for people was considered but not optimized. Like its peers, Richmond attempted to provide one report for multiple audiences and multiple purposes and consequently may have compromised its effectiveness to all. Assistance was sought from 87 The Assets category encompasses clean air and water; productive land; plant and animal life; and other renewable resources. Pressures or stressors are identified as population, consumption, and land development patterns (1 SOER 1998). 88 The 1998 SOER covers issues of green space, water quality, air quality, land use and human settlement, transportation, resource consumption, city environmental practices, noise, and environmental education. The 2001 SOER adds issues of community stewardship and soil quality. 89 The system assigns a subjective rating of Good News, Bad News, Mixed Results, and Not Assessed. Ratings are based on such factors as net changes since 1998, the direction of change (i.e., positive or negative), adherence to existing standards, achievement of targets, and comparisons with other communities. In some cases, insufficient data were available to make a determination (iii SOER 2001). 90

departmental managers and staff from other administrative units in the City as part of the report production process to collate the vast amount of data required by the report and in reviewing various drafts (i SOER 2001), but managers were not necessarily consulted with regard to the strategic focus, substance, and purpose of reporting. 90 Perhaps as a result, Facilities managers were aware that SOERs had been produced but could not recall their contents. Naysmith states that "where we don't necessarily have the awareness is the State of the Environment Report, because I would say it was developed without a lot of input from anyone in my team (2004, pers. comm.)." Nevertheless, the outcome of this limited consultative process produced reports that were consciously technocratic. To underline the point, in its discussion of future target-setting, the 2001 report suggests that "technical specialists in the topics under study could also be consulted to determine attainable and environmentally significant targets (127 SOER 2001)." The SOER is silent on the principle of reward and value. However, it can be inferred from the commitment to regular updates - and the fact that the City has honored its commitment - that considerable value is placed on the exercise. Integration of information also fell short of its potential. For all the technical excellence in the choice of indicators, the report does not attempt to meaningfully integrate them nor describe or portray their relevance in measuring sustainability. In addition, reports are highly factual and do experiment with the presentation of any narrative information. The principle of adaptation has been firmly upheld by Richmond, confirming the value of consistent reporting as a means of understanding trends in a context of change. The second report notes that population growth since the first report has "resulted in greater pressures on the environment, as the demand for housing, services and infrastructure increased and our collective resource consumption rose (1 SOER 2001)." To date Richmond has maintained its commitment to a regular three year update cycle. An updated 2004 SOER is expected to be completed in the near future (Elliott Personal Communication 2004). The Emergency and Environmental Programs Department recognizes that the reporting format, substance, and process must also evolve and adapt over time to remain a valuable and relevant tool that is responsive to corporate needs and community priorities (1-2 SOER 2001). In summary, Richmond's reporting provides a strong model, but is not without opportunities for further improvement. Reports are aligned with corporate as well as community sustainability strategies, performance-oriented, and adaptive. However, they are more technocratic than participatory, even for an internal management audience, and have not attempted to meaningfully include subjective information for deeper practitioner engagement. Future reporting exercises would do well to put more emphasis on interdepartmental collaboration and information integration. 90 During the preparation of this report, AXYS Environmental Consulting Ltd. reports that it was assisted in particular by the Policy Planning Department, the Environmental Management Department, Parks and Cultural Services; Engineering Planning, and Richmond Health Services. Collaboration was also solicited from Richmond's Advisory Committee on the Environment (ACE), and individuals from other agencies (SOER 1998; SOER 2001) 91

3.24 COHESION BETWEEN SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS. Cohesiveness is rated optimal in this study. Richmond's management infrastructure is sound in structure and strategy. Reporting and environmental management have co-evolved at the City of Richmond. The City has done well in 'thinking on its feet' and linking update-reporting into its EMS framework given that the EMS was in development currently with the second State of the Environment Report (128 SOER 2001). Moreover, all components of the system are viewed as linked in an adaptive feedback cycle: the 2001 report observes that "the [EMS] strategy should...identify other City environmental practices that future SOE reports could monitor (128 SOER 2001)." As another example, purchasing is perceived to be a tool for taking action on some of the indicators in the SOE report. However, it should be pointed out that the report has not been used to determine the relative effectiveness of corporate initiatives, such as purchasing, over time (Elliott 2004, pers. comm.). Matters could be further clarified by calling sustainability, "sustainability", rather than environmental protection. The still unfinished task of setting targets and monitoring performance according to these targets holds promise of refining the management feedback cycle among system components. Taking a systemic view, Richmond would do well to distinguish between its information system and reporting components and ensure that the feedback loop between reporting and other components of sustainability performance management are completed. [...over//] 92

Greater Vancouver Regional District 3.31 CULTURE OF ECOLOGICAL CITIZENSHIP. At the Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD) there is evidence of a strong and enthusiastic culture championing the principles of sustainability performance management. The most memorable story told by a GVRD practitioner as part of the study interviews was an upbeat, promotional tale about wastewater treatment and energy conservation. This succinct tale positions the GVRD as one of the key utility managers in the region, as well as an institution taking conscious steps to manage its sustainability performance through supply and demand side measures. It reflects the GVRD's technocratic culture of efficiency and financial prudence within the market capitalist economy, as well as its culture of employee-driven innovation. In a way that corporate administration has not yet done, the story directly links performance measurement to supply and demand side management in service of sustainability: Wastewater treatment plants make up about 58% of the GVRD's total energy consumption and have conventionally flared digester gas by-products, releasing greenhouse gases and toxins to the atmosphere. Working together, GVRD staff at the Annacis and Lulu Wastewater Treatment Plants developed more sustainable process solutions that met and, in the case of Annacis, exceeded energy targets set by corporate administrators. By repairing idle cogeneration equipment, replacing the use of a toxic chemical, starting up a gray-water recycling system, and installing a computerized data acquisition and control (CDAC) system, Plant staff were able to save the corporation almost $295k annually in deferred electricity costs with major reductions in the flaring of greenhouse gases. While the GVRD retained and received a sound and sophisticated ecological analysis of the sustainability dilemma, it neither formally adopted an ecological definition of sustainability nor ground it into a management framework. However, despite the lack of clear sustainability targets, the organization has moved aggressively in the right direction. A commitment to supply and especially demand side management is championed at the corporate, departmental, and divisional levels at the GVRD. As the story reveals, DSM and SSM have also been led by individual employees raising independent process solutions and initiatives. Chief Administrative Officer johnny Carline drove implementation of a performance management system (4 GVRD SR 2002) and on many occasions has publicly announced his personal commitment to sustainability. Lynda King of Corporate Services attributes performance on sustainability to a culture of commitment and observes of the GVRD: "so what you see is from the top there's commitment, and from the ground level there's commitment...because we have that bottom up and top down commitment, those people who are not necessarily all that bought in to it are becoming more and more aware of it (2004, pers. comm.)." An entire division has been created and mandated with DSM and SSM and staffed with dynamic practitioners who have nurtured flourishing programs in ecologically responsible building and corporate responsibility. 93

The GVRD was not the first of the four institutions studied to take the sustainability leap - Vancouver earned that recognition with a climate change report in 1990 - but it has been the most explicit about leaping into what I term sustainability performance management. However, while the institution is performing, it lacks an overall sense of purpose. Given that the strength and consistency of formal commitment to ecological sustainability is shallow, a voluntary culture of participation - rather than regulation - earmarks the District. Nevertheless, in 2002 Carline observed that "what [the SRI] did was to unleash a rush of energy, effort and creativity within this organization, and more broadly within the region that people who have been here longer than I suggest is without precedent (SRI Presentation)." A year later, the Chair of the GVRD Board reflected a growing culture of sustainability citizenship and responsibility in his comment that 2003 was "a year of reflection at the political level...that has encouraged greater ownership of the SRI process and its outcomes by elected officials (iv GVRD SR 2003)." A Sustainability Challenge program was launched in 2003 to encourage and engage staff in finding new ways to incorporate sustainability principles into their daily work. Corporate Services Manager Lynda King believes that the promotional stories will spark the awareness of those in the corporation who have not yet "bought in" to sustainability; she predicts that "they'll improve, particularly as the successes of the people who are committed are showcased and highlighted and they get recognized for the decisions that they've made (King 2004, pers. comm.)." In terms of its corporate culture, the organization is still trying to calibrate a balance between differing perspectives on flexibility and performance rigor. 3.32 ORGANIZATIONAL CAPACITY. The organizational capacity of the GVRD to implement sustainability strategies is unrivalled in the region and received an "optimal" rating in this study. However, the strength and consistency of formal commitment to sustainability only earns a "weak" rating. Furthermore, some GVRD practitioners argue that there are structural and functional barriers to diffusing a culture of ecological responsibility and implementing sustainability principles broadly throughout the organization. The organizational structure of the GVRD office follows the conventional departmental and divisional structure headed by the Corporate Strategies executive. Departments such as Engineering, Policy and Planning, and Purchasing and Risk Management administer bylaw and policy and implement corporate projects. Departments are subdivided into divisions, and divisions further subdivided into work groups. Supply side management is centralized and mainly handled by Purchasing and Risk Managementcentral purchasers acquire all goods, services, and construction amounting to about a quarter of a billion dollars and 5,000 major contracts a year (Lalonde 2004, pers. comm.). 91 In addition to 21,000 small contracts under $5,000 (Lalonde 2004, pers. comm.). 94

Demand side management is mainly handled by a division of the Policy and Planning Department. The Demand Side Management (DSM) Division is mandated with managing demand successfully "for regional utility services and air resources in an effort to conserve all resources, protect the environment and stretch existing capacity (2002 DSM Newsletter)." Given its limited role in managing energy only via its jurisdiction over air quality, and recognizing the centrality of energy to the success of DSM and SSM efforts, the GVRD has entered into strategic partnerships with BC Hydro, senior levels of government and the Federation of Canadian Municipalities to work on energy related supply and demand side management issues (GVRD SR 2003). 92 The DSM Division is comprised of four work groups organized on the basis of function, three of which are concerned with ecologically responsible purchasing and building: Policy and Research, Business Services, and Innovative Technologies. 93 While Policy and Research has been concerned with setting objectives and milestones and assessing costs and benefits, Business Services has packaged programs for member municipalities and the private sector that include both eco-efficiency and behavioral DSM strategies (GVRD Memo 2002). In 2002, Business Services launched two key programs, Build Smart and Smart Steps, which integrate SSM and DSM strategies within a corporate responsibility framework for the private sector. To date, these programs have not been applied to the GVRD's corporate sustainability performance management. Finally, the Innovative Technologies work group was tasked with testing out "hard" technologies associated with buildings and infrastructure in order to build awareness and support for those that meet sustainability objectives. Purchasing Manager Bob Lalonde explains that the GVRD's organizational structure is one of departmental "silos" where practitioners work in relative independence. In combination with busy schedules, inter-departmental coordination can be less than optimal (2004, pers. comm.). Both the Demand Side Management Division and Corporate Strategies work as "sustainability promoters" in the organization. The Division leads DSM research and development efforts for the community (mostly member municipalities and the private sector) and the corporation and is in part tasked with ensuring that efforts are integrated. Practitioners in the Division demonstrate the clearest concept of ecological sustainability, the specific skills, and the expert knowledge to move forward proactively. However, in recognition of the political sensitivity of its "promoter" role, the Division has been conservative in its suggestions to other departments. Green, a practitioner in the DSM Division, observes that change is more effective if other parts of the organization come up with ideas on their own (2002, pers. comm.). With the advent of a " BC Hydro reports that it is designing its future resource mix to focus more on voluntary energy efficiency endeavors through its Power Smart program, customer co-generation and self-generation, and green and alternative energy (BC Hydro 2005). 91 In October 2001, the DSM Division was strategically reorganized. Prior to that time, groups were organized by substantive issue area: Air Quality, Source Control, Solid Waste and Drinking Water. In the summer of 2002, the DSM's major programs were reworked (GVRD Email 2002). 95

corporate-wide Sustainable Region process and framework for project selection or decision-making, the Division felt it had the support it needed to make suggestions and find opportunities to "feed ideas into the right processes (Green 2002, pers. comm.)." One suggestion germane to organizational capacity was for Corporate Strategies to incorporate sustainability considerations into staff performance accountability structures (Green 2002, pers. comm.). The realms of the DSM Division and Purchasing and Risk Management continue to be relatively separate, limiting opportunities to streamline and synergize DSM and SSM efforts in a more systemic approach to sustainability performance management. With the beginnings of what I term a SPMS, and in particular, the reporting component, some practitioners in the organization are becoming aware of this. However, this awareness has not yet infused all realms. Purchasing Manager Lalonde does not connect his role in central purchasing with the Sustainable Region Initiative or any specific sustainability objectives. Rather, he relates that "we've done a lot of good things in environment, specific ad-hoc things (2004, pers. comm.)." The GVRD uses a system of committees to review issues and policies, oversee programs and provide a forum for staff to present issues, and discuss and evaluate programs. Standing committees propose recommendations to the Board. 94 Advisory committees advise the standing committees on particular issues allow city practitioners, such as engineers, managers, planners, treasurers, the public, and GVRD staff to share information and find solutions to regional issues such as sustainability (8 GVRD SR 2002). 3.33 SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT. The statement that the GVRD has done a lot of "good things, specific ad-hoc things" characterizes the organization's approach to what I term sustainability performance management. The GVRD's collective efforts, compared against my SPMS model, just barely earn a "strong" rating. For further details on the scoring system, see Appendix D. Given the sophisticated capacity of the GVRD to make aggressive progress on SSM and DSM, this rating indicates that there is room for improvement in the GVRD's sustainability performance management. The following chart provides an overview: [...over//] 4 There are three types of GVRD Board committees: (a) standing committees; (b) municipal advisory committees (comprised of mainly municipal and GVRD staff); and (c) public advisory committees (comprised of people who represent various interests, points of view, or fields of expertise to advise GVRD staff and standing committees on particular issues). The Board Chair determines committees and their membership, which is drawn from locally elected mayors and councilors (GVRD 2004). 96

GVRD PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT COMPONENT EST. DESCRIPTION MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK 2000 Sustainable Region Initiative 2002 Sheltair Sustainability Framework 2002? Sustainability Management Principles PERFORMANCE TOOLS Employee Training/Conferences: 1995 Green Purchasing Guide Training 2000 Green Building Conference 2003 Sustainability Challenge Purchasing Policies: 1990 Green Purchasing Policy 1995 Green Purchasing Guide 2005? Sustainable Purchasing Policy 2005? Sustainable Purchasing Guide DSM/SSM Programs: 2004 Smart Steps Program & website 2004 Build Smart Program & website Retrofit/Construction Projects: 2003 Power Smart retrofits 2003 Annacis & Lulu Plant 2003 Little Mountain Reservoir Reconstruction 2003 SEE-Gen Project 2003 Cloverdale Sewer Overflow Facility 2003 Surrey Transfer Station 2003 Seymour-Capilano Filtration Plant INFORMATION SYSTEM 2002 GRI Information Index (Reporting) 2002 PCP Corporate Inventory 2002 Sustainability Stories REPORTING 2002 Sustainable Region Report 1 2003 Sustainable Region Report II Figure 111-3 Sustainability Performance Management in the GVRD The GVRD's management framework, performance tools, information system, and report all received a rating of medium. Some effort has been put into developing a management framework but it remains vague in authority and unshaped by a clear definition of ecological sustainability. Most importantly, it does not have strategic, specific, and material targets for reduced consumption. Despite the sophistication of the DSM's programs and the number of technological eco-innovations achieved by the GVRD as a whole, the suite of DSM and SSM performance tools are largely voluntary, open-ended, and cost-recovery focused. 97

The choice of the Global Reporting Index (CRI) standard has encouraged the GVRD to develop an improved centralized information system for managing sustainability performance, but to date most corporate performance indicators have not been used. Moreover, the information system has not been optimized as a distinct component that can merge subjective and objective information meaningfully. With the choice and commitment to regular use of the GRI standard for reporting, the GVRD scores better on this component of its sustainability performance management. However, the sustainability reports to date do not reflect a strategic focus with clear performance targets and there is indication that the organization as a whole is insufficiently meaningfully involved in the exercise. Reported information has not been integrated and adapted for various audiences and as such, falls short of its potential as an internal management and external relations tool. The system as a whole is relatively strong and cohesive under the umbrella of the Sustainable Region Initiative even though it has not been identified as such. The GVRD's efforts at sustainability performance management reflect the sustainability principles identified by this study to degrees varying from medium to strong. The relative strength of the corporation is in integration and adaptation. The corporation has committed to review and updating of its sustainability report but as not articulated a review mechanism for the SRI framework. While programs are evaluated annually, the Green Purchasing Policy has not been updated since its inception in 1990. However, the Green Purchasing Guide has received updates and a new Sustainable Purchasing Guide is in progress. In terms of performance, the GVRD has set clear targets for some, but not all, of its performance tools but lacks clear targets and objectives for other components of the management system - most notably in the management framework. Engagement of practitioners and collaboration are only middling. In addition, information remains largely un-integrated to date and almost exclusively focused on quantitative measurement with little reference to subjective information. Given the sophisticated capacity of the GVRD to make aggressive progress on SSM and DSM, this indicates that there is much opportunity for improvement in its sustainability performance management. 3.331 MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK. The Sustainable Region Initiative (SRI) (2001) is the umbrella framework that serves as a loose management framework for sustainability performance management at the GVRD. It receives a medium rating of effectiveness in this study. The SRI is not a corporate plan or a strategy but rather described more vaguely as a "philosophy" (4 Carline 2002). Despite the observation that senior management and line staff are deeply invested in the concept (Perkins 2004) and the fact that the initiative has been broadly publicized, the framework to date remains suggestive rather than prescriptive for internal operations with its formal sustainability concept simplistic and vague. It established "a commitment first to re-examine GVRD corporate practices in the light of sustainability principles" (4 Carline 2002) as well 98

as a regional review of service provision and regulation (4 Carline 2002). 95 Importantly, the Board directed that the SRI should encompass operations and decisions at all levels of the organization, not simply the departments usually involved in policies and plans, community organizations, and the general public (GVRD Report 2002); however, in practice, senior planner Ralph Perkins observes that a very small leadership group is driving the sustainability agenda in the organization (Lecture Handout 2004). Moreover, no specific budget has been allocated to sustainability performance management, since the initiative is "supposed to apply to everything" (3 Perkins 2004). As part of the SRI, the GVRD adopted four broad sustainability principles: economic prosperity, community well-being, environmental integrity and a management philosophy (4 Carline 2002) without a definition of what these principles meant in greater detail and how they could be applied to operations. The SRI framework is intended to be developed over a three-phase process. The following chart summarizes the main achievements of the first two of the three phases and the expectations for the third phase which is still in progress at the time of writing: PHASE MAJOR CORPORATE SRI ACTIVITIES Retained an analysis from Sheltair for development of a Sustainability Framework; Obtained some funding for from senior governments for SRI related work; and, Developed partnerships with other regional groups and implemented a public consultation series. 96 Formed Issues Groups tasked with making sustainability recommendations; and, Developed triple bottom line business cases for proposed GVRD projects and programs. Integrate recommendations from Issues Groups; and, Identify and implement further sustainability actions. Figure 111-4 Phases of the GVRD's Sustainable Region Initiative 95 Carline commented that "our commitment to the environment seemed to be scattered through a series of different plans, many related to our responsibilities in delivering major utilities, and while these amounted to a substantial effort at environmental responsibility, it was neither coordinated nor systematic at a corporate or regional level...the logic of [sustainability principles] demanded that we bring everything we do under the sustainability umbrella" (3 GVRD SR 2002). The GVRD decided against replacing existing regional plans with more sustainabilityfocused plans in favor of fitting plans into a discretionary overarching sustainability framework (GVRD Plan Assessment 2002). Other approaches to devising a sustainability framework were internally advanced; one notable suggestion was to reformat existing plans into entirely new plans, namely an Ecosystems and Services Plan, an Energy and Materials Plan, and a Water Plan. A review schedule for regional plans was produced but has fallen behind (GVRD SR 2003; Perkins 2004). 96 As of May 2003, the GVRD's Sustainable Region Initiative partners were the Business Council of British Columbia, the Fraser Basin Council, the Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority, Smart Growth BC, and the United Way of the Lower Mainland (GVRD SRI 2004). 99

The Sustainable Region Initiative's working concept of sustainability was shaped by public consultation, thus incorporating regional experiences and issues, and by its participation in the international CitiesPlus competition and the World Urban Forum, thus incorporating global issues. 97 The concept was also shaped by the theoretical framework developed by a private consultancy. The GVRD contracted Sheltair to develop a Sustainability Framework to build on existing the Creating Our Future vision for the urban Greater Vancouver region as a foundation for future phases of internal discussion and external consultation. This Sustainability Framework was based on systems theory and shaped ecological issues into environmental, social, and economic goals. Importantly, the framework recognized the hierarchy of dependency wherein human society and economy are dependent on the integrity of the ecosphere (GVRD SRI 2004). However, instead of using the Sustainability Framework, the GVRD formally adopted the ubiquitous Brundtland Commission definition as its own. Internally, however, Sheltair's framework was shaped into a decision support tool to assist staff in structuring appropriate milestones. The decision tool involved a suite of 'complex goals' that accounted for conflicts and synergies with other goals aiming at different facets of sustainability, and a framework for considering scope/dimensions, timeframes, and levels of focus. The GVRD's Planning and Environment Committee, working from the Sustainability Framework, derived a set of principles to inform the analysis of corporate and community-based sustainability performance: 98 integrate economic, social, and ecological values into decision-making; develop management systems appropriate to the level and scale of problem being addressed and include what can be implemented in a given time-frame; align fiscal interests with policy objectives; encourage responsive feedback mechanisms and complete feedback loops; 97 GVRD received guidance from senior levels of government and national organizations as part of Canada's bid in the CitiesPlus competition. The International Gas Union's CitiesPlus Initiative, a competition to produce the best 100 year sustainability plan, was a driver for the GVRD's sustainable region work. Nine international teams representing major metropolitan areas participated. The GVRD participated in Canada's submission to the competition, with direction from the Board that the results of the competition should inform next steps on the Sustainable Region Initiative. In 2003, GVRD and its regional and national partners (500 experts and participants from 30 cities across Canada) won. In awarding its top prize, the jury noted two key factors in the plan's favour: (a) plan results were developed with, and will be applied by, an actual jurisdiction with planning and implementing authority; and (b) the plan proposes to create a world-wide legacy network of cities interested in learning how to apply sustainability principles to urban system design (GVRD SR 2003). 98 A series of critical questions was developed to assess whether existing regional plans addressed key sustainability concerns. Arguably the most incisive of these questions was: Does the planning framework include the elements of the economy, society and the environment, and reflect the relationships between them in a way that considers how impacts are distributed in time, space and between groups? (GvRD Plan Assessment 2002). 100

institute adaptive management systems and build capacity for adaptability; and, encourage flexibility and innovation. These principles address in part the issue of economic growth while governing in a market context, the challenge of valuing ecological sustainability, and the need for an integrated performance management system." As such, the GVRD's principles for the SRI both converge and diverge with the sustainability principles chosen for this study. Both this study and the GVRD identify adaptability as a sustainability principle, and the GVRD's principle of responsive feedback loops forms one dimension of this study's performance principle. The GVRD's broad principle of integrating social, economic, and ecological issues in decision-making resonates in very small part with this study's principles of people and integration. The differences are more pronounced: my SPMS model prioritizes the establishment of clear performance targets and mechanisms, depth and breadth of engagement of internal practitioners as well as the public, an emphasis on reward and value over cost-recovery, and deeper integration of information and collaboration between practitioners in the management process. The second phase of the SRI involved a closer and more performance-based analysis of corporate activities at the GVRD. A Game Plan and Next Steps document outlined the basic strategy of corporate leadership as the a primary step for a broader regional sustainability initiative and confirmed a cost recovery approach, in the form of business casing for corporate performance tools (GVRD Report 2002).' Twelve Issue Groups were established to review information gathered in Phase One and derive specific goals, strategies, actions and measures of progress for each issue and in early 2003 eleven of the groups delivered reports. 101 Reported information was then shaped into business case documents that would shape the development of performance tools for DSM and SSM, among other strategies. To date, however, information from the eleven Issue Group reports has not been collated, integrated, prioritized, and shaped into a corporate GVRD sustainability performance management framework. Although the GVRD has undertaken a sophisticated process, it still faces the task of developing a common, operational, and rigorous definition of sustainability. Without a concept and commitment to overall reduction in consumption within a critique of economic growth assumptions and practices, 99 Principles of the former included: (a) seek qualitative improvement not quantitative growth; (b) create quality opportunities; and, (c) work with market forces. Principles of the latter included: (a) use full cost accounting methods; (b) consider both long and short term costs and benefits; (c) internalize externalities, and (d) minimize external subsidies. 100 Specifically, in phase two a key goal was to use fiscal policies to support economic, environmental and social behavioral objectives, especially where "financial feedback" could be obtained (GVRD SRI 2004). 101 The purpose of the regional issues group was identified as a means for the GVRD to foster practitioner collaboration and obtain assistance from regional partners to (a) develop goals, plans/strategies for all specific issue areas (including green buildings); (b) comment on other related issue area proposals; and, (c) develop networks to implement strategies and actions. The number of issues groups was later winnowed down to eleven. All groups were tasked with preparing reports that outlined goals, strategies, actions and measures of success (5 GVRD SR 2003); accordingly, in early 2003, eleven group reports were published. 101

objectives and performance tools cannot be optimized. The GVRD's process demonstrates a commitment to collaboration and breadth of engagement despite the fact that this is not articulated in principle. While some attempt to integrate disparate information into a framework has been undertaken, a role for subjective information has not been identified or optimized. Finally, while acknowledged in principle, an adaptive mechanism has not been created to ensure regular review of the framework material. 3.332 PERFORMANCE TOOLS. The suite of major DSM and SSM performance tools at the GVRD receive a medium rating of effectiveness in this study. Given that there are many of these tools and that they are managed somewhat independently throughout the organization, a brief summary overview of what performance tools at the GVRD have been included in the scope of analysis is provided. Tools considered in this study include: (a) training and employee engagement initiatives; (b) purchasing policies and guides; and (c) corporate ecologically responsible building and retrofit programs and activities. Since 2003, the GVRD has held a corporate Sustainability Challenge initiative to involve and engage practitioners in contributing their ideas and examples of sustainability performance tools and other means of recalibrating operations in service of greater sustainability across the organization. The Challenge involved eight staff meetings with the Chief Administrative Officer and a remarkable 550 workshop sessions in which 369 different ideas were generated (Perkins 2004). Many of these ideas have been implemented, including composting waste from the cafeteria; instituting double-sided copying; circulating agendas electronically rather than in hard copy; developing a vegetation management strategy for watersheds; and, more effective disposal of grit and screenings generated at wastewater treatment plants. Perkins dubs the initiative a "roaring success" and reports that "internal sustainability projects and commitments are going strong - the Sustainability Challenge has made small but significant changes (2004)." A noteworthy aspect of the initiative is that follow up was undertaken with every employee that generated ideas to ensure that actions were taken or if not, explanations given (Perkins 2004). 3.3321 ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE PURCHASING. The GVRD's Green Purchasing Policy (see Appendix F) is its primary SSM performance tool. The policy was adopted in 1990 as one of the first in Canada, not to mention the region. 102 While the policy is still unusual and progressive as far as regional and municipal peers are concerned, it has not been updated 102 Ecologically responsible purchasing was seeded in the Greater Vancouver area from a national initiative led by the Association of Canadian Cities for Environmentally Sound Strategies (ACCESS). ACCESS was formed by a City of Toronto Purchasing Commissioner in 1989, who took the individual lead in gathering together purchasing managers from the major urban areas of the country together to discuss environmental materials management and exchange information and resources. A model green procurement code turned out to be ACCESS' first initiative and was later adopted by fifty cities across the country, including the GVRD (Lalonde 2004, pers. comm.). 102

since inception. Purchasing Manager Lalonde's conclusion that in the early years of the policy "there was effort but there weren't a lot of results [but rather] piecemeal...ad hoc types of things going on" (2004, pers. comm.) to some extent is still the case. The GVRD recently initiated a review of the policy; however, Lalonde takes the position that the policy does not require review, but rather the organization should invest energy and resources in training programs to ensure that the policy is kept relevant to practitioners. He bases this view on his experience with the policy over its lifetime, noting that ecological considerations did not infuse into the daily decisions and specifications of technical practitioners until the Green Purchasing Guide project with the City of Richmond and its associated training programs were implemented. The GVRD provided some funding support and worked collaboratively with the City of Richmond to produce its Green Purchasing Guide. For the GVRD, the Guide was viewed as an implementation vehicle for the performance targets in the institution's regional Solid Waste Management Plan (1994) (Knight 2004, pers. comm.). 103 It was widely distributed in the Regional District as well as in the City of Richmond. The training workshops, which serve GVRD and member municipal practitioners, emphasize the importance of individual leadership and commitment and link the policy and concepts to practitioners' own personal experience. Furthermore, the training has been focused on attitudes, behaviors, and culture, with little coverage of techniques or performance targets. Cost recovery is emphasized over reward and value. In particular, Lalonde believes that the notion that ecologically preferred products and services are more expensive does not always hold true and should be analyzed carefully (2004, pers. comm.). Lalonde notes that other jurisdictions have adopted the practice of giving environmentally preferred purchases a 10% preference, or in other words, paying 10% more. 104 Along with most Canadian public organizations, the GVRD decided against taking that approach, under the assumption that purchasing green "should be less costly...in either the direct costs or in the way you measure the costs." The latter refers to the use of life cycle analysis and full cost accounting. Lalonde explains that life cycle analysis is common practice at the GVRD: "we've done it for fifty years...not for environmental reasons in many cases (2004, pers. comm.)." He attributes the ability to achieve cost savings not to the scope of responsibility and size of the corporation but to its ability to manage its supply chain. He digs into his experience for an example to make his point: When we were developing this [Green Purchasing Policy] we had a number of industries come to us and tell us there would be start-up costs associated with moving towards more environmentally friendly materials that the GVRD would have to pay for. The pulp and paper industry was the biggest of these. We went back to industry and said, 'those are start-up costs that any business should bear'. The pulp and paper industry in particular wanted the GVRD to adopt a practice of using a 7 0% price preference 105 The Guide promised to satisfy the reduction targets of the GVRD's Solid Waste Management Plan to reduce by 50% solid waste to the landfill by 2000, and reduce costs associated with the collection of solid waste, a cost borne in part by the regional district (Knight Personal Communication 2004). 104 Lalonde cites King County and New York City in the USA as two examples (2004, pers. comm.), noting that this is common in the USA. In Canada, public organizations typically do not give preference to local products. 103

for environmentally responsible paper. GVRD purchasers resisted based on their experience that this practice would only result in the erection of a new ceiling for pricing. Lo and behold all the pricing goes up 10% when you bring in a policy for a 10% preference (2004, pers. comm.). King corroborates Lalonde's view, by providing insight into purchasing from a different angle. She indicates that the GVRD's Requests for Proposal (RFPs) now only give about 50% or even less preference to the lowest price bid (2004, pers. comm.). The corporation is now trying to base decisions more on quality issues, such as experience and ability to conduct the work. King believes this provides increasing leverage for taking ecological issues into consideration; she says that on the spectrum of bids "they might go one up but it's the most sustainable choice in the long run (2004, pers. comm.)." In Lalonde's view, the training in ecologically responsible purchasing in particular has been well-received and has made the policy effective; he measures effectiveness on the basis of the shift in mindset of the people who describe what they want to purchase and why. While training is expected to continue, the interactive format is under review and may be replaced with internet-based teaching module."" In addition to the training, central purchasers work collaboratively with technical professionals and engineers in the GVRD's functional departments to develop specifications. Ecologically responsible purchasing has to date been focused on oils, paper and electronic products (GVRD SR 2003), although more sophisticated SSM and DSM measures have been explored with regard to ecologically responsible corporate buildings. Every product developed by the GVRD now usually has a companion support resource to ensure that GVRD-trained clients can continue their ecological materials management practices with confidence (Knight 2004, pers. comm.). In mid 2004, Corporate Strategies received direction from the Chief Administrative Officer to develop a sustainable purchasing policy for implementation in 2005 (King 2004, pers. comm.) without consultation with the Purchasing and Risk Management Department. The Smart Steps Program, administered by Business Services in the Demand Side Management Division, will now disseminate the Green Purchasing Guide and its next generation, the Sustainable Purchasing Guide. DSM Division Manager Nancy Knight characterizes the incumbent policy and guide as the next big step in the corporate SRI and relates that analysis has already been undertaken to determine an appropriate scope for product types that will optimize sustainability benefits and recover costs (2004, pers. comm.). At the time of writing the relative emphasis on ecological dimensions in the as yet unwritten sustainable purchasing policy was not known. The Guide will be supplemented with reliable and current web-based 105 As a result of staffing constraints, interactive workshops may be replaced with a web-based training course. This e-learning module would still be targeted for member municipal staff seeking to leam green purchasing principles and would be based on the GVRD-Richmond Green Purchasing Guide. While possibly increasing breadth of accessibility, it would eliminate the experiential dimension that builds networks and elicits deeper toward a culture of change that is central to the people principle. 104

information on technical specifications, product comparisons and assessments, product benefits, and supplier lists (Knight 2004, pers. comm.). Like its predecessor, the Guide will be a multipurpose tool for individuals and firms and will include energy issues as well as materials management (Knight 2004, pers. comm.). The Guide promises to further streamline the GVRD's DSM and SSM efforts but may result in sensitivity with the Purchasing and Risk Management Department that has traditionally managed SSM. Attending to the principles of people and participation and integration will be important as the GVRD synchronizes its sustainability strategies. 3.3322 ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE BUILDINGS. Like many of its member municipalities, the GVRD has used the Power Smart energy efficiency retrofit program in some of its existing facilities. In July 2003, the GVRD undertook a systematic upgrade of lighting fixture technology in its Head Office towers that are estimated to save 313,778 kwh in energy per year (54 2003 SR). The project demanded a significant up front investment, given its approximate eight year payback period. 106 The GVRD initiated work on new ecologically responsible building strategies that combined a suite of DSM and SSM measures to serve a regional, rather than corporate, purpose. However, the extensive research undertaken and insight gained to this end has given the GVRD extensive capacity to analyze and improve the ecological performance of its own corporate buildings. The District has started to do so, as is evidenced by a retrofit program and a number of innovative and ecologically responsible building and infrastructure achievements. The Green Buildings Task Group has specifically requested that the GVRD Board of Directors adopt LEED BC as a voluntary framework for Greater Vancouver. In terms of retrofit results, the GVRD has participated in BC Hydro's Power Smart program to improve energy efficiency in existing facilities. In July 2003, the GVRD's Head Office upgraded the existing lighting fixture technology to attain anticipated annual savings of 313,778 kwh or $17,712 per year (54 GVRD SR 2003).,07 In terms of new facilities and infrastructure, the GVRD has improved the efficiency and design of several key projects: (a) the digester gas recycling system and computerized control of Annacis and Lulu Waste Water Treatment Plants (42 GVRD SR 2003); 108 (b) demolition byproduct 106 The overall cost of the upgrade was approximately $197,000 with a BC Hydro Power Smart cash rebate worth approx $55K (54 GVRD SR 2003). Based on estimates and projections supplied by BC Hydro, at the present rate structure it is estimated that the GVRD will save $17,712 per year in deferred electricity costs. 107 Based on the electricity rate structure at time of analysis. The overall cost of the upgrade was approximately $197k but offsets include a BC Hydro Power Smart cash rebate worth approx $55k (54 GVD SR 2003). 108 Annacis and Lulu Waste Water Treatment Plants digester gas recycling system. With the assistance of a computerized data acquisition and control (CDAC) system, new computer logic was developed and initiated to optimize and balance gas feeds to the plant's hot water boilers and co-generation units. Widespread innovations at GVRD Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTPs) have resulted in electricity savings, reduction of potable water consumption by more than 50% (mainly achieved by substituting groundwater for other sources and by installing water-efficient fixtures), reduced maintenance costs, and extended equipment lifespan (GVRD SR 2002; 42 GVRD SR 2003). Further reductions will be achieved when the Annacis Water Reclamation Pilot Project goes online in 2005 105

recycling at the Little Mountain Reservoir Reconstruction project (41 GVRD SR 2003); 109 (c) the SEE-Gen Waste-to-Energy turbo generator project; 110 (d) the Cloverdale Sanitary Sewer Overflow Facility" 1 ; (e) the use of LEED criteria in the Surrey Transfer Station (53 GVRD SR 2003); and, (f) the use of LEED criteria in the Seymour - Capilano Filtration Plant." 2 Research on ecologically responsible buildings and infrastructure has been progressively organized from disparate corners of the District into several programs managed out of the DSM Division. With the recent development of the Build Smart and Smart Steps programs in the Division, DSM and SSM strategies are more streamlined than ever before. The incumbent Sustainable Purchasing Policy and Guide may further integrate activities for optimal benefit, so long as they meaningfully include ecological considerations and are applied to corporate as well as regional performance targets. However, the GVRD has discussed, but has no plan in place to directly connect ecologically responsible building and purchasing performance tools with a sustainability performance management system. Knight speculates that "I think it's just that this is a very new field and not too many people think about it strategically like (42 GVRD SR 2003). The initiative won the 2002 Federation of Canadian Municipalities Sustainable Community Award for excellence in municipal service delivery. 1011 This reservoir, nested in Queen Elizabeth Park, is the largest of 22 reservoirs in the system. Due in part to seismic and structural deficiencies, the GVRD decided to demolish the old reservoir and rebuild a new one on the same site. The project included a clause in the contract for demolition work, requiring the contractor to perform onsite separation of concrete and steel for recycling and reuse of demolished concrete and rebar; and, use of approx. 28,000 cubic meters of Eco-Smart concrete; protection of existing trees, with some replacement and replanting. The new reservoir provides 25% more water than its predecessor while using the same facility footprint for an anticipated 100 year service life (41 GVRD SR 2003). This project was recognized with the Inaugural Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of B.C. (APEGBC) Sustainability Award. " SEE-Gen stands for "Social, Economic, and Environmental Generation of Electricity." The facility generates energy (heat or electricity) from solid waste by means of a turbo generator installed at a facility in Burnaby. The GVRD runs the facility in cooperation with Montenay Incorporated. Project has three goals: (1) create 15 MW of electricity with little or no environmental impact; (2) create a revenue source; (3) reduce emissions to the airshed by displacing energy that might otherwise have been created by burning fossil fuels. Construction and operational issues included maintaining zero liquid discharge; recycling all waste steel; upgrade of combustion control system and boiler modifications for increased heat recovery and increased steam quality to make it suitable for power generation; existing facility footprint used (55 GVRD SR 2003). This source provides the GVRD with 61 % of its energy requirements. This project was recognized with the Inaugural Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of B.C. (APEGBC) Sustainability Award. 111 Cloverdale Sanitary Sewer Overflow Facility project was recognized with the Inaugural Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of B.C. (APEGBC) Sustainability Award; the Silver Georgie Award for Best Public - Private Partnership from the Canadian Housing and Renewal Association (CHRA); and, the Safety First Award from the BC Water and Waste Association (BCWWA). 112 When operational, the Plant will treats water from Capilano and Seymour lakes, providing 70% of GVRD water supply. Associated infrastructure includes the Capilano Pumping Station, Capilano Energy Recovery Facility, and the Twin Tunnels. The design and construction of the Plant configured the buildings to avoid ecologically sensitive areas, and incorporated innovative technologies and best practices to conserve energy and minimize environmental impacts (39 GVRD SR 2003). The GVRD employed EcoSmart concrete in building designs; enhanced terrestrial habitat by using green roof technology; incorporated an enhanced daylight and natural ventilation system into the design; implemented on-site reuse and disposal of excavated material; held plant salvage before clearing the construction sight; designed 42 km of heating and cooling coils into the earth under the treated water storage, avoiding the need to pipe natural gas to the site; and, initiated a training program for plant operators to observe environmental best practices (40 GVRD SR 2003). The administration building uses LEED criteria (53 GVRD SR 2003). 106

that (2004, pers. comm.)." Both King and Knight conclude that corporate performance tools, including corporate facilities development and purchasing, should be linked and adapted to evolving information in order to streamline corporate operations and optimize performance. They feel there is still work to be done in bringing purchasing, building, and performance management functions into closer communication and coherence. In summary, without connectivity within a SPMS framework, performance tools cannot be optimized to an overall sense of purpose, objectives, and targets. However, the culture of championship of these tools has compensated to push forward successfully. There are some problems with internal collaboration, but evidence of a high priority placed on depth and breadth of engagement through employee training. There is some evidence of managing for reward and value and a nominal commitment to long term thinking; however, tools have been scoped to assumptions of cost recovery and profitability and may be limited in ecological effectiveness as a result. While integration of information remains incomplete, there is strong evidence of adaptation of sustainability tools. 3.333 INFORMATION SYSTEM. This study finds the GVRD's information system to have a medium rating of effectiveness. One of the multiple goals of undertaking reporting was for Corporate Strategies to determine what it could do to ensure that staff have the information they need to make good decisions (2 Hunt GVRD SR 2002). The GVRD has adopted the Global Reporting Index (GRI) framework for reporting, which has largely structured an indicator-based information system for sustainability performance management. 113 Although the GRI includes many measures, some of these are indicators of overall corporate performance in consumption of materials, water, and energy, and waste management. Specifically, these include: total materials used other than water; total water use; total recycling and reuse of water; 1,3 The GRI has a distinct format - it comes as a pre-packaged unit - and this is expected to serve as the organizing framework for reporting on sustainability in the future. However, the GVRD custom-designed a handful of indicators not required by the GRI, that are carefully specified in the document (GVRD SR 2003). Some indicators were added to provide unique information for the Greater Vancouver context or to describe public institutional parameters given that the GRI was built mainly for the private sector. These include: (a) regional measures that track region-wide performance in areas where the GVRD contributes to, but does not exercise control over performance; (b) public sector measures that illustrate the type or quality of service provided, but do not directly correlate with GRI indicators of economic performance or product responsibility; and, (c) measures of an aspect of a GRI indicator where data is not available to assess the full indicator (GVRD SR 2003). The Global Reporting Index (GRI) is coordinated by an independent institution with a mission to develop and disseminate globally applicable sustainability reporting guidelines (2004). King reports that the GRI was chosen because of its sustainability scope, credibility and global universality; as she observes, "90% of all sustainability reports will likely reference GRI (2004, pers. comm.)." 107

direct energy use segmented by primary source; initiatives to use renewable energy sources and to increase energy efficiency; energy consumption footprint (i.e. annualized lifetime energy requirements) of major products; indirect energy use (all energy used to produce and deliver energy products purchased by the reporting organization); other indirect (upstream/downstream) energy use and implications, such as organizational travel, product lifecycle management, and use of energy-intensive materials; greenhouse gas emissions; total amount of waste by type and destination; performance of suppliers relative to environmental components of programs and procedures; significant environmental impacts of principal products and services; and, total environmental expenditures by type. However, to date, the GVRD has not reported out on most of these indicators, providing performance reports for only total corporate electricity use and total corporate greenhouse gas emissions. The GVRD is still in the early stages of tracking information and has not yet become closely engaged in reviewing the performance and practices of its suppliers (King 2004, pers. comm.). Otherwise, the GRI framework has assisted in ensuring that indicators attain a relatively high technical standard. Indicators have been adapted to provide unique information for the Greater Vancouver context, and a commitment has been made to annual review to ensure that indicators remain relevant and aligned to operational priorities as well as consistent over time and that new, additional indicators are developed as required (63 GVRD SR 2003). In addition, the GVRD participated in the Partners for Climate Protection program and developed a corporate emissions inventory and profile in 2000 on the basis of 1990 as its baseline year (47 ICLEI 2000)The organization's work in compiling emissions information in a PCP inventory has been meaningfully integrated into its sustainability reports. The organization is missing important opportunities to include both subjective and objective information in a continually up-to-date informal system from which management and practitioners can draw from for insight into their daily work. Valuation of and insight into storytelling has already taken root in the organization but has not been connected to sustainability performance management. The GVRD has gathered and documented over fifty corporate and regional sustainability stories and made them available on the Sustainable Region Initiative website as a public engagement tool. To date, storytelling has not been identified as part of an informal or formal information system for practitioners. Internal " 4 It should be noted that the GVRD represents an organization unlike the other municipal PCP members and therefore has an emissions profile much different than the other PCP members. There are no streetlights to account for under GVRD control and the waste production from GVRD operations is not documented (47 ICLEI 2000). 108

circulars, e-newsletters, and emails support daily work but have not been connected to a unified management concept of sustainability performance. The GVRD administration does not indicate that it conceives of an information system separate from the report. Secondary problems have arisen as a result of this conflation of the two system components. Corporate Strategies has experienced difficulty in scoping, strategizing, and simplifying sustainability reports." 5 Corporate and regional information have been reported on simultaneously in the same document, leading to a mixed information system that has not been specified and made relevant for internal use. Engagement of practitioners has been solicited but without a clear sense of purpose of gathering integrated information. That being said, the reporting and information system components of the GVRD's sustainability performance management efforts are closely related. The report format has shaped the information system, but the information system has also shaped the report. A story told by King about the purchase of recycled paper provides a compelling and pertinent example: The process of monitoring the purchase of recycled paper led to the realization that some people weren't buying recycled paper. And we discovered that they weren't buying it because it looks in Grand and Toy catalogues like it is more expensive, so they were opting for other paper [without realizing that]...purchasing had negotiated cheaper prices on recycled paper (2004, pers. comm.)." With this information gathered from the report preparation process, Corporate Strategies was able to come up with a management solution, and use this lesson for evaluating other types of frequent purchases made across the organization." 6 3.334 REPORTING. The GVRD has chosen an ambitious and internationally recognized model for reporting which is based on a composite index of indicators and has committed to regular annual updates. The reporting component of the GVRD's sustainability performance management is rated medium in effectiveness. Corporate Strategies practitioner Lynda King drives a proactive commitment to performance and measurement: "as far as I'm concerned, if you're not measuring, you can't manage...in the private sector we'd be monitoring this stuff on a monthly basis. So, actually, we're at the far end with respect to investment in reporting (2004, pers. comm.)." For two years running (2002 and 2003), the GVRD has produced a sustainability report as a multipurpose communications device for both corporate and regional application (12 GVRD SR 2002). 115 King relates that she was originally directed to develop "a fifteen page, representative report that communicated how we were doing with respect to sustainability (2004, pers. comm.)." King confesses that she has struggled with competing considerations of selectivity and representativeness and notes, "I'm trying to get my report down to 50 pages and it's still 67 so far (2004, pers. comm.)." " 6 After this discovery, Corporate Services negotiated an arrangement with Grand and Toy to build an electronic front end that would coach GVRD staff to access the negotiated prices and favor the environmentally preferred choices. The system was structured in such a way that an employee would have to go further and further into the system to break out of what corporate administration wanted to be the preferred purchasing decision for all employees in the corporation. 109

Unfortunately, for all its content, the degree of performance emphasis in the GVRD's sustainability reporting is weak. Sustainability was chosen as the substantive framework for reporting instead of environment, in contrast to the State of the Environment reports chosen by several of its member municipalities. Corporate Strategies identified metrics from across the organization that could be used as indicators and structured a composite index on the basis of the GRI standard into twelve categories: Community, Economic, Land, Air, Water, Liquid Waste, Solid Waste, Energy, Affordable Housing, Transportation, Security and Emergency Management, and Our Employees. Only two of all of these indicators relate to total corporate sustainability performance. The 2003 Report does not contain specific indicators on ecologically responsible buildings, though the Green Buildings Task Group has specifically requested that the GVRD develop indicators to assess the impact of implemented green building strategies and actions in consultation Group members and other stakeholders." 7 King plans to insert a metric into upcoming Sustainable Region Initiative reports that record the number and quality of new buildings, recent retrofits and additions developed using LEED standards (2004, pers. comm.). Knight of the DSM Division observes that indicators in a sustainability management system should point out key implementation and change opportunities (2004, pers. comm.) but the GVRD's sustainability reports to date only partially achieve this. These reports provide a record of past activities, and provide some examples of strategic efforts to make change, but do not clearly articulate end targets. King has determined that the 2004 sustainability report will move further in the direction of measurable indicators, or "performance metrics that are more outcomes-based as opposed to lists of activities (2004, pers. comm.)." In her view, the culture to support this framework has not existed before but is coevolving with involvement in the performance management and reporting process. The reporting component reflects a medium penetration of the people principle. The principle suggests that the scope and level of detail of a performance report should be closely related to the differing information needs of its various audiences. The first sustainability report was produced without differentiation as to the range of user needs: one uniform report was intended to serve both internal and external communications purposes, member municipal practitioners and decision-makers, and the diverse public. The second report followed the same model, but was supplemented with a business card advertisement and four-page extract to suit a practitioner/peer audience." 8 King indicates that the extract "will go to every staff person [and] to...[municipal] libraries (2004, pers. comm.)." King clarifies 117 The Green Buildings Task Group favors the development of specific indicators for ecologically responsible buildings to test whether implemented strategies have been successful. The Group articulates that in order to be meaningful, indicators should be specific, such as (a) total square footage of commercial/institutional buildings designed/built to a LEED Silver standard or CBIP energy performance targets; (b) tonnes of construction waste recycled in a given year; and/or, (c) energy saved per square foot of institutional new construction (GVRD Memo 2002). These indicators were not employed in the latest GVRD Sustainability Report (2003). " 8 The GVRD posted the report online and produced business cards with URL addresses to the report location. King notes that the GVRD passed out this business card "to probably a thousand people at different conferences", noting that this reached out to a peer group of environmental and sustainability managers (King 2004, pers. comm.). 110

that the GVRD Board and member municipalities were the primary audience rather than GVRD staff, with GVRD staff and general public secondary (2004, pers. comm.). Both Knight and King recognize that without further specificity, a general document risks its relevance to all potential users and mail fail in its depth and breadth of engagement. King promises that future reports will strive to ensure that the information required by readers is provided in the preferred format (2004, pers. comm.); moreover, for corporate sustainability performance management purposes, future reports will be more specifically structured to ensure that staff are "not just doing our jobs but actually tracking and monitoring to see if we're improving or not with respect to sustainability overall (King 2004, pers. comm.)." For her part, Knight advocates for further work on figuring out how the reporting component links back into a sustainability management system for the organization (2004, pers. comm.), which has not yet been undertaken. The first, pilot sustainability report invited an iterative process of staff engagement in its production, and further included consultation with member municipalities and key stakeholders from the general public (2002 pers. comm.). Consultation in the information gathering and reporting process, though limited to documentary review and editing of primarily factual and technical information, created some incentives for accountability as individuals and as an organization that led to positive behavior change (King 2004, pers. comm.). King relates that both reports went through an internal review process: "it gets presented to all internal managers and is reviewed by them, and every major iteration of the report goes to the Board and gets presented to all the Advisory Committees, which are comprised of city engineers, planners, managers, finance personnel, and GVRD senior staff. All of these people are not only responsible for reading the report, but for actively contributing to it (2004, pers. comm.). " Purchasing Manager Lalonde did not feel that consultation with departmental managers on the sustainability reports was optimal. He felt that consultation could have been more meaningful and could have led to more relevant results. In particular, the GVRD's 2002 sustainability report measured a local economic variable that was not a departmental objective; in effect, a corporate indicator had been chosen that was not accepted or in use by the purchasing department (2004, pers. comm.)." 9 Lalonde and King share the view that one of the most important impacts of reporting are the questions raised and staff effort that goes into the information gathering and report preparation process. (2004, pers. comm.). King uses ecologically responsible buildings to make the point: "once [staff]...start realizing, 'oh, okay, they're going to come to me every year and ask what percentage green I built, why would it be 10% and not 50% or 50% and then 80%...that's the incremental progress that the organization would expect (2004, pers. comm.)." ' 19 Lalonde explains that the report "speaks about how much we bought locally as a percentage. The problem with that is, is that's not a target of ours. It's explicitly not a policy...it's an explicit political policy [to be] completely open - anyone who can do business with us in the world is treated exactly the same" (2004, pers. comm.). Ill

Managing for reward and value is a litmus test of how sustainability commitment is prioritized with respect to the bottom line. At the GVRD, sustainability reporting has been considered a significant enough priority that it has been resourced for review and update on an annual basis. However, Knight would like to see a more nimble and less ponderous document that requires less resources and can be more clearly tied to positive impact (2004, pers. comm.). Lalonde remains unconvinced about the value of reporting. He poses, but does not answer, the question: "So what's the benefit here of going to the effort of doing a huge report rather than putting that effort into actually doing something? (Lalonde 2004, pers. comm.)." Managing for integration in reporting is a work in progress at the GVRD. Economic, ecological, and social dimensions of GVRD activities are addressed in each category of the report format but these dimensions are left composite and un-integrated. Furthermore, a comprehensive rather than strategic focus was chosen, resulting in a data overload that does not highlight materiality or impact or provide a clear answer to the questions 'How are we doing? Where do we need more attention?'. Indicators remain itemized as part of a composite index, with no attempt to date to integrate different parameters into an overall view of corporate ecological sustainability performance. The reports do not present subjective information such as story and dialogue, though the 2003 report acknowledges that "there is much more to sustainability than developing and reporting on indicators. Our hope is that by articulating our performance we... encourage a broad-based dialogue about the sustainable future of the region (57 GVRD SR 2003)." Unfortunately, the report raises the concept of dialogue but does not link it to sustainability performance management or describe how it might be meaningfully integrated into a systemic approach to sustainability performance management. Finally, the principle of adaptation in reporting has been embraced by the GVRD, with a commitment to cycle sustainability reporting on an annual basis to update technical information and revisit the choice and type of indicators. Both Chief Administrative Officer Carline and King of Corporate Strategies are open and humble about the limitations of the first reports. They refer to the reports as prototypes that will be refined and improved with feedback and experience and will be more closely adapted to the GVRD context and to the needs of different users (King 2004, pers. comm.; GVRD SR 2003). King notes that the 2003 report is similar to the 2002 report due to production timelines but that the 2004 report will be significantly modified. Furthermore, for internal management purposes, a documentary report alone is unlikely to meet the rapidly and exponentially evolving body of information on sustainability issues. Sustainability information is increasingly available and immediately accessible on the World Wide Web. In particular, product technology is rapidly evolving. However, staff are typically too busy to undertake the extensive product research necessary to make informed environmentally responsible purchasing and building choices. For these reasons. Knight believes that web-based information supplements should be considered for reporting as a management tool for corporate GVRD and 112

municipal staff (2004, pers. comm.). A forum for communicating on the responsibility aspect of shifting to more sustainable behaviors and perspectives might also be considered for the organization. 3.34 COHESION BETWEEN SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS. The GVRD has proactively and enthusiastically engaged with performance-oriented sustainability without establishing a clear or firm sustainability performance management system. The District's system - though it is not conceived by its practitioners as such - is rated medium in this study. There is little conscious connection, though a surprising degree of synchronicity, between the four components of framework, performance tools, information system and reporting. There is little evidence that the sustainability principles distilled from Sheltair's Sustainability Framework are consistently or consciously applied, though they appear to be reflected in organizational priorities and results. Performance tools appear to have evolved organically, largely driven by ecological champions in the organization who enhanced the utility focus of their conventional responsibilities into more strategic and programmatic sustainability services. In the last two years, the reporting component has served to bring these disparate management components together and has provided a structure on which to further develop a systemic perspective in the future. [...over//] 113

The City Of Vancouver 3.41 CULTURE OF ECOLOGICAL CITIZENSHIP. At the City of Vancouver there is evidence of a healthy culture championing the principles of sustainability performance management. The cultural milieu supporting sustainability performance management receives a medium rating in this study. Concern for the environment is embedded in the City's mission statement and the recognition of a culture of practitioner support infused into the City's values of responsiveness, excellence, fairness, integrity, leadership, and learning. 120 Sustainability Coordinator Mark Holland boasts that "we have a world class city here. We're meeting most recommendations of most organizations of how a city should function. We're doing a good job of it, and that's because of really good leadership in Council and in the bureaucracy for a very long time (Holland 2004, pers. comm.). The most memorable stories told by a City of Vancouver practitioner as part of the study interviews were two tales of irony that traced the intricacies of supply chain relationships. The two tales position the City at the forefront of managing supply chain relationships for ecological and ethical considerations. They reveal the city's bold, reward-focused attitude toward SSM and DSM strategies and hint at its preferred conceptual framework of climate change. In a way that corporate administration has not yet done, the story directly links performance measurement to supply and demand side management in service of sustainability. The first tale relates to negotiations that Purchasing underwent to smooth a ruffled supply relationship as a result of implementation of a biodiesel fuel project: In order to get an alternative fuels project off the ground, the purchasing department had to do a tremendous amount of research on sourcing and other issues. It also had to negotiate over prices with Chevron, Vancouver's major fuel supplier, given the City's change in demand for conventional fuels. The City is a member of a public sector consortium that contracts to bulk purchasing of a million liters a year from Chevron at a competitive bulk price. When we approached Chevron, they said: "Qeez, wel you're going to take away 20% of your volume, we can't give you that price. We don't want you mucking around with us because that price is dependent on volume." That was the beginning of the negotiations. We argued for more latitude in our supply contract, and asked for a supply of biodiesel as a more environmentally preferable fuel alternative. It turns out that Chevron didn't want anything to do with biodiesel fuel. We just could not understand Chevron's position. When we asked them, they said they were in the fuel business, not in the vegetable business or something like that. The story makes a humorous and ironic illustration of differing degrees of ecological consciousness, the awareness of the source of materials and energy and how their use effects ecological and human health. The second tale exemplifies the impact of the prevailing economic context of practitioner decision- 120 The City of Vancouver's mission statement is "to create a great city of communities which cares about its people, its environment and the opportunities to live, work and prosper" (Vancouver 2004). One of the six broad objectives identified was "to protect and improve the environment/' (Vancouver 2004). 114

making and highlights some of the difficulties institutions encounter in trying to find responsible suppliers for preferred products: So the City needs to purchase piping for our waterworks. The pipes are nothing fancy, but traditionally, the composite material in those water connections involved a lot of glass, a lot of lead. Lead is not good. But it turns out that finding non-lead supply connections is extremely difficult. We determined that we wanted high quality copper pipes for waterworks. So the materials that go with copper are actually primarily used in China. China is consuming one-third of the world's steel and copper right now. So the price of copper has gone up 60% in the last four or five months. So we had to look at what alternatives to copper we could use to deliver fresh drinking water without paying that kind of price. We looked at less expensive plastic-jacketed pipes but they weren't as durable or reliable: if rocks in the water snag at the pipes' plastic jacket, it will eventually tear and the plastic will corrode and leach into the drinking water. Well, if you left it up to Purchasing, we'd buy the plastic product at a dollar a foot rather than $2.50 a foot. On the short term economics we'd win, but based on what's better for the environment long term, we'd be better off paying $2.50 a foot. The engineers argued that even cost-wise the City would be better off with the copper, given the price of inevitable servicing breakdowns in the plastic-jacketed pipes. Now almost all the copper in North America is supplied by one company that used to be located in the region. They were known for their fraudulent business practices. For example, they would make their pipes 3/16ths of an inch rather than the standard quarter inch. Well this tricky business came to light when water systems using these pipes started bursting all over the place. This company literally packed up at midnight and drove down to the United States to escape any charges. Well the company is still alive and well, and we still have to buy our copper tubing from these characters. Recently we analyzed six competitive bids and found that they were all sourcing this company. So at the end of the day it doesn't matter who you buy from, this company wins. It's terrible, but that's just the way life is. Sometimes, despite our best efforts, we have to do business with less than ideal suppliers. Vancouver has recently re-engaged enthusiastically with ecological sustainability after a decade of shelving concepts and frameworks that emerged in the early 1990s.' 21 The last fifteen years have produced a checkered record of messaging about 'climate change', 'sustainability', and 'environmental protection' with regard to the various components of its management system that have not been synthesized or clarified. In 1990, Vancouver kicked off SPM in the region with a relatively clear concept of the linkage between human consumption and ecological degradation - which was framed under the rubric of 'climate change' rather than 'sustainability'. The culture of the City of Vancouver is in a state of flux. Sustainability concerns are infusing into many, if not all, administrative units in the corporation and companion programs for community use are being developed rapidly on the foundations laid by corporate commitments. Driven by a new activist Council and preparations for the 2010 Olympic Games, the City is forging ahead on sustainability without the management infrastructure to support or streamline it. As acting Sustainability Manager Mark Holland observes: "we have a lot of initiatives alive...with very clear values driven intent...we might want to draw those together somehow (2004, pers. comm.). Unless corrected, this may limit the organization's ability 121 The City undertook early work to reduce waste (1989), phase out non-biodegradable foam (1990), and conserve water (1990) (Vancouver Report 1995). 115

to build on its internal culture of consciousness, championship, and collaboration, and meet its ambitious goals of leadership in the community. Mark Holland and Purchasing Manager Larry Berglund attribute the rapid recent production of performance tools, such as the ethical purchasing and green building policies, to Council interest and leadership and the approval of Vancouver's bid for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games (2004, pers. comm.). As regards the former, the interconnected issues of fair trade, ethical, and sustainable purchasing were initially raised by a Councilor, who, according to Holland, "got three others on side including one member of the Health Care Task Force." He goes on to tell a story about how the idea bounced through the door of his Sustainability Group/Office, so to speak: [Council] served the ball into our court, we didn't catch it so much as help field it. We have a champion in the purchasing department who is on fire, he's just amazing. He actually looked at a lot of this stuff...didn't even bat an eye, picked up the phone, made a few phone calls, put together an entire day-long seminar work-shop on ethical procurement with everybody from the social purchasing department to Greenpeace in the room. Covered the whole scope of things, rifled through the stuff, here's something we can work with and then worked with his colleagues and our office to fashion information and recommendations. Council passed the whole shooting-match, added some more stuff to it and again they gave us two minutes notice and they are going to start a Task Force. Off and running. So one champion on Council, someone to field it on the inside who doesn't think it's a load of nonsense, and you got action (Holland 2004, pers. comm.). Regarding the Olympics, Berglund observes that "if [Vancouver] didn't have the 2010 games, all of this stuff would have a much, much, much lower profile (2004, pers. comm.)." The City is very cognizant of the fact that the Olympics will draw the world's attention to Vancouver and the region and has publicly declared its corporate responsibility and leadership (Corporate CCAP 2004). International scrutiny provides an opportunity for Vancouver to model best practices from which other jurisdictions can benefit.' 22 Sustainable legacies are intended to take the form of concrete initiatives, including green buildings. In fact, Vancouver's long-awaited proposed South East False Creek neighborhood has been designated the site for the Olympic Athlete's Village (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). In part as a result of this context, the City of Vancouver is demonstrating ecological citizenship and corporate responsibility that extends beyond local and regional behavior to the international scale and the north-south inequities that characterize global dynamics. A culture of support is flourishing in the bureaucracy as well, including the "small cadre of the corporate management team (Holland 2004, pers. comm.)." Holland describes the cadre as a group of less than two dozen people who oversee all major responsibilities and directions of the City (2004, pers. comm.); 122 Vancouver City Council supports the Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games (VANOC)'s mandate to "showcase sustainability initiatives, technology and expertise of Canada and the host communities...and to ensure that we create sustainable legacies" (4 Vancouver GB Report 2004) that encompass green buildings. 116

moreover, cadre members are circumspect about "wading into each other's territory." While this work style may contribute to a culture of collegiality and respect, it has important consequences for connecting and streamlining policies and practices as a corporation. This departmental individuality sets the tone for all other practitioners; as one example, the Planning Department does not typically work together with other City departments on ecologically responsible building and purchasing initiatives (Mikkelsen 2004, pers. comm.). Sustainability Manager Holland recognizes this and notes that "we [need to] begin to insert a feedback loop that does that (2004, pers. comm.)." While the City displays conventional structural and functional barriers to diffusing a culture of ecological responsibility, in general practitioners have been directed to take a total sustainability perspective in their work (Berglund 2004, pers. comm.). 3.42 ORGANIZATIONAL CAPACITY. The organizational capacity of the City of Vancouver implement sustainability strategies is the strongest in among member municipalities in the region and received a "strong" rating in this study. The strength and consistency of formal commitment to sustainability is also significant and earns a medium rating. The City of Vancouver is the largest landowner in its jurisdiction, spends $200 million dollars a year on goods and services (Berglund 2004, pers. comm.) and has about eight thousand employees (Holland 2004, pers. comm.). Nevertheless, the pace and scope of change have led some managers in Vancouver to caution that implementing the ambitious directives from Council will require greater financial and human capacity than currently exists (Berglund 2004, pers. comm.; Holland 2004, pers. comm.). The organizational structure of Vancouver follows the conventional hierarchical structure with Council as the executive decision-making body. A Chief Administrator's Office heads the city administration and is responsible for three main groups in the City: Boards, Service Croups, and Departments. Purchasing, building, and engineering functions are all organized under Service Croups. For a detailed organizational chart, see Appendix E. While the Planning Group has been an important contributor to implementing some of the sustainability performance tools, particularly in developing policy for ecologically responsible buildings and neighborhoods both for the corporation and the community, it has not been involved in corporate performance management.'" Rather, the former Special Office for the Environment (SOFE) and now the Sustainability Support Group have been tasked with nurturing an internal management system for ecological sustainability. 123 The Planning Group only influences corporate facility development at the level of broad direction. For example, the Group provided an analysis of the use of LEED as an assessment framework for buildings by the City. Over the last two years Council has supported temporary staffing to investigate LEED for new corporate buildings. However, the Planning Group does not contribute to the detailed plans for corporate facilities; budgets, specifications, and RFPs, which constitute the realm and responsibility of Corporate Facilities (Mikkelsen 2004, pers. comm.). 117

The Special Office for the Environment (SOFE) can be traced back a decade and a half ago to the late eighties when the Health Authority, originally part of the City, became a separate agency. The Office was started up with existing positions in the Environmental Protection unit of Community Services, and "a handful of other people" (Holland 2004, pers. comm.) and was mandated with coordinating, "launching, resolving or responding to environmental initiatives and issues including sustainability (Vancouver 2004) l24." While the small group recognized that making changes would involve a variety of different people and work areas and that "it would be most efficient for the particular work areas to address their own issues with the SOFE providing administrative support and follow-up" (3 Vancouver Report 1995), the then-manager of SOFE was felt to be abrasive in interpersonal style. As a result, the overall effectiveness of SOFE did not meet up to City expectations and was informally disbanded when the full time coordinator left the organization. The Sustainability Office/Support Croup (SO) did not emerge to replace SOFE until 2002, when Council allocated about $250k a year for two staff positions and a consulting budget.' 25 This marked the beginning of the nascent SO, the first and only model in Canada, which at the time of writing was still in a formative stage. 126 The Sustainability Office, as the central corporate coordinator, is organized under Corporate Service, which represents a significant improvement in structuring than the organizational niche of the former Special Office for the Environment. The SO was originally tasked with producing a comprehensive strategic action plan on sustainability but instead worked with the Cool Vancouver Task Force and senior City managers to develop the climate change action plans (Holland 2004, pers. comm.). As a result, the major expertise and interest of the SO currently is on energy and climate change issues, resonating closely with DSM and SSM sustainability strategies. Acting Sustainability Manager Holland describes his role as an advocate: "I'm fundamentally incredibly watchful to make sure that the work I'm doing in the Sustainability Office doesn't start telling the director of planning what he or she should do, or the director of engineering or the director of parks or anyone. We discuss ideas, we discuss opportunities, I'll present new information and offer to explore with (2004, pers. comm.)." In future, the Croup will be mandated with sustainability programs designed for both the corporation and the community. The climate change action plans contemplate that they will be initially implemented by an expanded City of Vancouver Sustainability Group/Office and later, depending on funding sources and public feedback received during consultation around the community plan, will be 124 The Environmental Protection unit is part of the Licenses and Inspections group, organized under Community Services. The unit is focused on enforcement, compliance, and emergency management focused, and assisted the former Special Office for the Environment (SOFE). SOFE comprised one full time position and a senior manager (Vancouver 2004). 125 Holland Barr Associates was retained on a part time basis in 2003 by the City of Vancouver to develop its Sustainability Group (Holland 2004, pers. comm.). 126 The model for Vancouver was drawn from the City of Portland's (OR) Sustainability Office (Mikkelsen 2004, pers. comm.). 118

transferred to a semi-independent entity. 1 " It is anticipated that seven to nine positions will comprise the Office/Croup, including a number of already existing positions out of Corporate Services (Corporate CCAP 2004). Implementation of the CCAP is expected to drive greater capacity to achieve sustainability goals and achieve better results from performance tools. The CCAP recommends the following: (a) a Coordinator- Civic Employee Sustainability Program position to be tasked with "undertaking a full scope of activity to increase the sustainability performance of all City operations and activities, including energy usage and green purchasing"; (b) an Energy Projects Coordinator position "to help explore the issues and opportunities around an energy performance contract"; (c) technical policy analysis and development positions; (d) an Interdepartmental Energy Committee to ensure the energy performance contract incorporates departmental and facility specific needs;' 28 and, (e) a central organizing body such as a Community Energy and Emissions Croup, which will likely be, at least initially, a part of the City's Sustainability Support Croup (2004). 129 These ambitious plans will require greater resource allocations to the SO, and the CCAP recognizes the development of a resourcing strategy "that takes advantage of existing funding sources as well as identifies new approaches to funding innovative initiatives" as an integral activity to ensuring that capacity is put in place (Corporate CCAP 2004). In addition to central sustainability coordination. Corporate Services and functional group Engineering Services serve important roles in implementing performance tools and connecting disparate components of sustainability performance management. Materials Management functions under the auspices of Corporate Services, and Facilities Development functions under the auspices of Engineering Services. The former takes care of central SSM and administers policy and bylaw.' 30 As far as Berglund is concerned, Materials Management is "at the epicenter of environmental causes and everything else at the City of Vancouver" (2004, pers. comm.) and is focused on delivering on environmental issues, ethical issues, and sustainability issues within the context of the broader business environment (Berglund Personal Communication 2004). As a result, ecological considerations are incorporated into purchasing decision-making and the various contracts that the Group lets. Building in these multidimensional The "coordinating group" would be tasked with obtaining sufficient funding to keep core staff and hire temporary project staff to implement the Community CCAP. Staff would have a range of responsibilities, including: (a) coordinating the implementation of the Community CCAP amongst all the stakeholders; (b) overseeing the monitoring and reporting functions associated with the plan; and, (c) advising City Council and various administrative units on performance tools, securing funding, and other aspects of sustainability performance management (9 Corporate CCAP 2004). ' 28 The proposed multi-stakeholder Interdepartmental Energy Committee would be struck to manage implementation of an energy performance contract and in particular identify and address potential conflicts between energy efficiency measures and the smooth functioning of given facilities (9 Corporate CCAP 2004). U 9 The Task Force recognizes that one of the most important aspects of developing and implementing a climate change action plan is to identify who will lead, manage or coordinate the implementation of the plan (9 Corporate CCAP 2004). 130 Materials Management is solely mandated with meeting the needs of the Service Groups, although at times works with the City of Vancouver's Boards and Departments (Vancouver 2004). 119

considerations and criteria necessitate strategic research and interdepartmental and supplier dialogue and negotiation. Berglund shrugs off his increased personal workload with his view that "there's almost a responsibility to be a learning institution" (Berglund 2004, pers. comm.) but notes that increased scope and specificity in purchasing will require greater human resources (7 Vancouver EPP-2 Report 2004). Berglund reports that the biggest "customer" at the City is Engineering Services. Working with Engineering to develop product specifications and discuss potential purchases is typically carried out collaboratively by meeting face to face and talking through the implications (2004, pers. comm.). However, as far as purchasing related to corporate facilities is concerned, group and project engineers tend to contract out the purchasing role to construction subcontractors. The Facilities Design and Management Group handles the implementation of LEED in the design and planning of corporate facilities; the Materials Management Group has little or no involvement in major construction projects, which are managed by the City engineers in conjunction with the General Manager of Corporate Services and the City Manager (Berglund 2004, pers. comm.). Berglund notes that in general, "we have a very large workforce but when it comes to supplemental projects bigger than the City force can do, we do a lot of the work, we will supervise the work, but we'll often have to contract that out with the contractor that will be supplying the materials (Berglund 2004, pers. comm.)." As the previous stories illustrated, managing purchasing through the supply chain is proving to be one of the most challenging aspects of implementing an SSM sustainability strategy. 3.43 SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT. Vancouver has recently moved aggressively to formally institute performance tools, a move which has been supported by a healthy culture of participation and strong organizational capacity. The City does not speak in terms of sustainability performance management, nor acknowledge itself as having such a system, although all components - as defined by my model - are in existence. The City has a strong framework and strong performance tools, but only weak to medium information system and reporting components. The lack of overall acknowledgement and coordination of a system for sustainability performance management and the unbalanced priority between components has resulted in weak cohesion between management components. The various components dangle between out-dated and near-forgotten articles from past sustainability efforts and brand new documents on which the ink is still drying. There is indication from the nascent Sustainability Office at the City that an information system and reporting will be carried out in the near future, which should bring more balance to Vancouver's management system. Vancouver received a relatively high rating for principles of performance and people, with principles of reward and value, adaptation, and integration rating slightly lower. 120

The following chart provides an overview of sustainability performance management in Vancouver; note that italicized items have been recently recommended but not implemented. VANCOUVER PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT COMPONENT EST. DESCRIPTION MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK Corporate Plans: 1990 2003 1991 1993 1995.2005? Clouds of Change Report Corporate Climate Change Action Plan Management Strategies: Environmental Management Guide Code of Environmental Business Practices Environmental Agenda Strategic Sustainability Action Plan PERFORMANCE TOOIS Employee Training: 1995, 2004 Energy Efficiency-Environmental Agenda Energy Efficiency-CCAP Purchasing Policies: 1993 2004 2004 2005? Statement of Principle - Environment Energy Efficient Procurement Ethical Procurement Sustainable Purchasing Policy Other Policies & Bylaws: 1991 2004 2004 2005? Energy Utilization Bylaw Expanded Energy Utilization Bylaw Green Buildings Policy Green Roof Policy Retrofit/Construction Projects 1980s 1999 2004 2005? INFORMATION SYSTEM 1995 1996 1998 REPORTING 1995 2005 Power Smart Asphalt Materials Testing Lab National Works Yard South East False Creek ODP Environmental Audit Program ICLEI 20% Club (crossreference) FCM Partners for Climate Protection SOER Sustainability Report Figure 111-5 Sustainability Performance Management in Vancouver 121

3.431 MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK. As yet, there is no overarching management framework for sustainability performance at the City of Vancouver that focuses solely on corporate issues and brings together the pastiche of plans and policies that have been developed over the past fifteen years. Taken together, framework documents reveal a common thread in the City's approach to sustainability thus far which amounts to a loose and informal working concept for practitioners.' 3 ' The City is not consistent in its messaging about 'climate change', 'sustainability', and 'environmental protection' with regard to the various components of its management system. However, the City is clear that it does not conflate sustainability with climate change. Rather, Vancouver views addressing climate change a fundamental aspect of sustainability but recognizes that it is an effort that must support broader issues of sustainability (8 Draft Community CCAP)." The Special Office of the Environment (SOFE) characterized an era when "sustainability was seen as an environmental question" (Holland 2004, pers. comm.), and while SOFE used the term sustainability it never defined it clearly as something more all-encompassing than the environment (2004, pers. comm.). In its current work, Vancouver has chosen to continue building on the framework of climate change that it initiated in 1990 with the Clouds of Change report. The City believes that a climate change framework is an appropriate fit with the 2010 Games and the federal Kyoto accord (1 Corporate CCAP 2003), reflecting the GVRD in its malleability to international influences. The Clouds of Change Report advanced the issue area of transportation as the strategic focus and contemplated an environmental management system of a kind without referring to it as such and without conceptualizing it beyond the climate change framework. Several of the recommendations from the Task Force on Atmospheric Change (TFAC) in Clouds of Change laid the groundwork for corporate responsibility and ecological citizenship 132 and introduced performance tools such as Berglund, Materials Manager for Vancouver, believes that the difference between environment and sustainability framing is the attention to ethics and social values: "we've advanced in so many areas of the environment that the social piece is now taking on almost a greater weight. And the environmental movement is almost thirty years old, we're no longer pooh-poohing it" (2004, pers. comm.). Philosophically and conceptually, the Clouds of Change Report was progressive in recognizing that addressing ecological sustainability meant focusing on human behavior and corporate ecological responsibility (iv 1990). The Clouds of Change recommendations were primarily focused on transportation; at time or writing, the transportation sector was identified as the largest energy user, thus the largest C02 producer, providing the rationale for the report's emphasis. Many of the more ambitious of the report's recommendations were not implemented. Examples include (a) the adoption of a code for environmentally sound business principles and practices to govern all City operations, investments, and purchases (63 Clouds Report 1990), (b) the redirection of city investments toward companies with environmentally sound business practices, and (c) the initiation of selected projects, undertaken in cooperation with other cities...especially [in] the developing world, that focus on municipal recognition and response to global atmospheric change. One of the report recommendations explicitly urges city leaders to set personal examples (24 1990). 122

ecologically responsible purchasing and building, solid waste reduction, and energy conservation. 1 " The report also introduced a dialogue-focused participatory approach and protocol of communication and cooperation with other cities, reflecting a principle of integration. Some of the recommendations introduced sophisticated and strategically avant-garde ideas that were never implemented; in fact, most recommendations were not implemented. A more conventional approach to developing an environmental management system (EMS) was taken by the Special Office of the Environment (SOFE). The EMS focused on six main areas: energy conservation, water conservation, waste, hazardous waste, transportation, and purchasing practices. A year after Clouds of Change, SOFE produced a corporate Environmental Management Guide as a discussion document for the city corporation organized by issue area that encompassed DSM and SSM without highlighting it as the central strategy. 134 Although the document was presented and circulated among departmental managers and corporate administration, the Guide did not have an enduring impact on the organization. SOFE followed up with a Code for Environmentally Sound Business Practices (Vancouver Report 1993). In 1995, SOFE produced an Environmental Agenda that shaped information from Vancouver's only State of the Environment Report and outstanding recommendations from Clouds of Change and deliberations from Vancouver's CityPlan process (1996) (Vancouver SOFE-1 Report 1995) into a series of action items, and objectives given a priority rating with estimates of costs and benefits, timelines for implementation, and the designation of lead agencies (Vancouver 2004). 135 In the SOER, Vancouver received a "fair" rating for its corporate performance, drawing attention to a need to have "the environment become an increasingly important consideration in organizational decision making (Vancouver 2004)." Flowing from this, the Agenda proposed a Greening the City initiative with a package of activities, including: (a) employee training in solid waste reduction, energy conservation and ecologically responsible purchasing; (b) required regular environmental audits of all departments and worksites; (c) the provision of energy conservation incentives; (d) expansion of the City's Energy Utilization By-law; and, (e) 133 The Clouds of Change Repon set performance targets for energy conservation and emissions, namely, a 20% reduction in 1988 level carbon dioxide emissions by the year 2005, increased energy efficiency in all sectors of the City, including municipal operations, by 10% by the year 2000; and, the formal adoption of a prioritized greenhouse gas reduction plan by the end of 1996. The latter report was not prepared until 2004 - the Corporate Climate Change Action Plan. l34 The Environmental Management Guide was largely based on a product developed by the Harmony Foundation, an Ontario-based non-governmental organization. The Foundation received funding from the federal Environmental Partners Fund in the early 1990s to produce environmental management and corporate audit material for municipalities and approached the City of Vancouver for this purpose. The Council of the day decided that this work should be done internally by SOFE. SOFE obtained permission from the Harmony Foundation to use its material (2 Vancouver SOFE-2 Report 1995). The "Greening of City Hall" was identified as a priority and was one of the first tasks given to the new Special Office for the Environment (Vancouver 2004). 135 SOFE expected that the agenda would "take the form of a Local Agenda 21 blueprint for achieving global sustainability" (Vancouver 2004), a format being cooperatively promoted by FCM and ICLEI at the time. 123

continued Power Smart program involvement. The Agenda was intended to be custom-designed for the City and to bring together formerly disparate and eclectic initiatives (Vancouver 2004). While ambitious sounding, the recommendations produced as part of the Agenda were noticeably less incisive than those presented in the Clouds of Change report. In short, the Agenda items were relatively weak in performance emphasis and integration. In terms of the latter, there is no indication that interdepartmental staff were meaningfully involved in setting the agenda. Moreover, the Agenda's mechanism for collaboration was limited to an environmental suggestion box and an internal electronic environmental bulletin board (8-1 SOER 1995). The latter never materialized. The Agenda was silent on reward and value, and middling in the emphasis on people and participation. While the principle of adaptation was recognized in a commitment to regular review (1 Vancouver SOFE-1 Report 1995), this was never undertaken. Additional sustainability concepts and principles were advanced in the South East False Creek Plan (1999), which explored possibilities for innovative and ecological design in the City's proposed neighborhood development project. Holland reports that in 2000, "the sustainability question was really building loud in the City, built around the spin-off from what we had been doing on South East False Creek for the previous five years (2004, pers. comm.)." Other planning work carried out by the City has contributed to an informal body of thinking on ecological sustainability; however, these are considered beyond the scope of this study. 136 The City returned to a climate change framework by striking up of the Cool Vancouver Task Force. 137 The Task Force produced a new corporate Climate Change Action Plan (CCAP) 118 which builds on and ties together some recommendations of the Clouds of Change Report, milestones from the City's commitment to the Federation of Canadian Municipalities' Partners for Climate Protection Program and the federal Kyoto Protocol.' 39 Recommendations include renewed commitment to existing work As one example of many, Planner Dale Mikkelsen identifies the amenity-driven and densification-oriented Central Area Plan for the downtown area as a major contributor to sustainable development in the community: "the Central Area Plan shaped a lot of our growth the way it is today, before we were even calling it sustainability" (2004, pers. comm.). 137 The Task Force (created in 2003) represents a wide range of stakeholder groups across the region, including the federal government (Environment Canada), the Province (Ministry of Water, Land, and Air Protection), the Vancouver Coastal Health Authority, the Greater Vancouver Regional District (33 GVRD SR 2003), non-governmental organizations, the private sector, including utility service providers, trade associations, universities, and foundations (Corporate CCAP 2004). The Corporate CCAP was completed and adopted by Council in December 2003 (Vancouver 2004), while the Community plan has been released in draft format as part of a process of public consultation and is expected to be complete in 2005. 138 The Task Force produced two plans, a corporate plan and a community plan. While the plans contain many similar elements, they make a significant and commendable separation that emphasizes the division of responsibilities. 139 The Cool Vancouver Task Force has endorsed a "fair share of the Federal Target" based on the fact that the federal Kyoto target was not allocated regionally but rather conceived of as a national challenge, and Vancouver is growing disproportionately quickly compared to the national average. The Corporate Plan's target for reduction is 124

programs rather than entirely new notions. 1 " 0 In keeping with the Kyoto Protocol, the corporate CCAP is explicitly performance based with clear targets. The target is to reduce corporate greenhouse gas emissions to 20% below 1990 levels by 2010. The CCAP uses DSM and SSM strategies but unlike Clouds of Change, the CCAP plans aim to reduce emissions primarily through building and transportation, recognizing that building is most tenable within the City's jurisdiction.'" 1 The CCAP takes a more costrecovery and less reward and value focus, limiting recommendations to measures considered by the Cool Vancouver Task Force to be financially viable. The principle of adaptation is reflected in the plan's expectation that the Sustainability Office/Croup will provide an interim report on implementation, impacts, and cost savings in 2007; moreover, the Plan will be revised with a new greenhouse gas reduction target if the existing target has been met (29 2004). The Plan acknowledges that it is oriented toward relatively short term goals. The City intends to develop a Climate Change Adaptation Strategy to minimize the negative impacts that may arise due to the inevitable changes that the regional climate will undergo before greenhouse gas emissions can be stabilized (4 Draft Community CCAP 2004). Work on the CCAP trumped the development of a strategic sustainability plan, though the need for this overarching sustainability framework was recognized by Council in 2003 (Holland 2004, pers. comm.) and is expected to be undertaken in the near future. This pastiche of partial frameworks for sustainability performance management, as a collective, receives a strong rating in this study. The notion of sustainability is clearly linked to correcting over consumption and reducing wastes and a network of plans, policies, and principles have been formally adopted by Council and are actively championed by the organizational culture. This acting framework, as it were, is oriented to performance, people and participation and is marked by collaboration. In order to be optimal, the framework should be identified as such and organized as one document primarily under a clear sustainability concept; acknowledge fiscal responsibility without limiting the organization to a cost recovery rule; integrate disparate information and include subjective information, and be more consistent in adaptation. 3.432 PERFORMANCE TOOLS. The suite of major DSM and SSM performance tools at the City of Vancouver receive an optimal rating of effectiveness in this study. Given that there are many of these tools and that they are managed somewhat independently throughout the organization, a brief summary overview of what performance 20% below 1990 levels, by 2010 - a target that far exceeds the Kyoto target (6% reduction) and thereby demonstrates the City's commitment to leadership on climate change (1 Corporate CCAP 2004). 140 The Corporate CCAP (2004) identifies thirteen emission reduction measures which are categorized into five main categories; two of these categories are building related: Civic Facilities and Corporate Demand Side Management. A priority classification for the suite of measures recommended in the CCAP was undertaken. 141 The Vancouver Charter has special discretionary amenity zoning powers for the "public good." Planning analysts have advanced the notion that ecologically responsible buildings may be defined as entities for the public good (Mikkelsen 2004, pers. comm.). 125

tools at Vancouver have been included in the scope of analysis is provided. It should be noted that Vancouver has pioneered in the region other tools related to or supportive of DSM and SSM; however, tools considered in this study include: (a) purchasing policy; and (b) corporate ecologically responsible building and retrofit programs and activities. 142 3.4321 ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE PURCHASING. Vancouver is leading the region in using purchasing as a strategic means of implementing environmental, ethical, and soon to be sustainable purchasing policies. Essentially, Vancouver has reframed the policy debate on using multiple objectives in purchasing, by shifting the debate from how to manage competing secondary policy objectives to how to "develop more sophisticated procurement strategies that incorporate a variety of desired environmental, social, and economic objectives into the specification and evaluation process (2 Vancouver EPP-1 Report 2004)." Starting in 1993, the City included a Statement of Principle on Environmentally Sound Purchasing Practices it in its Contracts Goods and Services Policy. The statement was largely focused on reducing solid waste, but importantly, explicitly included contracts and tender specifications in its scope of application (2 Vancouver EPP-1 Report 2004). In November 2004, Council adopted an Energy Efficient Purchasing Policy that strengthens conservation requirements for the corporation and the community as recommended by the Corporate Climate Change Action Plan. The policy's main focus is on corporate equipment and Energy Star appliance 143 purchases and the use of alternative energy, in particular the purchase of Green Power Certificates 144 (11 Corporate CCAP 2004). The policy has set the performance target of achieving a net greenhouse gas emission reduction of 9,200 tonnes (30 Corporate CCAP). 14S 142 Additional noteworthy performance tools include: (a) Energy Utilization Bylaw (1991); (b) Expanded Energy Utilization Bylaw (2004); (c) the proposed Vancouver Building By-Law (2005?); (d) the Environmental Grants Program (1990s); (e) the proposed Savings Sharing Fund (2005?); and, (f) a proposed emissions trading program. In more detail: An internal accounting process tracks capital expenditures for energy related projects, accounts for the savings from the retrofits, and allocates a portion of the savings beyond those estimated in the energy performance contract to a savings sharing fund. Facilities involved in the retrofit program can apply to the fund to finance discretionary projects or to undertake further sustainability initiatives. This is expected to engage individual managers in encouraging building occupants, staff and users to manage resources more effectively (8); (f) the CCAP contemplates a move towards emissions trading and in preparation outlines the need for direct and robust measurement and documentation of the efficacy of specific initiatives (50 Draft Community CCAP 2004). In an emissions trading program, sources of a particular pollutant (most often an air pollutant) are given permits to release a specified number of tonnes of the pollutant. The government issues only a limited number of permits consistent with the desired level of emissions. The owners of the permits may keep them and release the pollutants, or reduce their emissions and sell the permits. The fact that the permits have value as an item to be sold or traded gives the owner an incentive to reduce their emissions (RFF 2005). 143 The purchasing policy was implemented in response to the recognition that one of the fastest growing sources of increased electricity consumption in office buildings is from 'plug loads', the energy consumed by equipment and appliances such as computers, copiers and fridges (10 Corporate CCAP 2004). 144 Green Power Certificates are expected to cost a 33% price premium (11 Corporate CCAP 2004). The CCAP recommends that "as an immediate but interim measure, the City of Vancouver annually purchases Green Power Certificates equivalent to a percentage of the annual electricity used at City Hall (11). 145 These figures are relative to 1990 by 2010 after accounting for corporate growth (6 Corporate CCAP 2004). 126

Almost immediately after, in December 2004, Council approved the first phase of an Ethical Procurement Policy that, in its first phase, is focused on apparel and fair trade agricultural products." 16 The policy is accompanied with a Supplier Code of Conduct, that contains a minimal environmental component related to offshore waste disposal and a more direct focus on labor and fair trade standards and other ethical considerations (see Appendix E) (Vancouver EPP-1 Report 2004). The policy and code resulted from a collaborative effort that involved external representatives as well as internal practitioners. To date, the City Materials Management Department has primarily focused attention on direct suppliers, ensuring that where required they have a local business license and Workers' Compensation Board clearance. No mechanisms are currently in place to ensure suppliers and any foreign or domestic subcontractors or distributors in the supply chain are in compliance with international labour standards. Implementing the new policy will require managing the supply chain, a process that is likely to build ecological consciousness in practitioners as they request more detailed information down the supply chain and analyze their findings. Council has directed staff to ensure that the Ethical Procurement Policy and accompanying SCC are regularly reviewed (6 Vancouver EPP Report 2004). The Finance and Purchasing people at the City are ready to go the extra mile to implement the policy and code; as Berglund states, "we're going to task our purchasing people with looking for suppliers who are interested and say, 'you give us the money and we'll build the plan'. And that's our business model, we're saying, you build it and we will come. We're going to make a commitment, you take that to the bank, you tell us when you have it and we'll start taking it from you' (Berglund 2004, pers. comm.)." Holland admits that "apparel is going to be a problem for us. We are a corporation of over eight thousand employees, so there are going to be some big purchases for uniforms. Basically the sweat shop issue is more prominent than organic cotton or natural fibers (2004, pers. comm.)." As far as the materiality or impact of Council's choice is concerned, Berglund comments that "I guess it's got to start somewhere. We know that there's going to be a ripple effect (2004, pers. comm.)." A broad and comprehensive sustainable procurement policy is under phased development that will strive to bring together and integrate all purchasing policies under one umbrella and enhance social and environmental considerations in purchasing (2 Vancouver EPP-1 Report 2004). The policy is expected to be approved and implemented in 2005. Berglund observes that the sustainable procurement policy "could potentially apply to all City purchases, of all commodities, across all City Boards and Departments, amounting to between $150 million and $200 million each year (4 Vancouver EPP-2 Report 2004)." The Task Force recognizes that ecological issues were not strongly represented in the ethical purchasing policy and supplier code of conduct and expects to emphasize them in the sustainable procurement policy. 1,6 The policy was approved subject to a financial impact/implementation report scheduled for December 2005 (Vancouver EPP-1 Report 2004). 127

Berglund of Materials Management reflects that "this thing is very much pioneering work... we're one of the few cities getting out of the box with this stuff so it's a whole new realm of integration (Berglund 2004, pers. comm.)." As far as integration is concerned, the Task Force views the purchasing tool as complimentary to the Green Purchasing Policy tool and management frameworks, namely the Climate Change Action Plan and proposed Sustainability Strategic Action Plan and holds that "implementation of a comprehensive procurement policy will depend in part on coordination with the work being done on these other initiatives (3 Vancouver EPP-2 Report 2004)." Berglund notes that along with recent energy efficiency, ethical, and sustainable procurement policy initiatives, the Materials Management department is also investigating the suitability of including ISOI40001 criteria into the next Request for Proposal for competitive goods (Berglund 2004, pers. comm.). Purchasing Manager Berglund has articulated a series of principles for the sustainability purchasing policy that resonate closely with the five fundamental sustainability principles in my SPMS model. He holds that the policy should strategically aligned or integrated with other organizational initiatives, be developed with consultation and participation, and be subject to regular review (3 Vancouver EPP-2 Report 2004). He also advocates for a principle of reward and value. On the other hand, Berglund does not suggest clear performance targets for purchasing in service of a systemic approach to sustainability performance management, nor further integration of different types of supply and demand information in an information system for sustainability performance management. For further details on purchasing policies, see Appendix F. 3.4322 ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE BUILDING. Vancouver has made significant progress in applying ecological principles to its corporate facility maintenance through retrofit projects, new building policies and projects, and neighborhood level policies and projects. In the 1980's, Vancouver began participating in BC Hydro's Power Smart program (53 Clouds Report 1990). In addition to Power Smart, the City its own energy conservation program (1990) for civic buildings focused on eliminating and/or replacing unnecessary and inefficient lighting (53 Clouds Report 1990)."" In 1993, the Special Office of the Environment undertook a series of environmental audits of selected corporate facilities, including City Hall, the Manitoba Works Yard, Central Stores, Sunset Nurseries, Burrard Health Unit, and West Main Health Unit. 148 While expansion and review of the program was intended, it never materialized (Vancouver Report 1993). In 2000, the GVRD commissioned a feasibility study (GVRD RFP 2002) in cooperation with the City of Vancouver that ""The program apparently involved converting buildings to natural gas, which at the time was viewed as a preferable option to existing energy sources despite the fact that it is a non-renewable fossil fuel (53 Clouds Report 1990). 148 The audit noted the following conservation initiatives: (a) plumbing fixture retrofits; (b) double paning of windows; (c) outside lighting upgrades; and (d) use of then-efficient fluorescent lighting tubes (3 Vancouver Report 1993). 128

encompassed three municipal indoor pools: the Vancouver Aquatic Centre, Lord Byng Pool, and Templeton Park Pool. The Corporate Climate Change Action Plan contemplates an Energy Performance Contract that is targeted to make a 20% improvement in the energy efficiency of its existing building stock by 2010, amounting to a savings of 27,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases. 149 The Plan recommends retaining a Energy Service Company (ESCO) to provide a turnkey audit, design, and retrofit service on approximately five million square feet of City owned and occupied facilities.' 50 Retrofit measures are expected to include improved controls, more efficient lighting and heating/cooling equipment, and further improvements to the building envelope such as its insulation and windows (7 Corporate CCAP 2004). The City has taken bold steps forward in ecologically responsible new development that takes both technology and responsibility in stride. Although intended for the community at large, the City's Energy Utilization By-law (1991) and Expanded Energy Utilization Bylaw (2004) ensure that energy efficiency performance standards are also applied to corporate facilities; moreover, the proposed Vancouver Building By-Law (2005?) is expected to have the same effect. In July 2002, Council approved a preliminary work program to review the LEED system for new civic buildings and report back on strategies for implementation. A work program in Planning to review the LEED system for new civic buildings (2002) turned into a green buildings program in 2003. Dale Mikkelsen, Green Building Planner based in the Planning unit, relates that "we've spent a lot of time researching how other municipalities, primarily in North America, have pursued green buildings (2004, pers. comm.)." The Planning unit's efforts resulted in Council approval of a Green Building Policy (2004) that requires all new non-residential corporate facilities over 500 square feet to achieve a LEED Gold standard, be funded out of future Capital plans, and attain a minimum of a 30% improvement in energy consumption over the City's current bylaw of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 90.1 2001 standard. 151 Implementation of the policy is expected to achieve a specified performance target of a 20% reduction in energy consumption from all new civic buildings. 152,49 Notably, the Corporate CCAP identifies the City's proposed Energy Performance Contract, a corporate retrofit project, as essentially a purchasing strategy (7 2004). 150 For buildings that the City owns but does not occupy or pay for the utilities, the Plan suggests revised or renewed lease arrangements that would enable Vancouver to recover the costs of energy efficient improvements. Likewise for buildings or space that Vancouver leases from other owners, the Plan advises that the City explore lease revisions that would enable the owners to recover their investment in energy efficiency upgrades. Finally, the Plan contemplates that the City should also review the energy efficiency of its leased spaces and consider finding new leased space or buying additional space if the owners of the space cannot be encouraged to conduct energy efficiency upgrades (8 Corporate CCAP 2004). 151 The Green Building Strategy for the City of Vancouver did not recommend that currently funded civic buildings (2003-2005 Capital Plan) be required to register for and attain LEED Certification, given that approved funding levels did not contemplate LEED Certification. The recommendation was made to ensure that potential program space or facility quality would not be sacrificed for ecologically responsible features (Vancouver GB Report 2004). 152 The targeted reduction is based on adoption of a LEED Silver standard with ASHRAE 90.1 energy efficiency standards, compared to a Business As Usual energy use scenario from a conventional building. 129

The program is currently in the process of developing a companion policy that will mandate green building requirements for the city community. In addition, the City is currently developing a green roof policy to be reviewed by Council in 2005 (Vancouver CB Report 2004) and is looking ahead to community energy systems for corporate facility pilot projects and immediate plans for South East False Creek.'" It should also be noted that the CCAP recommends that the City develop and promote a universal energy awareness program to encourage staff to adopt efficient energy behavior. An energy savings of 2 to 5%, or 5,000 tonnes, of greenhouse gases is expected to result from the program. 154 The Plan also recommends that the Sustainability Group/Office assess and report back on the feasibility of generating additional renewable/alternative energy at civic facilities and should advocate for the more aggressive implementation and broader accessibility of alternative energy with the GVRD, BC Hydro, and the Province of BC (11 Corporate CCAP 2004). Although Vancouver's comprehensive Green Buildings Policy is very new, it has been experimenting with green features in buildings for the past decade. A number of civic facilities have been built with one or more significant green feature, including Vancouver Public Library, 155 City Hall, 156 Roundhouse Community Center, 157 Molehill Housing Coop 158 (16 Everdene GVRD 2002). The fruit of green buildings work at the City are two completed innovative buildings, one of which is LEED certified, and a complex of buildings with a LEED target in the design phase. The former two projects are: (a) an Asphalt Materials Testing Lab (1999) 159 with some ecologically responsible features; and (b) a National Public Community energy systems both reduce the consumption of non-renewable, greenhouse gas emitting energy as well as provide increased energy supply robustness. They are those systems that use district heating and cooling, combined heat and power (cogeneration), distributed generation, waste heat recovery, thermal storage, and local sources of renewable energy (such as biomass, micro-hydro, wind, solar etc). One significant example is the City's own landfill gas recovery and cogeneration project where the methane gas emitted from the local landfill is captured and used to heat and provide electricity to nearby greenhouses (25 Corporate CCAP 2004). The CCAP notes that the City should also pursue immediate opportunities for community energy systems in conjunction with the expansion of Vancouver General Hospital's heat plant (25 Corporate CCAP 2004). 154 This figure is based on the assumption that 25% of employers implement energy awareness programs that improve efficiency by 2% (27 Corporate CCAP 2004). 155 Vancouver Public Library (1995) has energy efficient fixtures, and a xeriscaped green roof requiring minimal irrigation and no fertilizing or cutting (16 Everdene GVRD 2002). 156 City Hall uses waste methane produced by City's Waste-To-Energy facility (25 Corporate CCAP 2004). 157 The Roundhouse Community Center (1997) employed recycled materials and adaptive design for suitability for multiple uses (16 Everdene GVRD 2002).,S8 Twenty-six clustered affordable housing units, owned by the City, and heated with geothermal energy (16 Everdene GVRD 2002). 159 The Asphalt Materials Testing Lab represents the City of Vancouver's first attempt at incorporating environmentally responsible design and construction strategies into its civic facilities. The testing facility (398m2) was relocated in 1999 from False Creek to the north shore of the Fraser River. The fundamental focus of the building design was to demonstrate the economical use of recycled and reused materials in construction, namely heavy timber structural members, roof trusses salvaged from three existing warehouses on the site, and existing lab and mechanical equipment, light fixtures, and furniture (Busby 2004). At the end of the day, 80% of the all materials, equipment, furniture originated from recycled and reused material. Other ecologically responsible design concepts, such as natural ventilation and solar shading, were employed. Although LEED principles were employed, final certification was not sought for the building by the design team. The project received a Consulting Engineers of British Columbia, Award of Merit (Structural) in 2000, and an AIBC Innovation Award in 2001. 130

Works Yard (Chess Street) (2004),60 certified LEED Gold. In addition, the Mount Pleasant Community Complex (Kingsway 1)' 6 ' project is in the design phase and is expected to attain LEED Silver. The Works Yard project in particular made a significant impact on Vancouver City Council and the broader community. When the Works Yard was first contemplated, there were no policy guides or explicit objectives in place. As Holland characterizes it, the process of moving towards green buildings was like a "last tour de France hill climb" (2004, pers. comm.). Furthermore, the Works Yard project came in well over budget [baseline cost for conventional Works Yard] and over quality standard. It both reflected a reward and value focus and encouraged more commitment to this principle. Both Mikkelsen and Holland firmly believe that the success of the Works Yard gave Council the confidence and inspiration to proceed with the corporate green building policy and related initiatives. Mikkelsen contends that "the excitement around the Works Yard facilitated the move towards policy (Mikkelsen 2004, pers. comm.). For his part, Holland relates that "the Mayor and all the Councilors were brought down to the handing over of the [Canadian Institute of Steel Construction 2004 BC Steel Design Award in the Architectural Division for the Yard]. It transformed their sense of what's possible. In the last two weeks the policy discussions and debate in city hall over green buildings has gone away. Because they've seen it. Council's worry about green buildings is gone. They've got one. In fact they got one of the best ones. Now they'll take what they did as a corporation and...slam that real hard in policy right now with the usual angst gone, with the usual bureaucracy that we all live with on each project gone. We had to do all that to get here. Now that we're here at the end that's that. What they really want is whatever we can do to make it faster, easier, cheaper, cleaner, leaner, greener, go! Pass a law, make it happen (2004, pers. comm.; Vancouver 2004). The Finance and Purchasing people at the City are legacy and quality focused. They use life cycle analysis in their project accounting. However, as financial professionals they offer a cautionary 160 The City of Vancouver Engineering Services commissioned a new engineering works yard, the base for water, sewer, streets and electrical operations crews and their tools, to replace existing outdated facilities. The facility includes office, shop, storage, and crew staging components in five individual buildings on a five hectare site. The main administration building (30,000 ft2) and the parking operations building (3000 ft2) were designed and built to meet a LEED v2.0 Silver (although both ended up meeting Gold) standard to become the City of Vancouver's first LEED certified projects and the first buildings certified under LEED BC. Work began in August 2002 and finished in July 2004 (1 Vancouver PR 2004) near the site designated for the new Olympic Village. Energy efficiency technologies and design solutions reduced energy use by up to 55% over traditional buildings. Water use was reduced by more than 30% beyond the 1993 US Energy Policy Act. In terms of waste reduction, 50% of construction materials were reused from an adjacent dismantled sawmill or contained recycled material content such as high fly ash concrete, steel piling and structure and finishes (Omicron 2002; Mikkelsen 2004, pers. comm.; Berglund 2004, pers. comm.; Vancouver PR 2004). 161 The City of Vancouver is currently working through the design phase of a second LEED certified project, its new Mount Pleasant complex comprising of a community centre, library, and daycare at #1 Kingsway Avenue. In November 2001, Council approved proceeding with planning and design of the new complex, and in June 2002 approved setting a LEED Silver target as a pilot project to ascertain life cycle costs. The life cycle costs of various building prototypes will be ascertained with the aid of computer modeling software developed buy the Athena Group with funding assistance from the Federation of Canadian Municipalities (Vancouver GB Report 2004). The Athena Group is a firm focused on the use of sustainable building materials, and has a computer model capable of producing different building prototypes taking various factors such as cost, durability, effectiveness, implementation, and availability into consideration. As Mikkelsen notes, "we're gonna run several streams through the Athena model...so we can test all these different levels...and the associated cost...so that will help shape our longer term purchasing (Mikkelsen 2004, pers. comm.)." 131

perspective about the pace and scope of change and request that premiums associated with LEED buildings, given the financial outcome of the National Works Yard, be carefully reviewed in future (Vancouver GB Report 2004). In the Mount Pleasant Community Complex project, cost recovery through operational savings is a guiding principle, and as such the project will focus on including efficient technologies with proven pay-back (Vancouver GB Report 2004). The reward and opportunity focus in Vancouver city hall certainly does not mean that the financial professionals have the business case or costing technique all figured out. Berglund explains that budget for the National Works Yard project "was adjusted to allow the level of infrastructure to be put in place that will have some sustainability...now that facility will last a hundred years and it's probably going to be less harmful to the environment in the long term (2004, pers. comm.)." He goes on to admit that "we haven't figured out what the environment should be worth, because the tax payers are paying the bill...you've got some real challenges between short term financial implications and long term health benefits associated with it (Berglund 2004, pers. comm.). To that end, Vancouver has done a significant amount of sophisticated financial analysis on the hard economic costs of ecologically responsible buildings and extensive technical analysis on the engineering, planning, and architecture of such buildings. 3.4323 SUSTAINABLE NEIGHBORHOOD POLICIES ANDPROHJCTS. The City of Vancouver has been working for well over a decade planning a model sustainable community for the industrial lands of South East False Creek, the same general locale of the Chess Street/National Works Yard. 162 The City envisions the SEFC community as a test case for many innovative technologies, waste reduction techniques, and ecologically sensitive designs that can be broadened to Vancouver at large over time if proven successful; among the chief goals of the project is a LEED standard for all buildings. 163 While much of the discussion and planning of South East False Creek extends beyond a corporate focus and as such is out of the scope of this study, the development of a City pilot demonstration project in SEFC and public amenities will be briefly discussed here. The neighborhood focus of SEFC is important in that it represents the ultimate driver and outcome of corporate ecological responsibility - more sustainable cities and a more sustainable world. Planning for the South East False Creek neighborhood adopted a performance based focus early on. In part on the basis of indicators developed by Sheltair, Vancouver's Planning unit produced a set of policy 162 Mikkelsen explains that "in 1995 the process began with a flip from heavy industrial zoning to light industrial zoning" (2004, pers. comm.) on the large site. Vancouver's Planning unit has looked to the redevelopment of the City of Victoria's Dockside Project as a parallel to the proposed redevelopment of South East False Creek. Mikkelsen reports that the Dockside Project encompasses up to fifty acres of city-owned industrial land and has been designated by Victoria Council as LEED Silver project (2004, pers. comm.). The Dockside project is intended to be multi-sectoral, housing industrial, commercial, and residential land uses. Mikkelsen explains that "it's similar to our SEFC project except they're targeting a greater range of uses" (2004, pers. comm.). 132

guidelines for the proposed neighborhood site in 1999. 164 The preparation of an Official Development Plan (ODP) for the site has been fraught with delays and conflicting visions and concerns but is now targeted for a rezoning of the Olympic Athlete's Village by October 2004.'" Sustainability targets and performance indicators are now under production and will be integrated with the sustainability model in 2004 (Vancouver 2004; Drewitt 2004). In May 2004, Council adopted a green building strategy for the first sub-areas of South East False Creek, and outlined a process for longer term development of a community-wide green building strategy (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). Mikkelsen explains that "the City is striving to obtain a 60-70% target of the ambitious sustainability objectives put forward for the area (2004, pers. comm.)." One of the key opportunities with the scale of sustainability planning for South East False Creek is the direct relationship between buildings and other functional aspects of a neighborhood and to sustainability performance management. Flowing from the first attempt by Sheltair to create and document sustainability indicators, Council directed in July 2004 that the Official Development Plan for the site should include specific sustainability goals, targets and indicators and require tracking/monitoring of performance with regular reporting. Council requested that these indicators be explicitly cross-referenced with a sustainability model prepared by the GVRD (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). In addition, Council requested that a consultant be retained to develop an advanced public investment model that considers the economic, social and environmental benefits of developing a model sustainable community in South East False Creek by means of full cost accounting, triple bottom line accounting, and/or multiple accounts evaluation techniques (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). The visioning and planning for South East False Creek has been a cross-disciplinary endeavor both inside and outside City Hall. 166 The City has a Steering Committee for the redevelopment of South East False Creek that includes staff members appointed by the City Manager (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). The 164 Sebastian Moffat of Sheltair compiled more than 100 indicators for the South East False Creek site and presented them to Council in May 1998 (25 Georgia Strait 1998). The hundred indicators covered the broad categories of air emissions, soil, water, solid waste, natural habitat and transit. Most of them were estimated to be achievable without undue cost. Moffat pared down the "mind boggling array" of indicators to what he and an Advisory Group appointed by the City believed were the 25 most significant indicators of sustainability for the community of South East False Creek-and by extension, the City of Vancouver (Georgia Strait). At the end of the day, only two made it into the policy statement, one for water consumption and the other for solid-waste generation (25 Georgia Strait 1998). 165 In 2002, a series of five reports on water, wastewater, transportation, urban agriculture, and energy were commissioned to provide further input for the ODP process (Vancouver 2004) and were completed in 2003. In May 2004, concurrently with the completion of an Official Development Plan (ODP) for South East False Creek (SEFC), Vancouver Council adopted a green building strategy for the first sub-areas of South East False Creek (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). 166 To date, the multi-departmental initiative on SEFC and green buildings has been and continues to be coordinated by Planning staff. The lead staff position is designed to serve as a coordinating role between all relevant City departments, with particularly close ties to the Sustainability Group, Engineering, and the Office of the Chief Building Official. Additionally, the position will maintain a strong working relationship with stakeholders and task forces, including LEED Canada, the LEED BC Steering Committee, and other green building groups (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). 133

collaborative and interdisciplinary approach is considered by staff to be essential in achieving the dual outcomes of a sustainable site and a community-wide green building program (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004).,67 To obtain full value from the innovative characteristics of the community, the SEFC site is intended to be used as a learning lab with working partnerships with local universities and other bodies. The site is anticipated to become "a focus for research and development to implement and evaluate general principles of sustainable design with the intention of fostering understanding of ecological stewardship amongst professionals, academics, the development community, and the general public (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004)." Finally, from the City of Vancouver's point of view, it is hoped that policies requiring ecological sustainability and LEED in SEFC provide a new level of "base case" sustainability performance that can be applied to other projects in the City and community-wide private sector development (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). A number of public amenities are being contemplated for the SEFC site, many of which are anticipated to be sustainability demonstration projects that pilot green roof, and other, technology. Planning is underway to manage what are expected to be premium costs for these innovative environmentally responsible features at site development at large. 168 At the administrative level, the newly established Canadian Green Building Council has offered to partner with the City in developing and creating a pilot project for the pre-approval of LEED developments in the City of Vancouver starting in SEFC (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). The most recent Official Development Plan for SEFC contemplates a full-size community center serving all of SEFC, including a community boating facility for non-motorized recreational boating, the development of green roofs as recreational green spaces, and the development of the Olympic Athlete's Village for the 2010 Olympic Games. 169 In addition, Council recommended that a neighborhood energy demand management program be included as an integral part of SEFC ODP implementation (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). It should be noted in the discussion of energy that the Corporate Climate Change Action Plan specifically recommended that a community energy system pilot project be formulated as part of immediate plans for SEFC (48 Draft Community CCAP 2004). 167 A report to Council produced by the Planning department recommended that the City address green buildings at multiple levels in order to solidify "a strategy for dealing with all these elements in an integrated manner that includes City staff from a variety of departments" (3 Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). 168 Major expense is anticipated to arise from remediation of contaminated soil on the site, estimated at $56 million in the most recent (at the time of writing) Official Development Plan submission. In July 2004, Council directed staff to review, in cooperation with a consultant, the most progressive approaches to soil remediation for the SEFC lands and advised that on general principle, the publicly-owned lands on South East False Creek should generate a return to the Property Endowment Fund sufficient to recover the costs of remediation, servicing and preparation of the site for development. The costs of public amenities that may be developed in South East False Creek are expected to be funded from the City's Property Endowment Fund, Development Cost Levies, Community Amenity Contributions, contributions from the capital planning process, and external grants (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004; Vancouver GB Report 2004). 169 This facility is expected to be co-developed by the City in conjunction with the Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games (VANOC) and will involve a sub-area rezoning (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). 134

In summary, the City of Vancouver's performance tools are collectively rated strong in effectiveness. The tools are directed toward DSM and SSM in service of sustainability and have been dynamically adapted and applied over time. The tools acknowledge a performance basis with partially developed targets in most cases. Furthermore, implementation of the tools is facilitated by an emphasis on people and participation. In order for tools and the system as a whole to be optimal, integration of people and information demand further attention. 3.433 INFORMATION SYSTEM. This study rates the City of Vancouver's information system weak in effectiveness against my model of a sustainability performance management system. Like the GVRD, Vancouver does not indicate that it conceives of an information system separate from the State of the Environment Report (1995). The selection of a report format structured an information system designed as a collection of environmental trends and indicators to measure progress (Vancouver 2004) on an organizational 'report card'. The report card references indicators without ensuring they are technically accurate, practically relevant to the City context or aligned and adapted to performance targets. Other types of sustainability information have been collected in the years following the production of the State of the Environment Report. The former SOFE started but did not finish a systematic corporate environmental audit project to gather energy performance information on existing corporate facilities (Vancouver Report 1993). As part of its commitment to the FCM's Partners for Climate Protection program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, Vancouver has successfully completed a corporate emissions inventory and forecast of future emissions, set a reduction target, and with the corporate CCAP developed a local action plan. Taken together, these initiatives do not represent a centralized, strategically aligned, or consistent approach to gathering sustainability information. Finally, with the abandonment of the original intent to update information system-reports, these components no longer complete the sustainability management feedback cycle. However, the City has recognized that regular review and adaptation of information in its emissions inventory is an important aspect of sustainability performance management. The corporate CCAP recommends "that the engineering department, in cooperation with facility design and management, develop a systematic and repeatable approach to updating the corporate greenhouse gas inventory (29 2004)." Like any welldesigned indicator, an accurate and consistent emissions inventory is an essential tool in determining appropriate emphasis in policy and plan interventions. In particular, Vancouver's GHG emissions backcast and forecast provides the foundation for understanding the challenge in meeting its reduction target and establishing priority areas for DSM and SSM performance tools. 170 170 In 1999, just over half of Vancouver's corporate greenhouse gas emissions were from energy use in civic facilities (6 Corporate CCAP 2004), justifying a shared emphasis on building and transportation in emissions reduction effort. 135

Although some participation was solicited in the review of the now outdated information system implied in the State of the Environment Report, the report information system, audits, and emissions inventories were largely technical exercises. When engagement of practitioners was solicited, it was without a clear sense of purpose of gathering integrated information. The organization is missing important opportunities to include both subjective and objective information in a continually up-to-date informal system from which management and practitioners can draw from for insight into their daily work. To date, storytelling has not been identified as part of an informal or formal information system for practitioners as part of a corporate SPMS. 3.434 REPORTING. The City of Vancouver initiated a commitment to reporting on sustainability-related issues with its Clouds of Change recommendation to produce annual reports on progress towards atmospheric change targets; however, in practice, reporting efforts have been intermittent and peripheral to corporate sustainability performance management efforts. One and only State of the Environment Report (SOER) was produced by SOFE in 1995 but did not have a significant impact on the organization when it was published and was almost forgotten at the time of research. As a result, Vancouver's reporting component receives a weak rating by this study. Given that Vancouver's information system - as I conceive of it - for sustainability performance management is embodied in this report, both reporting and information system components are weak links that require review, revisioning, and updating in the near future. The SOER was intended to be a multipurpose planning tool, to "assist the general public and decisionmakers in answering the question 'where do we want to be 10 or 20 years from now?'" (1-1 SOER 1995) but was popularly viewed as a "staff" report. SOFE developed the SOER with performance and management in mind, as a 'report card' that would translate to a loose Environmental Agenda that assigned a priority rating and timelines to the goals and objectives identified in the SOER in order to maintain positive trends and reverse negative trends related to the environment and sustainability (Vancouver 2004). The report itself is normative, subjective, and prescriptive despite its claim to objectivity. Vancouver's SOER was intended as one of several components in an environmental management system for the City that would set out general goals and objectives. The report is unclear about its framework of environment or sustainability, using both terms seemingly interchangeably, and citing various external definitions without advancing one of its own. It hints at the concept of sustainability performance management based on proactive, participatory, and long term sustainability principles but does not delineate how, if at all, these principles were used to guide the framework, scope, and purpose of the report. The report attempts a comprehensive survey of eight issue areas; of these, only two relate to corporate performance. DSM and SSM strategies are laid out in 'City Hall Operations' and 'Other Environmental Issues' categories, the latter encompassing energy. The report employs thirteen indicators, some of 136

which are borrowed from the GVRD without rationale provided for individual selection or a sense of collective fit in an index. Indicators are presented in a simple list with no attempt at integration toward an overall view of corporate ecological sustainability performance. After publishing the SOER, SOFE produced a supplement document listing further trends and indicators to measure progress (Vancouver 2004). Moreover, the next sustainability report is not expected to be highly detailed, but rather "a little bit lean on the numbers (Holland 2004, pers. comm.)." While the people principle was acknowledged as a sustainability principle in the production of the report, the process followed gives little indication that it was meaningfully employed. Holland relates that "a couple of senior staff pulled together the 1995 State of the Environment Report and published it out of SOFE (2004, pers. comm.)." Participation from senior managers, key stakeholders, and public representatives was solicited to review and provide feedback on the document. 171 In form and content, the draft and final document are very similar. Only a very small publication run was performed with fifty full copies and a thousand copies of a condensed summary (Vancouver SOER Report 1995). The report was not made widely available to practitioners in the organization. 172 The SOER is silent on the principle of reward and value, though it can be inferred from the document's discussion of issues and choices that a conservative cost approach to adjusting corporate practices was preferred. The reporting component itself was not considered a sufficiently valuable aspect of management infrastructure to be updated. At the time of a scheduled update for 2000, "Council decided to put the new state of the environment report on hold, because it takes quite a bit of time and a chunk of money (Holland 2004, pers. comm.)." The next sustainability report is expected to be done with existing capacity and will attempt to organize information in a cost effective way, without expensive studies (Holland 2004, pers. comm.). Vancouver's reporting also demonstrates little collaborative effort and little integration of perspectives and priorities in the SOER; in addition, there is no attempt to present information in the form of an integrated index or the presentation of narrative alongside more factual information. Managing for adaptation was considered in the production phase but did not bear out over time. The production of the report was tied to feedback from the CityPlan process, which has an environmental section as one of its major components (1-3; 1-6 SOER 1995). SOFE intended to maintain the reporting initiative over the long term with a periodic review of City performance to be undertaken on an annual basis (Vancouver 2004). This was later revised to an update cycle of three years for interim updates and 171 In April 1993, Vancouver Council received the City's first State of the Environment Report (SOER) in draft form. The draft was reviewed by (a) departmental managers; and, (b) the citizen advisory Focus Group on the Environment (FGE). The FGE included representatives from business, public utilities, academia, environmental groups, social agencies, and youth groups (Vancouver SOFE-1 Report 1995). 172 SOFE determined that the report would be made available on request with a suggestion of being put on the internet that did not materialize. 137

six years for full updates (Vancouver SOER Report 1995). This was again revised to an interim update cycle of five years. A second, updated SOER was started in 2000 and abandoned; the perception of abundant availability of information in the region, the cost of reporting, uncertainty about whether to pursue an environment or sustainability framework, and the lack of an organizational work group were attributed as factors in the decision to put reporting further on hold. The 1995 SOER is now considered "too far out of date" to be used internally as any kind of behavioral or decision-making guide. Holland explains that "it probably was when it first came out. Within a year or two that stuff is all out of date (2004, pers. comm.)." He reports that Vancouver anticipates preparation of a sustainability report in the near future, that will form the basis for a strategic sustainability action plan (Holland 2004, pers. comm.). It should be noted that the Draft Community Climate Change Action Plan suggests that the City will look at creating an internet based Information Portal and phone support line connecting internal staff, the general public, and business sectors to information and resources designed to suggest ways of making sustainability changes easily (xiv 2004). 3.44 COHESION BETWEEN SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS. Like the GVRD, the City of Vancouver has proactively and enthusiastically engaged with performanceoriented sustainability without connecting it to a clear or firm management system. As such, Vancouver's efforts at sustainability performance management are rated medium in effectiveness in this study. Among City practitioners, there is little conscious connection between the four management components. While the framework has informed the development of performance tools, and reporting has informed an information system, there is a disconnect between framework-performance tools and information system-reporting. While some sustainability principles have been identified in different work realms for different reasons, there is little evidence that they are consistently or consciously applied. Performance tools appear to have evolved organically, largely driven by ecological champions in the organization. While there is indication that management infrastructure will be updated in the near future, the City does not seem to prioritize the development of a clear and synchronized system for sustainability performance management. As far as connecting the dots between the multitude of sustainability initiatives, including building and purchasing, Holland reflects that "how reporting will feed into decision making on procurement over a time period is not clear to me either, we'll get into it and see (2004, pers. comm.)." 138

The City of Burnaby 3.51 CULTURE OF ECOLOGICAL CITIZENSHIP. The City of Burnaby demonstrates an emergent, but still conflicted, culture of ecological citizenship. Language used in Burnaby is mainly related to the environment, rather than sustainability. Burnaby does not have a straightforward and consistent message but rather a base of reporting - now dated - and a policy and plan as a legacy from an ecologically conscious Council. Like Richmond, ecological principles are voluntarily applied at the discretion of departmental managers. Unlike Richmond, Burnaby does not have an overall management framework in which to support decision-making. Burnaby managers characterize attempts to bring the environment into decision-making as conflict-prone and adversarial. The following tale provides a "concrete" example: We just took down a building that had a huge amount of cement in it. Well, we had a major debate over the requirement to recycle the cement so it could be ground up and reused for roadbed; the debate was really about how much recycling concrete was worth to the City. Our Purchasing Mana approached me and said "Look, I see this contract coming down, it doesn't have a requirement for recycling. We know that concrete can be recycled. Here's our environmental purchasing policy, it's eight years old, we want concrete recycling in the tender document." Well of course that started of adversarial process. So Purchasing and Finance sit down with the other departments involved to tal about how we can have our cake and eat it too. We talked to the contractor about the recycling requirement and the contractor said: 'Look, if you tell us to recycle 100%, we're going to have to a premium in our price for that. If you say that we can do whatever we want with it, if you just w to go away, then likely we'll try and recycle it. If we can find a buyer for the concrete that's willing come and haul it off site and pay us for it, we'll save money'. The Project Management people felt Council doesn't really support this kind of recycling, especially a target of 100% recycling at a price premium. They did not want us to go forward with tender documents saying "you must recycle 10 of this concrete." We looked at it from different angles and created matrices, but we couldn't really find a solution. Is recycling worth 100k or is it worth 20k? And it was too tricky for us at the end of the day, I think answer. So we lost and we won. We brought the contractor in and asked "what are the odds of yo recycling this?" and finally the guy said 'Big'; he wanted the price premium for the guarantee. Whe we went out to tender, it was a tender for 'just get rid of it'. But fortunately what happened was th days after the tender was awarded, the contractor came in and told us he'd found a buyer for the concrete so the contractor would recycle 100% of the concrete. We saved money by him not build price premium into the contract, and he saved money by selling the waste product. So everyone wa happy, although quite frankly I was disappointed that we opted with 'just make it go away'. This story provides a sharp illustration of Burnaby's culture along the fault lines of the sustainability performance management principles of my SPMS model. Ecological performance is a key aspect of the debate, though not adopted as a guiding principle at the end of the day. The people principle and the principle of integration are cast in relief by interdepartmental conflict. Tensions are noticeable on the issue of cost - or what I term the principle of reward and value, as managers struggle to value ecological sustainability. 139

Not only does Burnaby lack a discourse of ecological sustainability, the environment is not even currently considered an overriding management issue (Wark 2004, pers. comm.). However, this was not always the case. Key documents such Burnaby's Official Community Plan, Green Purchasing Policy, and State of the Environment Report are legacies of a previous Council that placed more emphasis on corporate ecological responsibility. Environmental Planner Robyn Wark points to Joan Sawicky, Dallas Mead, and former Mayor Doug Drummond as previous environmental champions. Wark notes that Joan Sawicky initiated many environmental efforts, including the creation of an Environmental Planner position in the late eighties, which resulted in Burnaby having one of the first such positions in BC. While Burnaby is not in its ecological sustainability hey-day, its present Council still provides cultural support for forward progress on environmental issues. In Finance Manager Rick Earle's view, the organizational culture is consciously evolved through Council's direction (2004, pers. comm.). As he explains with regard to the Green Purchasing Policy, "you have an eight year old policy...if Council in that ensuing eight years constantly does things that are anti-environment, that policy would be nothing more than paper not regarded. It's their constant reflection of a high degree of need to do environmental things, of their high regard for environmental things, that makes it become part of the culture...if they had passed on the message through their actions that they didn't really mean what they said in a policy, they were just doing it to look good or whatever, then it would have been regarded that way by the bureaucracy (2004, pers. comm.)." Purchasing Manager Rick Ruebart concurs by explaining that "we have a pro-environment Mayor and Council. Whatever initiative we take, they support...i believe we have empowerment from Mayor and Council and senior departments to run with these things (2004, pers. comm.). However, even with formal policies and Council support, conflicts may arise over interpretation and implementation of ecological principles. 3.52 ORGANIZATIONAL CAPACITY. Burnaby rates lower on organizational capacity than its peers in this study. Burnaby has only weak capacity to implement an SMPS and has put greater emphasis on community-based environmental protection and programs than corporate responsibility. Burnaby has a conventional hierarchical structure headed by Council. The bureaucracy is headed by corporate administration and subdivided into functional departments. Approval by Council is the fundamental measure of what is considered credible and accepted in the organization. Departmental managers have discretion over voluntarily considering ecological sustainability more carefully in their decisions. Rather than the meaningful involvement of corporate administration in ecological sustainability performance management, a single full time staff person coordinates environmental protection work. 140

This staff position is the Environmental Planner based in Burnaby's Long Range Planning Section. 173 The Long Range Planning Section is responsible for environmental planning and the development of the Official Community Plan (Burnaby 2004). The Environmental Planner works with departmental managers and Burnaby's citizen advisory Environment and Waste Management Committee on key initiatives in a support/assistant role, as a strategic interdepartmental environmental advocate. 174 Taking Burnaby's resolution on green purchasing as an example, Wark explains that "it's actually stickhandled out of the Purchasing Department" but that she contributes by updating the policy and suggesting new items with ecologically preferred alternatives for inclusion (2004, pers. comm.). In Burnaby, ecological principles are voluntarily applied - or overlooked - at the discretion of departmental managers. Departmental managers with commitments to ecological citizenship are likely to push environmental initiatives further in their own realm of responsibility. In Burnaby, one full time Environmental Planner is responsible for keeping track of the issues, recommending directions to Council, and working with departmental managers. For her part as Environmental Planner, Robyn Wark reports that "the Facility Managers tend to be very proactive and they throw out lots of great ideas about [ecologically responsible technology]...and they've been very enthusiastic about the energy performance contract (2004, pers. comm.)." The Purchasing Division is overseen by Finance, a control department that ensures proper budgeting, authorities, and approvals are in place (2004, pers. comm.). In addition to buying the goods and services required by all City departments, the Purchasing Department is responsible for tendering all major projects, taking care of risk management, surplus materials disposal, and accounts payable (Burnaby 2004). The manager of Purchasing sets strategic directions for the unit, including the resolution on green purchasing (2001) and staff members are tasked with the actual purchasing. The Purchasing Division does not play an active role in the purchasing for civic buildings. Wark observes that the Policy has not been applied to civic facility functions; in city hall, these are considered different realms (2004, pers. comm.). However, it plays a practical role in advancing new and innovative technology in the corporation. As Ruebart explains, the Purchasing Department is the recipient of most new product and service marketing ads and will call end-user departments to talk over new technologies and discern areas for further research (2004, pers. comm.). The Engineering Department is organized by subordinate divisions, one of which is Development Services, tasked with corporate facility maintenance and planning. Further functional units in l7 ' The Planning Department is divided into two sections: Long Range Planning and Current Planning. Long Range Planning oversees the OCP, that provides the future vision of the City of Burnaby, as well as for planning issues relating to the Environment, Transportation Planning, Housing, Neighborhood Area Planning, Social Planning, and Planning Information Services (Burnaby 2004). " 4 The Environmental Planner works with Burnaby's Environment and Waste Management Committee, an endorsed citizen committee of Council. This Committee was involved in Burnaby's State of the Environment Report (Burnaby 2004). 141

Engineering include Contracts and Inspections and Environmental Services (Burnaby 2004). Burnaby has an interdepartmental Project Management Group responsible for the planning, design, and construction of facilities. 175 Project Managers report to the Major Civic Buildings Committee, a Committee of Council, that makes decisions regarding certification, technology, and resource consumption issues (Ruebart 2004, pers. comm.). All practitioners interviewed reported that purchasing, facilities maintenance, facilities planning are independent functional realms (2004, pers. comm.). The Environmental Planner position has helped foster a stronger habit of interdepartmental collaboration. Earle relates that he had originally worked independently on ecological considerations in purchasing and then later teamed up with the Environmental Planner. In his words: I'd like to say that there's a smooth system of collaboration but that isn't the case. The whole system that we have set up is built more like a legal system where you have checks and balances, people get together with their pros and cons. Departments are very independent in Burnaby in a lot of things the do. When you try and do something that's across boundaries with departments, it's not always readily apparent that it's across boundaries. Most of the time what happens is you'll get down the process aways, and then somebody will say, 'hey hang on, that's my department, I should be involved in that and you didn't get me involved' and people get their knickers in a knot and then you have to go back and undo that and get people on side and understand what you're trying to do (Earle 2004, pers. comm.). In Burnaby, performance tools have not been borne of collaboration; rather, implementing tools has been the catalyst for a more collaborative way of working. In particular, ecologically responsible purchasing has brought financial, engineering and environmental planning roles together to mutually discern how best each can contribute to implementation (Earle 2004, pers. comm.). Collaboration between practitioners in Burnaby is relatively inconsistent and reflects the tensions and conflicts of beginning to work together more frequently to meet multiple objectives in what were formerly segregated functions. Despite the only weak culture of compliance, the organization has a share of ecological champions in positions to move sustainability performance management forward. 3.53 SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT. The City of Burnaby demonstrates the weakest sustainability efforts and the least systemic approach to sustainability of the study organizations but was one of the pioneers of corporate ecological responsibility in the region. In its older documents, Burnaby references strong ecological sustainability language but has moved towards a rubric of environmental protection. Nevertheless, corporate responsibility is discernible as one of the directions of the organization. Compared to the other study organizations, Burnaby has been slower to shift from a conventional business model and has taken a more incremental approach to change. " s The Group is comprised of three engineering staff, a senior Project Manager and two general Project Managers (Burnaby 2004). 142

The City's efforts earn a relatively balanced weak rating on all components and for the system as a whole, compared against my SPMS model. The City has adopted some of the performance tools and management components of its peers without a sense of management purpose and with only a loose and informal commitment to implementation. Performance tools and reporting components emerge slightly stronger than the management framework and information system components. Burnaby has recently committed to a comprehensive Energy Performance Contract to retrofit older corporate facilities. However, the City has been hesitant to adopt ecologically responsible performance measures, such as LEED, for new facilities. In terms of reporting, Burnaby's State of the Environment Report (1993) is badly out of date. Report updates have now been included as part of the Official Community Plan review cycle, a decision which seems to have diluted its role as an internal management tool for corporate performance. In terms of its information system and reporting, Burnaby has not as yet begun tracking its own indicators, not to mention story and narrative elements. This study rates Burnaby's sustainability performance management weak on the degree of adoption of all performance management principles as identified in my SPMS model; however, integration and adaptation score slightly higher than performance, people, and reward and value. The following chart summarizes sustainability performance management at the City of Burnaby: BURNABY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT COMPONENT EST. PURPOSE/FRAMEWORK MANAGEMENT FRAMFWORK 1998 Official Community Plan PERFORMANCE TOOLS 2001 2004 2004 Environmental Purchasing Policy Energy Performance Contract McGill Public Library Branch INFORMATION SYSTEM N/a N/a REPORTING 1993 State of the Environment Report Figure 111-6 Sustainability Performance Management in Burnaby 3.531 MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK. The City of Burnaby does not have a corporate management framework for environmental or ecological sustainability performance. As a result, the organization lacks a clear sense of management purpose and priority for ecological sustainability and receives a weak rating in this study. In the organization, managers view their decisions as largely discretionary (within what is deemed acceptable to Council) 143

rather than responsible to an overarching internal management framework. However, it is not completely void of management directions. There are two sources, both of which have an embedded management framework: (a) the State of the Environment Report; and, (b) the City's Official Community Plan for the community. The SOE report contains language suggesting it was primarily developed to serve as a framework for meeting a set of environmental goals and objectives for the City (5 SOER 1993) and integrating existing initiatives. The SOER is framed around three normative components: Environmental Principles, Vision Statements, and Goals. These are general and suggestive rather than measurable and authoritative. Furthermore, there is no indication of specific targets, priorities, or implementation strategies. Secondly, Burnaby's Official Community Plan (OCP), last reviewed and updated in 1998, serves dual purposes for the community and for the corporation as an environmental strategy and policy document (Wark 2004, pers. comm.). Within the OCP (section 10) there is a statement of corporate responsibility and an Environmental Policy Framework that outlines the City's key environmental objectives. The OCP articulates that: Environmental problems, ranging in scale from local to global, are challenging our values, the decisions we make and the way we use natural resources and extend our built environment...for its part, the City is committed to continue to show [environmental] leadership...such stewardship must reflect an attitude that extends both broadly and deeply within the City's organization... The environmental challenges facing Burnaby will require commitment, innovative solutions and thoughtful decision making in all aspects of the City's operations and activities (Burnaby 2004). 176 The statement is supported by general environmental objectives that apply to both the corporation and community and include being proactive in addressing environmental issues, leading by example, encouraging two-way sharing of environmental information with the community, and active, meaningful community participation in environmental decision-making. The Environmental Policy Framework that is categorized into four components, three of which contain objectives relevant to this study: Environmental Quality, City Operations, and Community Involvement. Within each component are nested specific management objectives: [...over//] 176 The OCP notes that Burnaby has been the recipient in 1992 and 1996 of the Provincial Minister's Environmental Award for Municipalities in British Columbia (Burnaby 2004). 144

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY FRAMEWORK (EXCERPTS) COMPONENT SUB-ELEMENT OBJECTIVES ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY Air Quality and Global Warming Drinking Water Quality Reduce the production of greenhouse gases Promotion of water conservation Crrv OPERATIONS Goods and Services Consideration of environmental appropriateness in procurement of goods and services Physical Plant, Buildings, and Vehicle Fleets City Works Promotion of energy conservation, waste minimization, toxics reduction and environmental audits at City facilities Integration of environmental considerations into planning and decision-making for all activities undertaken through City works program COMMUNITY Shared Stewardship Integration of environmental initiatives with other municipalities and senior levels of government Figure 111-7 Environmental Policy Framework in Burnaby's Official Community Plan The Environmental Policy Framework provides a management backbone for coordinating disparate initiatives and setting priorities, although it is not explicitly suggested that the framework will be used in this way. Burnaby's purchasing policy and State of the Environment Report are not distinguished as separate components of a management system but rather as "initiatives taken by the City to protect, enhance and plan for the sustainability of our natural environment (10.2 Burnaby 2004)." In the same section, the OCP outlines the City's goal to "use energy wisely and improve the efficiency of our lighting, heating, ventilating systems, electrical equipment and vehicle fleets through energy conservation and the use of appropriate new technologies [as well as] the minimization of...waste...in all aspects of the City's operations and activities (10.4 Burnaby 2004)." Originally the State of the Environment Report (1993) was viewed as a precursor to an anticipated OCP review that would form the basis for public and staff input into environmental issues. Now the reverse is true: environmental reporting and management framework review is currently considered an aspect of periodic OCP reviews. The current OCP suggests that at the time of its next update, Burnaby intends to develop and incorporate a community energy planning strategy (10.4 Burnaby 2004). 145

3.532 PERFORMANCE TOOLS. The few DSM and SSM performance tools at the City of Burnaby receive a medium rating of effectiveness in this study. The tools considered in this study include: (a) purchasing policy; and (b) corporate ecologically responsible building and retrofit programs and activities. 3.5321 ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE PURCHASING. Burnaby adopted a resolution on environmental purchasing in 2001 and set of practices for typical corporate purchases with a companion checklist for decision-making. 177 The resolution is mainly focused on waste reduction, but its companion checklist is general enough to encompass a wide range of products and services, including buildings. The checklist includes the following questions about a potential purchase: (a) does it represent a less adverse or even a positive impact on the environment?; (b) does it reduce waste and/or make efficient use of resources (energy, water...)?; (c) is it validated by the Environmental Choice program, Green Seal, or other 3'" party certification?; and, (d) does the supplier of the product enjoy a favorable environmental track record and have they demonstrated initiative and creativity in this respect? (Burnaby EWMC Report 2001). Departmental managers responsible for procurement reported strong preference for flexibility of choice in applying the resolution, a preference that is underpinned by a concern for cost recovery in the conventional business model. Ruebart explains his department's way of observing the resolution as "unofficial and rather loose but seems to be working well for us (2004, pers. comm.)." He goes on to express that "we don't wish to be bound by some magic formula...which gives us the flexibility we like to run with things. The [environmental purchasing process] is a dynamic one, it's a living process and subject to evolution. We'll fine tune it, enhance it, subject to political guidance by Council as Council changes (2004, pers. comm.)." The purchasing unit in Burnaby uses tools such as total cost of ownership and life cycle analysis to measure the benefits to the environment and balance the strength of environmental impact with the price premium. Ruebart identifies this as a work in progress: "it's almost intuitive or based on the track record of the product. We need proven benefits (2004, pers. comm.)." In particular, he wants to ensure that Burnaby's existing equipment and warranties on equipment are not compromised, and that newly purchased products are legitimate and not simply "snake oil" technologies. Ruebart summarizes that his ultimate analysis is on "the entire impact, not just on the environment, but on the City and the taxpayers. It is a business decision, true value needs to be considered (Ruebart 2004, pers. comm.)." Ruebart noted that he had attended an environmental purchasing workshop offered by the GVRD, which highlighted, among other things, material salvage in the deconstruction of buildings. Perhaps in part due to the GVRD's influence, given that Burnaby's resolution does not reference building and 177 The policy covers office equipment and supplies, print shop material, petroleum products, and janitorial supplies. 146

infrastructure purchasing, the City has since pursued innovative procurement of recycled asphalt, recycled timbers, and water-based paints. Burnaby also pioneered the use of crushed glass as an aggregate extender in concrete in the region. 3.5322 ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE BUILDING. Compared to the other study organizations, Burnaby has taken a slower and more cautionary approach to ecologically responsible retrofits and new developments. Like the others, Burnaby has implemented Power Smart strategies for energy conservation. Moreover, at the time of writing, Burnaby was entering into an Energy Performance Contract to retrofit one third of its civic facilities (cited in 7 Corporate CCAP 2004; Earle 2004, pers. comm.; Wark 2004, pers. comm.; Ruebart 2004, pers. comm.). While the project flows from the intent in Burnaby's resolution on green purchasing, it came about informally. Ruebart observes that "the neighbor, I think, of the Director of Finance, happened to be working for Honeywell and talked to him...he's a great guy, so he was really open to it (2004, pers. comm.)." As Earle explains it, "a Councilor [approached me and] said, 'I've heard from somebody that can do that work environmentally...sounds like we can save some money and save the environment'. And I sat behind this Councilor and he just leaned over and said 'check into it for me'. So I did, and that's what started the whole thing (2004, pers. comm.)." Burnaby's Energy Performance Contract project is a bold move forward, involving a large financial sum and a large number of facilities: "we've talked about pilots and doing a pilot project, and decided to go with the whole bundle because of the granting structure with BC Hydro and Natural Resources Canada (Earle 2004, pers. comm.)." Earle explains that "we wanted to take a lead position in showing that if a City the size of Burnaby, could do something, than people are quite capable of doing it also (2004, pers. comm.). The project is scoped ambitiously: 55 of the City's 157 facilities will be encompassed in the contract for a total corporate estimated energy reduction of 25% (Earle 2004, pers. comm.). 178 The project cost is estimated at $6.4 million with a payback period of ten years. 179 Earle notes that he specifically selected ten years as the cutoff point "because ten years was a combination of good financial sense and environmental stewardship" despite arguments that this was too long. The project will include a number of energy and water efficiency strategies, including the installation of automation/occupancy sensors for lighting and heating systems (Ruebart 2004, pers. comm.). The Finance Director suggests that without the certainty of built-in incentives, such as guaranteed savings and open books - even though the package comes at a high cost - Burnaby would not have been willing to bear the perceived risks of the project. 178 The large scope was in part a financial decision, as it made sense to "bundle" buildings with different relative payback periods rather than "cherry-pick" only the buildings with the lowest payback periods. As Earle observes, "if you want to take on a leadership role, they still make sense to do...if you keep them bundled they make sense" (2004, pers. comm.). 179 Earle noted that the numbers were in draft stage and would be finalized at a later stage (2004, pers. comm.). 147

Despite a reportedly smooth planning process and attractive incentives built into the contract, both Earle and Reubart observed that the energy performance contract project - with its large scale, technical, and financial factors - encountered some difficulty getting off the ground (2004, pers. comm.). Earle indicated that the city worked collectively on the project but "we were having a hard time getting people to understand the concept" and that "a lot of people said 'hang on', I'm going to have to be involved in project management, I'm going to have to be involved in the Engineering, I own the building, or run the buildings...there were a lot of filling in the gaps after the fact (2004, pers. comm.). He further notes that there was substantial debate on whether to do only the buildings of the fifty five selected by Honeywell that represented the least expensive x percent to achieve a lower average payback on the project (Earle 2004, pers. comm.). At the end of the day, the retrofit project had more influence on shaping the next version of Burnaby's green purchasing checklist than the other way around. Wark reports that after she reviewed the City's energy performance contract, she asked the purchasing department: '"Does this...do we have energy savings as a criteria in our environmentally responsible purchasing initiative?" and we don't, so we then went back and talked to Rick, and Rick's going to be updating this now, to have life cycle costing and energy performance as part of one of the criteria in the environmental checklist (2004, pers. comm.)." As far as new corporate developments are concerned, the City has been hesitant to adopt ecologically responsible performance measures, such as LEED, for new facilities. Burnaby has discussed the use of LEED but instead has opted for energy efficiency features in its recently completed McGill Public Library Branch' 80 and the Edmonds Firehall, which at the time of writing was under construction.' 81 The Edmonds Firehall in particular was a subject of much debate in Burnaby. The project is currently under construction as an energy efficient building. The building does not make reference to the LEED standard, despite the fact that "we tried initially to build it to a Silver LEED standard in the architectural documents (Earle 2004, pers. comm.)." A consultant was retained to assess the costs for a LEED building. From interviews with staff, discussions centered around the practicality of LEED standards for the Burnaby market and for building end-users. In particular, key issues included the challenge of sourcing local material, and perceptions about the use of water efficiency strategies. At the end of the day, Wark explains that the City felt that the firehall "wasn't the right building for it, and while they wanted to incorporate a lot of the green building 180 A similar cautionary approach was used in the design and construction of Burnaby's 20,000 ft2 McGill Public Library, which employs a few green building strategies such as extensive natural daylighting (Burnaby 2004). 181 Environmental Planner Wark observes that Burnaby is aware of the LEED accomplishments of other local governments and the regional district in Greater Vancouver. She notes that Burnaby is currently discussing, if not actively pursuing, two LEED projects and is actively encouraging developers in the municipality to pursue green buildings (Wark 2004, pers. comm.). Burnaby's emphasis is currently weighted on site environmental protection issues. To the latter end, Wark chairs the Environmental Review Committee for UniverCity, and lends expertise on site management issues (stormwater and watercourse management). 148

principles from that, they didn't want to necessarily go through the steps to make it a LEED building." She goes on to say that "we need to make sure that other things like comfort, aesthetics, and safety are all covered off in the context of the green initiatives as well. I think sometimes we can be gung ho and be like 'we need to see all these things happening' but we need to make sure it meets our own needs as well (Wark 2004, pers. comm.)." In Burnaby, pilot projects are preferred over full-blown policies and programs. As Wark explains, "there are ways that we can try things that will allow us to get our foot in the door and then make it move from the pilot into the norm. Pilot programs lessen fears that this is going to be happening everywhere...if adopting a pilot program here is successful we'll apply it to other buildings. For the more challenging innovative programs...for those that are slightly on the edge I think we need to try to be sensitive to people's needs as we introduce them (2004, pers. comm.). The City has engaged in a small-scale pilot project to produce an "eco-sculpture" for Burnaby Village Museum that involves a structural frame covered in a landscape fabric. The GVRD's Sustainability Enterprise Fund has partnered in enabling the City to take on this exploration of green roof technology by funding $12.5k of the $80k project. The sculpture was chosen for its value in moving the corporation and community closer to environmentally responsible building: "eco-sculpture takes established green roof technology and applies it to a 3D art form that can be designed to promote ecological and environmental messages (Burnaby 2005)." It is worth noting that none of the staff interviewed referenced the project, based in Parks; it is assumed that this project may not have been highly integrated with other ecologically responsible discussions and initiatives at the time of interviewing. 3.533 INFORMATION SYSTEM. The City of Burnaby currently has no real corporate information system and thus receives a minimal rating. Burnaby's State of the Environment Report provides a past record of corporate and community environmental activities. No indicators were developed as part of the SOER project, although a few indicators from the GVRD were referenced. 182 Program descriptions form the main substance of communicating about what is happening on each issue; these take the form of "Workshop Issues and Concerns" and "Workshop Ideas for Actions" catalogued but not explicitly discussed or addressed in each category. Although the report has a narrative format, this is substantially different than the purposeful inclusion of subjective information described in Part I. Wark acknowledges the lack of measurement and relates that the real question is 'what difference are programs making in environmental terms?' (2004, pers. comm.). As such, the report does not contain an embedded collection of baseline information for measuring and tracking performance towards ecological sustainability. Wark explains that Burnaby has since moved in the direction of quantification, particularly 182 The report references the GVRD's Air Quality Index (24 SOER 1993) and indicators for solid waste management and recycling (37 SOER 1993). 149

in the area of solid waste management in cooperation with the GVRD. 183 However, specific reporting on solid waste issues is not considered within the scope of the scoring system. In the years since the production of the SOER, the City has participated in the FCM Partners for Climate Change Program but has not yet created a corporate emissions profile (Burnaby 2004). 3.534 REPORTING. Burnaby was the pioneer of State of the Environment reporting in the Greater Vancouver region. However, Burnaby's reporting component of what I term sustainability performance management is out of date and now past the point of being relevant or useful. Consequently, reporting is rated weak in this study. The two departmental managers interviewed were unfamiliar with the SOER's contents and did not refer to it in their daily work. The project was initiated by Burnaby's citizen advisory Environment and Waste Management Committee in 1990 with support from the Environmental Planner and was adopted by Council three years later (Burn. SOER 1993). The SOER interprets sustainability largely in terms of environmental quality. The document communicates that it will serve as a guide for "ecologically sustainable development and a balance between the environment and the economy (Burn. SOER 1993)"; however, this is not further articulated or used to shape the contents of the report. While ecological sustainability is not defined in the report, some of its ten principles reference demand and supply side management as a key strategy to be employed in setting course for ecological sustainability (2-3 Burn. SOER 1993). These principles include using natural resources sustainably (without defining what that means), reducing waste, conserving energy, purchasing goods and services that minimize adverse environmental impacts (SOER 1993). The report provides a comprehensive survey of environmental issues, covering ten topic areas in three categories. One category is related to corporate ecological responsibility: City Operations. 184 City Operations covers Goods and Services, Physical Plant, Building Facilities, and Vehicle Fleet topics. For each overarching topic, a broad vision statement is defined, with specific goals for each nested issue area and a comprehensive listing of existing and potential initiatives contributing towards achieving the stated goals. The City Operations vision statement is "to be proactive in addressing environmental issues and to lead by example (50 Burn. SOER 1993)." To that end, the report envisions (a) developing an environmental procurement policy, (b) ensuring that energy conservation, waste minimization, toxics reduction, and environmental audit programs are in effect at all city facilities, and (c) ensuring that plans 183 Burnaby produces an annual solid waste management report that describes trends about the amount of waste that's been diverted from the waste stream, and City interventions responsible for trends. Wark observes that "we've actually been very successful at getting those numbers down even with a growing population" (2004, pers. comm.). 184 Growth Management, in turn, encompasses conservation and protection of green space, urban structure, and transportation. Environmental Quality encompasses air quality and global warming, drinking water quality, waste management, and risk management. The latter section, in particular, describes DSM strategies for community application (Burn. SOER 1993). 150

& programs for all new facilities incorporate energy efficiency, water conservation and environmentally appropriate standards (Burn. SOER 1993). The report points to further performance standards and partnerships as next steps. The final recommendation is for the Environment & Waste Management Committee to collaborate with all City departments to prepare a detailed, prioritized environmental action program incorporating specific targets, responsibilities, and budget requirements for the short, medium, and long term (61-63 Burn. SOER 1993). However, this recommendation was not implemented. The report calls attention to a need for collaboration in the form of shared stewardship of ecosystems and integrated initiatives with other municipalities, the Regional District, and BC Hydro (Burn. SOER 1993). Although many actors were involved in the SOER project, Burnaby's work does not reflect a clear concept of the people principle for a corporate SPMS. The report itself suggests that it was primarily developed as a management tool (5 Burn. SOER 1993), though over ten years later the Environmental Planner reports that it was more of a public engagement tool (Wark 2004, pers. comm.). Like the other study SOERs, Burnaby's report was intended to serve multiple purposes for multiple users. Burnaby's SOER demonstrates a highly participatory process with the public but not as much so with internal practitioners. Unlike Vancouver and Richmond, who used public input from their community planning processes to inform the development of their SOERs, Burnaby envisioned that its SOER would inform the next review of the City's OCP. Wark observes that Burnaby's SOER "raised the profile of what we are doing from an environmental perspective and identified what sort of programs were on the way and where we're focusing our efforts" (2004, pers. comm.) both inside and outside of city hall. She confirms that, true to intention, the SOER formed part of the basis for updates to the Official Community Plan, which was completed in 1998 (2004, pers. comm.). Managing for reward and value is minimal in reporting. Other than a brief note about striking a balance between the environment and the economy (1 Burn. SOER 1993), the SOER is silent on valuing ecological sustainability in general and resourcing the reporting component of sustainability performance management in particular. The low priority placed on updating the report suggests that it may not have been viewed as a sufficiently valuable exercise to continue independently. Managing for integration in reporting is weak in reporting. Without a viable information system, the report did not present much factual information on ecological conditions per se, nor include narrative related to DSM and SSM strategies. Other than a few ad-hoc projects, the City has not gathered and collated centralized sustainability information since. Managing for adaptation is also minimal. The State of the Environment Report for Burnaby was originally intended to be published on an annual basis (63 Burn. SOER 1993) as part of a broader annual audit of environmental performance. However, Wark confirms that no updates have been done in decade since the report was first published. She notes that 151

environmental reporting will now be included in periodic reviews and updates of the Official Community Plan, on a much less frequent basis (2004, pers. comm.). 3.54 COHESION BETWEEN SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS. There is no concept of a performance management system, sustainability or otherwise, across the organization. Not only is there weak cohesion between components of sustainability performance management, Burnaby is unclear about individual distinctions between components. There is no distinction between information system and report. There is also an overlap between reporting and management framework, and some confusion over whether the SOER or OCP forms the City's framework for progress on the environment or ecological sustainability. At least until the OCP was reviewed in 1998, the SOER functioned both as a framework and as a report. Compared to the performance management infrastructure of the other study organizations, Burnaby is still in a rudimentary phase, has been slower to shift from a conventional business model, and has taken a more incremental approach to change. With concerted effort, practitioners have the challenging opportunity of building a clear ecological sustainability concept, threading together disparate components into a systemic approach to sustainability performance management, and infusing a DSM and SSM strategy into each component and the system as a whole. In order to be effective, this should be undertaken with wide engagement of municipal staff, in the form of meaningful training and consultation, in order to strengthen the organization's culture of ecological citizenship. [...over//] 152

Part IV A Comparative Analysis and Discussion of Sustainability Performance Management in Greater Vancouver 4.1 INTRODUCTION. In this Part, I analyze and assess the practices of each case institution as compiled in the case presentations in Part III and compare them to draw conclusions about the application of my SPMS model in managing sustainability performance in general and opportunities for better performance for each case organization in particular. This study claims theoretical or analytical, rather than literal replication across cases. Therefore, research conclusions have general relevance for other member municipalities within the Greater Vancouver Regional District, other regions in British Columbia, and to a more limited extent other local governments in Canada. I conclude this study with steps for further research and specific recommendations. The case research demonstrates that the Greater Vancouver Regional District and the cities of Vancouver, Richmond, and Burnaby have all developed management infrastructure for tracking, among other things, progress on demand and supply side management (DSM and SSM) as a dematerialization and energy efficiency strategy for sustainability. However, sustainability performance management, as described in the SPMS model in Part I, has not taken shape as such in the region. On the contrary, over the past fifteen years, various components, tools, and principles in service of "environment" or "sustainability" have been adopted on an ad-hoc and independent basis. 185 Appendix G provides a chronological overview of the development of various aspects of what I term sustainability performance management in Greater Vancouver. Following the form of the model, case institutions are discussed both individually and comparatively for their sustainability performance management effectiveness relative to the model and to each other. Again, it should be kept in mind that this conceptual framework is mine and not the framework in use by the case institution described. Like the previous Part, I present the findings from each case unit in the order of its relative rating from highest to lowest beginning with the City of Richmond, and followed by the Greater Vancouver Regional District, the City of Vancouver, and the City of Burnaby. For a more detailed discussion of the scoring system, see Part II and Appendix D. 185 While this study designates 1990 as the beginning of sustainability performance management in Greater Vancouver with the City of Vancouver's Clouds of Change Report, Richmond's widely supported corporate environmental management strategy in 2002 marks the beginning of systemic sustainability performance management. 153

4.2 COMPARATIVE SYSTEMIC SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT EFFECTIVENESS. The following chart provides a comparative ranking of the effectiveness of systemic sustainability performance management in each organization on the basis of the parameters of system components, cohesion between components, organizational capacity, and the degree of infusion of the five sustainability principles. 250 T ; CVRD Vancouver Richmond Burnaby Total Figure IV-1 Comparative Effectiveness of Case Unit SPM This overview chart illustrates clearly that the City of Richmond is leading the Greater Vancouver Region in sustainability performance management with a strong rating, followed by the GVRD and the City of Vancouver with medium ratings, and trailed by the City of Burnaby with a weak rating. The bar labeled "total" represents the total possible score for ideal effectiveness (see Appendix D). A more detailed chart provides a breakdown of the relative strengths and weaknesses of the components of each organization's approach to sustainability performance management: [...over//] 154

100% 90% 80% 70% Framework Tools 50% 40% i- Info System Reports Cohesion Capacity 10% GVRD Vancouver Richmond Burnaby Figure IV-2 Comparative Effectiveness of Components of Case Unit SPM 4.21 RICHMOND. Despite its hesitance to adopt sustainability language, Richmond has taken a strong position on SSM and DSM, a systemic view and vision of environmental management, a commitment to regular measurement, and an emphasis on training, participation, and collaboration among its practitioners. Richmond has carefully selected a modest suite of performance tools with significant materiality or impact and has applied them with enthusiasm. Richmond's values are not merely rhetoric: what Richmond does, it does well, to a high standard of quality and excellence. Of all the study organizations, Richmond viewed performance tools not as sustainability strategies in and of themselves but rather fruits of coherent and strategic intelligence at a higher level. For an organization smaller in size and resources than the GVRD and Vancouver, Richmond has optimized its capacity to make progress on sustainability. For these reasons, Richmond is best positioned to adapt to the ecological conditions of the future with agility and effectiveness. 4.22 GREATER VANCOUVER REGIONAL DISTRICT. The Greater Vancouver Regional District earns second place for sustainability management in the region. While it adopted a public position on sustainability, it has not advanced a clear and strategic definition of the concept, nor apply it consistently to a performance management system. Nevertheless, the District 155

enjoys optimal organizational capacity and largely through its proactive Demand Side Management Division and supportive corporate administration has built a vibrant culture of ecological citizenship. To date, the GVRD has emphasized its management framework and reporting components. The District has given less attention to developing a sustainability information system and performance tools, both as independent components and for how they fit into an overall system. In particular, the GVRD is missing opportunities to synergize and streamline SSM and DSM functions, which are currently operating largely in isolation from each other. Given its sophisticated capacity, there is much room for improvement in developing an effective approach to systemic sustainability performance management. 4.23 VANCOUVER. The City of Vancouver follows the GVRD with a medium rating for sustainability performance management. Driven aggressively by a proactive Council and the upcoming Olympic Games, the City has put a rush on developing performance tools with planning frameworks to support and attempt to integrate them. Vancouver has no peer among the case organizations for its bold formal commitments to performance and its broad-based willingness to adopt a reward and value attitude towards allocating organizational resources for ecological sustainability. However, in the meantime, information system and reporting components have languished. The cohesiveness of the system and its ability to foster integration and adaptation has suffered as a result. Given its strong capacity, the City has the opportunity and ability to update system components and ensure that practitioners develop a common vision for the sustainability of the city independent of the Games. 4.24 BURNABY. The City of Burnaby is rated least effective of the study organizations when compared to my model of systemic sustainability performance management. The organization not only has the least capacity but neither corporate administration, planning, nor departmental managers have considered sustainability performance from a systemic perspective. Burnaby has each individual component: a framework of sorts embedded in its community plan, some tools, a shadow of an information system, and an outdated report. Although Burnaby's performance tools are few in number and have only been tentatively applied, the City's recent approval of a large-scale Energy Performance Contract has high materiality or potential impact for reduced consumption. Individual management components have not been meaningfully related to each other and the culture supporting their individual use is by turns noncompliant and conflicted. Despite this relatively grim portrayal, the organization has its ecological champions committed to forward progress. With focused direction and effort, Burnaby can build on its existing foundations to develop an effective approach to systemic sustainability performance management. 156

4.3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS. The case description of each organization in Part III illustrated that sustainability performance management has evolved in Greater Vancouver on an ad-hoc basis. The general observation can be made that, while there is evidence of inter-organizational collaboration and mutual learning, every study organization has taken a unique approach. There are, however, a few common threads. None of the study organizations have developed an information system as an independent component of a management system. On the other hand, all organizations - at least initially - developed all other components on a stand-alone basis, in the absence of an overarching system. All organizations perceived reporting as serving, at least in part, a management purpose. While some components are named and used as such, others are loose aggregations of management units from different sources. As a result, there is variation in the type and number of management units that represent each component in each organization. There is also variation in the degree of emphasis on one or more components over others between organizations. The following chart shows how management units have been assembled into sustainability performance management components by this study: SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN GREATER VANCOUVER TOOL GVRD VANCOUVER RICHMOND BURNABY LEGEND FRAMEWORK PERFORMANCE TOOLS $1 $ $ $ t $ i $ 4fa VISION CORPORATE PLAN(S) 4- MANAGEMENT STRATEGY INFORMATION SYSTEM $ PURCHASING POLICY B PERFORMANCE REPORT ^ OTHER BYLAWS & POLICIES REPORTING i i i i i i EMPLOYEE TRAINING T" EMISSIONS INVENTORY Figure IV-3 Comparative Sustainability Performance Management Infrastructure While the GVRD has a single framework component, Richmond and Burnaby have two, and Vancouver three management units that define what I term a sustainability performance management framework. In the case of performance tools, Burnaby has a sole item, GVRD two, Richmond five, and Vancouver 157

eight items. While Burnaby has no discernable central information system, the GVRD and Richmond have two items, and Vancouver three items that form what I term a sustainability performance management information system. Finally, the GVRD and Richmond have two reports that serve a sustainability performance management purpose, and Vancouver and Burnaby each have one. It should be further pointed out that the quantity and sophistication of management units in a component does not necessarily determine the effectiveness of that component, or the system as a whole. In this study, the evaluation of effectiveness centers on a range of criteria that include the quality of sustainability definition, measurability, design, the strength and consistency of formal commitment and investment, and the culture of participation that surrounds the collective units that are taken to comprise each component. For further detail, see Appendix D. The City of Vancouver is a case in point. Despite its high number of management units, which in fact represent very progressive work, Vancouver is only rated third out of the four study groups for overall SPMS effectiveness. 4.31 MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK. In my SPMS model, I argue that a sustainability performance management framework should clearly define its application for the corporation, articulate a strategic focus on one or more root causes of unsustainability, lay out objectives that describe how the system will work within its jurisdiction to remedy or reverse one or more of these causes, and specify targets for achievement. None of the study organizations have satisfied the full potential of such a framework, especially as regards performance. Richmond leads the study organizations in its management framework, followed by Vancouver, the GVRD, and Burnaby, respectively. In Richmond, the environmental management system framework and the pervasive City vision, mission, and values comprise a sustainability performance management framework specific to the corporation. Although the framework does not set specific targets, it channels SSM and DSM as an environmental protection strategy into clear objectives that describe how the City will work within its jurisdiction to take action. The City of Vancouver has an informal pastiche of old and new climate change plans and policies that reference sustainability but were developed as part of various other organizational frameworks. Its new climate change plan defines a specific corporate focus and sets objectives and measurable targets that focus on many, though not all, salient dimensions of DSM and SSM. Vancouver expects to soon undertake a corporate sustainability plan and strategy that will bring together disparate initiatives, including climate change work, into a coherent sustainability performance management system. The GVRD has a loose sustainability initiative without any formal or authoritative structure and in this Initiative does not clearly distinguish between actions for community and corporate application. The initiative encompasses a set of principles and broad objectives, but these have not been ground into measurable targets for corporate performance. Finally, Burnaby does not have a common reference point to serve as a SPMS framework. Some practitioners reference the SOE report's embedded principles and objectives as the framework, while others use a corporate framework matrix embedded in 158

the City's Official Community Plan. Among a variety of other things, both documents reference corporate and consumption reduction foci and set objectives, but do not delineate corporate sustainability targets. 4.32 PERFORMANCE TOOLS. In my SPMS model, I argue that performance tools encompass the entire range of implementation vehicles for objectives and targets and include guidelines, policies, resolutions, bylaws, or programs. Tools differ in their materiality or impact on sustainability. For a variety of reasons that range from cost recovery potential to popularity to program support availability to materiality or impact, all organizations have put most emphasis on energy efficiency in their purchasing and building endeavors, with differing strength of formal organizational commitment and informal cultural support for implementation. Vancouver leads the study organizations in performance tools, followed by Richmond, the GVRD, and Burnaby. Vancouver has the greatest number of tools, and these tools also have the greatest materiality or impact: its new ethical purchasing policy, supplier code of conduct, and green buildings policy are among the most progressive in Canada. Richmond has invested in extensive retrofits, which have high materiality or impact, and has given the greatest emphasis to staff training that has led to greater tool effectiveness. The GVRD has invested in staff training related to DSM or SSM, has extensive ecologically responsible building and corporate responsibility programs, a purchasing policy, and a number of innovative and ecologically responsible construction and retrofit projects. Burnaby is comparatively weak on performance tools, but has just entered into an Energy Performance Contract that promises highly material retrofits across a broad array of its corporate facilities. In all the study organizations, purchasing and building are still managed largely independently, although there is growing recognition of the interdependency of these functions and opportunities for strategic alignment. 4.33 INFORMATION SYSTEM. In my SPMS model, I argue that a sustainability information system should employ indicators to collect and organize data on the basis of what the management framework's objectives specify needs to be known. The system should also encompass both informal and formal subjective information. With attention to the unique purposes, potential, and limitations of subjective and objective information, the system should strive to integrate all information meaningfully into an overall picture of progress. None of the study organizations have satisfied the full potential of such an information system for sustainability tracking, monitoring, and adaptation. Instead of creating an information database and then strategically drawing from it for reporting purposes, study organizations devised reporting formats that formed the basis for information systems. The GVRD leads the region, followed by Richmond, Vancouver, and Burnaby, respectively. The GVRD and the City of Richmond have adopted quantitative and indicatorbased reporting formats and have collated information for that purpose. The City of Vancouver adopted, and borrowed, some indicators in service of a report framework to form a weak information 159

system. Burnaby's qualitative report is so weak on measurement, and devoid of narrative, that it cannot be said to imply a sustainability information system. In addition, the GVRD and Vancouver have produced greenhouse gas emissions inventories through the Partners for Climate Protection Program and have integrated this information into their management systems. 4.34 REPORTING. In my SPMS model, I argue that reporting for sustainability performance management purposes should provide strategic information on outcomes achieved on specific objectives set out in the SPMS framework and present a clear overall view of the organization's progress in attaining its sustainability targets. Ideally, reports should be designed to assist practitioners and decision-makers to assess the effectiveness of current work and recalibrate emphasis on system components or principles as necessary. None of the study organizations have satisfied the full potential of sustainability performance reporting. Richmond leads the study organizations, followed by the GVRD; Vancouver and Burnaby rate equally. Richmond's custom-designed composite of indicators rates the highest, followed by the GVRD's sustainability report based on the international standard Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) framework. Vancouver and Burnaby's reports rate relatively low given that both are comprehensive documents that are out-dated and somewhat confused in purpose. The GVRD and Richmond have produced recent reports with a clearer sustainability purpose and a higher degree of technical excellence, and have honored commitments to regular updates to track trends over time. Regardless of whether they take an explicitly sustainability or environment focus, all study organizations' reports were produced with an expectation to serve multiple purposes for multiple audiences. All organizations' reports contain a discussion of corporate responsibility as one of a range of issues, but do not clearly relate that taking responsibility for sustainability is the higher level rationale for developing a report as part of an overall approach to sustainability performance management. It is not surprising, then, that all reports attempt to cover all things environmental or sustainable without strategically targeting issues of greatest materiality or significance to ecological sustainability. GVRD manager Knight supports this conclusion with her observation that "there is an apparent perception that it is necessary to get a handle on everything out there, rather than being strategic about the choice of indicators, data, and information (2004, pers. comm.)." This has limited the effectiveness of reporting for management purposes. In their reporting, both Vancouver and Richmond employed a subjective scoring system for objective indicator values without explaining the basis upon which subjective ratings were assigned. None of the reports create a space for narrative or other forms of subjective information to highlight insights gained or lessons learned. Furthermore, none of the study organizations discussed how indicators were interrelated in an overall measure of the environment or sustainability, nor attempted to integrate them to such an end. Differing degrees of clarity in information presentation appears to relate to the degree of understanding of the role of the report within a broader management framework. 160

4.4 COHESION BETWEEN SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS. In my SPMS model, I argue that components that are meaningfully related form a logical feedback cycle that gives each component and the system as a whole an adaptive "intelligence." The framework should optimize, streamline, and ensure the materiality or impact of performance tools, and disparate performance tools should find a common purpose under the framework. An information system should regularly gage the impact of performance tools on both ecological and human parameters, and reports should disseminate a picture of performance progress that should, in turn, feed back into a review of framework and tools. Of all the study organizations, Richmond's approach to what I term sustainability performance management demonstrates the greatest cohesion, followed by the GVRD, Vancouver, and Burnaby respectively. To date, only Richmond has reviewed its framework on the basis of reported information on the sustainability impact of performance tools. In Richmond, review of the first State of the Environment Report led to the development of specific objectives and indicators for DSM and SSM where none had previously existed. There is also indication that tools have been reviewed on the basis of reported information. In the GVRD, review of statistics on the corporate purchase of recycled paper led to management intervention to encourage better ecological purchasing performance. 4.5 CULTURE & CAPACITY. While there are commonalities between all organizations, each case presents a distinctive context in which sustainability performance management takes place. Put another way, each study organization demonstrates a varying degree of institutional capacity and a unique culture. Capacity and culture are influenced by many factors, not all of which have been canvassed in this study. While capacity in this study refers to the dedicated number of employees tasked with DSM and SSM and/or sustainability responsibilities and their position in the structure of the organization, culture refers to its collective values, attitudes and style of working. This study recognizes that in practice there is a co-evolutionary feedback loop between individuals, the collective culture, and the capacity of the organization. All the municipal practitioners interviewed recognized the importance of culture - the culture within the organization and the broader culture without - in supporting their actions as individuals. However, some practitioners interviewed strongly favored having individual discretion over the scope and degree to which they would generally consider environmental or sustainable values, while others favored strong and specific institutional supports for their individual choices. All study organizations operate within conventional hierarchical organizational structures, receiving direction primarily from Council and secondarily from corporate administration. The GVRD has the greatest capacity, with a Board and corporate administration supportive of sustainability and a large and proactive division tasked solely with demand side management. Vancouver also has substantial capacity in the form of a proactive Council and a Sustainability Support Group that is expected to grow substantially in the near future. Richmond has only a small Emergency and Environmental Programs 161

Department of two full time staff members, but departmental managers have been effective partners in championing sustainability. Burnaby has the least capacity, with no leadership from corporate administration and a sole full time Environmental Coordinator position tasked with working on ecological sustainability. Notably, despite each municipality's management infrastructure, almost none of the practitioners interviewed - across all study organizations - demonstrated complete conscious connectivity between various organizational initiatives and the overall management system. While the formal documents make these connections, a substantial 'awareness gap' must be bridged to integrate corporate targets and information into the consciousness of practitioners in their daily work and decision-making. That being said, policy and planning documents serve as guiding compasses and institutional supports, not as the change drivers in and of themselves. The change drivers are the organizational champions willing to push themselves and their colleagues out of the convenient and familiar into new realms of knowledge, understanding, and achievement. The cultures, or collective values, attitudes and style of working, of the study organizations has enabled them to extend their capacity to make change or presented barriers to change. In Richmond, the GVRD and Vancouver, a healthy culture of participation in sustainability has extended capacity. The case of Vancouver points out that ambitiously scoped, fast-paced, and Council-driven change has been enough to drive performance; paperwork and formal tools are only meaningful and effective insofar as there is an active culture to support their implementation. New and different priorities and projects necessitate new and different staff and resources. Holland points out that, "senior managers...liken projects to airplanes and you need pilots and one pilot can only fly a couple of airplanes. So if you're going to add a new thing to do, you've got to take an airplane out of the air. Which plane are you going to take out of the air? (2004, pers. comm.). Richmond, however, demonstrates that with both an active culture and a coherent and well-developed SPMS, organizational capacity may be optimized and made enduring. Collectively, three important themes emerged from conversations with municipal and regional practitioners about what is necessary for ensuring the enduring effectiveness of sustainability performance management. All themes related to culture and capacity, namely, a Council or Board committed to ecological sustainability, institutional capacity - especially in the form of human resources, and the cultivation of ecological champions. In Holland's view, the latter is most important: "there's only one thing that drives change and that's a champion (2004, pers. comm.)." In particular, Holland believes that a sustainability performance management system needs a strong and effective voice on Council and in the bureaucracy. The Councilor has the executive power, public accountability, and political persuasion and the bureaucrat provides continuity and consistency over time and connectivity 162

to the network of practitioners that implement Council directives. He explains that "cities need a sustainability office because councilors are now getting totally inundated with sustainability city stuff, every where they go, every conference. If you don't have a team of champions inside that can field that information and move on it in an effective way then the City [will be] very slow in its response (2004, pers. comm.)." 4.6 SUSTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES. In my SPMS model, I posit that, of all the sustainability principles found in the literature, five principles are fundamentally relevant for the administration of an effective sustainability performance management system in a local or regional government. These principles in short form are performance, people, reward and value, integration, and adaptation. To varying degrees, all study organizations recognize that action on sustainability should resonate and harmonize with the principles of sustainability I have identified in this study. The chart below provides an overview of the relative degree of adoption of my SPMS principles by the four study organizations. 100% -i GVRD Vancouver Richmond Burnaby Figure IV-4 Degree of Adoption of SPMS Principles in Case Units 163

4.61 THE PRINCIPLE OF PERFORMANCE. In my SPMS model, I argue that local and regional governments should establish and pursue specific and measurable corporate dematerialization and energy efficiency targets. Ideally, the organization should set targets to achieve net savings in consumption and waste production from DSM and SSM activities and document them. While none of the study organizations has fully done so, Richmond leads the other study organizations in its degree of adoption of the performance principle, followed by Vancouver, the GVRD, and Burnaby, respectively. There is a general lack of clarity and rigor in defining the concept of sustainability among study organizations. A commonly held concept of sustainability could not even be discerned within each study organization. In general, the GVRD currently views sustainability as the 'three-legged stool' of society, economy, and environment. In Vancouver, sustainability amounts to the appendix of ethical and social values to environmental protection work. In Richmond, sustainability is essentially the pursuit of environmental protection with excellence. Finally, in Burnaby, sustainability currently refers to a loose consideration of environmental issues. Moreover, each study organization has adopted demand and supply side measures to reduce consumption, but not all have defined this as a strategic sustainability focus. Ideally, a strategic sustainability focus on over consumption would also ensure that the organization as a whole reduced its gross consumption and identify and take action where possible on causal interconnections with socioeconomic systems. In the region, however, rationale for adopting DSM and SSM ranges from cost recovery, to environmental protection, to shallow sustainability, to ecological sustainability, or an eclectic combination thereof. None of the study organizations are clear or precise about their targeted sustainability destination; moreover, even where a strategic sustainability focus on reduced consumption is in place, not all administrative units across the organization share it or comply with it. Richmond has custom-designed a sound set of indicators but those that measure corporate performance directly are limited in scope and do not measure overall corporate performance in DSM and SSM. For its part, Vancouver is now widely using energy conservation - particularly electrical energy - and greenhouse gas emissions as core measures of performance and has set targets for individual performance tools and the corporation as a whole. However, Vancouver has yet to develop a broader set of ecological sustainability indicators and targets. The GVRD has committed to the consistent use of many Global Reporting Index (GRI) indicators but has not yet adopted many of the GRI indicators that measure overall corporate performance in DSM, SSM, and supply chain management. Moreover, the GVRD has not set specific targets for overall consumption and waste reduction performance. Finally, while Burnaby has some objectives, it has yet to develop indicators and targets for corporate ecological sustainability performance. 164

4.62 THE PRINCIPLE OF PEOPLE. In my SPMS model, I argue that local and regional governments should put priority on nurturing individual and organizational commitment to ecological sustainability. To that end, a systemic approach to sustainability performance management should engage holistic intelligence through interactive learning, communications, and consultation and reward accomplishments to build commitment at all levels of the organization. The second aspect of the people principle emphasizes collaboration between interdisciplinary practitioners within the organization. Each study organization recognizes that it cannot achieve sustainability in the region - never mind the world - independently, and acknowledges that all individuals and entities must take part in making change. Nevertheless, each organization has largely mapped out its sustainability course in a technocratic fashion, in many cases at least one step removed from direct participatory engagement of staff. The GVRD and Richmond tie as leaders in their degree of adoption of the engagement dimension of the people principle. Vancouver and Burnaby tie for last place. The GVRD has instituted a successful Sustainability Challenge program among staff and has piloted the use of sustainability stories for multiple audiences. While sustainability is still driven by a small group of practitioners at the District, executive level commitment and widespread contributions as part of the Challenge demonstrate a responsive culture. Through corporate wide training processes and team challenges, Richmond has been able to successfully nurture individual development towards a collective purpose and set of values. Notably, the organization sponsored leadership training for managerial and other staff, specifically in how to identify and seize opportunities. Hogg relates that training has been directly responsible for improving the capacity of his department to perform well on energy efficiency. However, Richmond has some room to improve in designing its reporting for practitioner use and involving staff meaningfully. Vancouver has trained staff in energy and water conservation in the past decade and continues to rely on training as a corporate DSM strategy. Before the Corporate Climate Change Action Plan (2003), Vancouver's framework and reporting documents are engaging and accessible but not widely circulated; this seems to have been recognized and corrected. Burnaby demonstrates minimal engagement of practitioners in sustainability performance management; moreover, the culture in which dimensions of SPM are applied is conflicted and presents barriers to change. 4.622 INTERDISCIPLINARY COLLABORATION. As part of the people principle, I posit that collaboration between interdisciplinary practitioners within the organization fosters the development of a system with authenticity and relevance and tools that incorporate a broad range of expertise, knowledge, skill, and insight. Each study organization has a varying degree of interdepartmental collaboration. Vancouver surpasses all other study organizations in 165

its degree of collaboration, followed by Richmond, the GVRD, and Burnaby, respectively. Though collaboration was a weak point in the past, Vancouver's Sustainability Group and key practitioners in functional departments have greatly enhanced integration of performance tools across the organization. The City has formal Task Forces for all major projects, including its Climate Change framework, purchasing tools, and the redevelopment of South East False Creek. However, the City has not yet taken an integrated approach to building an overall performance management system. Richmond has brought departmental managers into the entire performance management process through the collaborative development of the City's corporate-wide Environmental Management System. Implementation of purchasing and building tools is handled largely independently by departmental managers; however, a good working relationship between managers and the Emergency and Environmental Programs Department has fostered an integrated approach overall. The GVRD demonstrates interdisciplinary teamwork through its Demand Side Management Division and advisory committees, though sustainability issues are still driven by a small group. Finally, Burnaby has not meaningfully infused an integrated work style into its organization, although the City has collaborated on a few specific tools and projects. 4.63 THE PRINCIPLE OF REWARD AND VALUE. In my SPMS model, I argue that local and regional governments should emphasize total ecological value and long term legacy over short term cost and/or cost recovery in their approach to sustainability performance management. This involves the willingness to change existing organizational structures and management systems, such as instituting a systemic approach to sustainability performance management. In particular, it involves willingness to explore and test meaningful ways of assessing and accounting for the value of ecological sustainability. The principle reframes conventional risk assessment to a balanced pursuit of the rewards of measurable progress. To varying degrees, each institution has initiated the shift from quantifying costs and benefits associated with including elements of sustainability to assessing their choices and decisions in terms of risks, rewards, and responsibilities. Put another way, institutions differ in the extent to which DSM and SSM are viewed as primarily sustainability strategies or as cost recovery strategies. Richmond leads the region on overall reward and value mentality, followed by Vancouver, the GVRD, and Burnaby, respectively. Richmond has committed resources to developing the most full-fledged performance management system of all study organizations, though its choice of performance tools have largely been determined by cost savings and cost recovery expectations. Naysmith reflects that while Richmond has been proactive in pursuing innovative technology, there are still ongoing debates over specific concepts, techniques, and technologies. Vancouver demonstrates the reverse of Richmond: while taking a long term reward focus on its performance tools, it has not yet committed resources to updating and developing a sustainability performance management system. The prevailing culture of commitment to 166

sustainability at the City is now such that Planner Dale Mikkelsen was able to make the remarkable statement that "cost isn't an issue right now for the City. Council is more interested in how the policy will be implemented, not how much it will cost. We don't care about costs as a corporation. Even if a building has 5-6% more cost, we don't care, we have to do it (2004, pers. comm.). The GVRD has taken a similar approach to Vancouver, although it has invested resources into an ambitious reporting and information system model. At the executive level, no budget has been allocated for developing and maintaining sustainability performance management, and Carline has specifically claimed that progress towards sustainability would be cost-effective or cost-neutral. However, there is a growing culture of appreciation for ecological issues at the GVRD, demonstrated by the standard use of full cost accounting and the tolerance for financial outlay in the form of increased capital costs. Finally, Burnaby has not invested in sustainability performance management and remains concerned with cost recovery in DSM and SSM initiatives. Compared to its regional peers in the study group, Burnaby relies on the conventional business model and remains the most cautious in its approach to procurement and building development. Moreover, debates and controversies still characterize initiatives that pursue a strong environmental component, and pilot projects are preferred over fullblown policies and programs. The prevailing attitude is evidenced by comments like "we don't want to venture out without regular analysis", "we need proven benefits", and "we need to make choices that don't adversely impact taxpayers." 4.64 THE PRINCIPLE OF INTEGRATION. In my SPMS model, I argue that local and regional governments should strive to integrate information across disciplines and types. To that end, the principle of integration focuses on the application of holistic intelligence to sustainability solutions through merging (a) social, economic, and ecological information in decision-making and action; and, (b) empirically produced objective and subjective information. The stories highlighted at the beginning of each case and embedded within the analysis of this research arose spontaneously in dialogue as a means of making connections, critiques, and giving credit to people who have assisted in making change. Every practitioner interviewed resorted to a story to explain the nuanced interrelationships between reporting, management, purchasing and building. The process of research provided experiential confirmation of a new generation of planning theory, espoused by key proponents such as Eckstein, Sandercock, and Throgmorton to name only a few, that advocate the use of dialogue and storytelling in making change. The GVRD rates highest on its degree of information integration relative to Richmond, Vancouver, and Burnaby, respectively, though all study organizations perform poorly. The GVRD has produced sustainability stories and the greatest number of corporate indicators relating to DSM and SSM but has not integrated these efforts. Richmond has custom-designed corporate indicators relating to DSM and SSM for its organization, although its reports are technocratic and lack subjective information. Although 167

Vancouver has attempted to build on past organizational efforts, it has all but ignored its former Special Office for the Environment's work in doing so, namely the Environmental Management Guide, the Code for Environmentally Sound Business Practices, the State of the Environment Report, and the Environmental Agenda. It has not meaningfully used indicators or subjective information in reporting. Burnaby demonstrates the least integration of information as there are no defined management components able to report out on indicators or stories. Within the framework of corporate ecological responsibility, local and regional governments must begin to communicate about sustainability in ways that reflect the principles of sustainability and find opportunities for telling new individual, organizational, and cultural stories. Sustainability is about people, about human behavior, and people become conscientized to their own worldviews, beliefs, responses, and actions through sharing their own experiences and listening to the experiences of others. Eckstein makes the perceptive statement that "hope for sustainability, whether it means preservation or change, may reside in a planner's ability to distinguish story truth from data truth and to recognize [and] interpret...the stories they hear and tell (30 2003)." All practitioners should be challenged to integrate scientifically based measurements of sustainability, such as indicators, with other forms of communication and experience. 4.65 THE PRINCIPLE OF ADAPTATION. In my SPMS model, I argue that local and regional governments should produce and organize a continuous supply of up-to-date information for sustainability performance management. The principle of adaptation holds that the management system should be responsive to changing external conditions through consistent, regular updates of information and system reviews. The principle holds that the system should also strive to synchronize with other change/review mechanisms to take advantage of strategic opportunities. Adaptation should result in a constant supply of relevant and current information to ensure that decision-makers take a proactive approach to sustainability. Richmond surpasses all other study organizations in its degree of adoption of the principle of adaptation, followed by the GVRD, Vancouver, and Burnaby, respectively. In Richmond, adaptation is recognized as a principle guiding its Environmental Management System. The City has lived up to its commitments to review the system framework and update its State of the Environment reports on a regular basis. Overall, Richmond has taken a measured and regular approach to change that has optimized, but not overwhelmed, its current capacity and resources. The GVRD has recognized the principle of adaptation for the corporation without enshrining it in a formal framework and has honored commitments to the regular update of sustainability reports. It has taken a proactive approach to change, although many of its efforts have been vague and lacking in focus. Vancouver has taken on an enthusiastic adaptation of its performance tools without adapting the system as a whole. For its part, Burnaby has taken a 168

minimalist approach to adaptation and in the process its attempt at implementing ecological sustainability management has become nothing more than an archived document. All of the study organizations have taken an incremental approach to change, that is, they have adopted changes as a series of regular consecutive phases or additions. Even the City of Vancouver is phasing in its new purchasing policies, although the pace of its change has been very rapid. To meaningfully address the sustainability dilemma, the study organizations will heed to put significant organizational resources in place for sustainability performance management. 4.7 CONCLUSION. In conclusion, my Sustainability Performance Management model, in combination with the efforts and experience of the Greater Vancouver Regional District, the City of Vancouver, the City of Richmond, and the City of Burnaby, provides a road map for other local and regional governments interested in implementing effective management systems to organize and track corporate performance on ecological sustainability milestones. The model has practical value for the local and regional government context and can serve as a first template in the nascent field of sustainability performance management. Each of these four study organizations have all adopted demand and supply side management (DSM and SSM) as both an environmental protection or sustainability strategy and a cost recovery strategy. However, none of the organizations have translated their sustainability efforts into systemic sustainability performance management. All of the organizations except the City of Burnaby demonstrate different best practices that reflect the logic of my Sustainability Performance Management System model. Taken together, these best practices in sustainability performance management provide concrete and regionally indigenous examples to follow. However, in some aspects of sustainability performance management, none of the organizations in Greater Vancouver have yet broken ground. Even in the highest ranking organization, scored at 68%, there is significant room for improvement. Most significantly, none of the study organizations has set a target for overall net reduced consumption and waste. It should be re-emphasized that I focused the scoring of study organizations on the effectiveness of system development, not the actual sustainability performance of each study organization. For a comparative view of each organizations' relative strengths and weaknesses and overall score, see the following diagram: 169

igure IV-5 Comparative SPMS Effectiveness Rating for all Case Units While many sustainability factors are outside local and regional government control, this study has shown that there are key dematerialization and energy efficiency opportunities for local and regional governments to take action on sustainability. Moreover, instead of simply consuming more efficient technologies, this study has demonstrated that local and regional governments should invest resources into putting a systemic, strategic and sensitive approach to sustainability performance management in place. As the study organizations have shown, moving towards sustainability is not only possible, but exciting, and not only challenging, but rewarding. I conclude that there is a clear path forward, and will outline this path in the following recommendations. First, however, I will emphasize the importance of corporate ecological responsibility in leading change in the wider community. 170

4.8 NEXT STOP: COMMUNITY. Local and regional government corporate ecological responsibility is ultimately in service of four objectives: (a) the acceptance and ownership of responsibility on the part of the corporation in making change; (b) regulation of and service provision for the community and/or region in service of similar targets; (c) informal influence over other actors to follow suit - along with tools, techniques, and promotional stories to support follow-through; and, (d) the nurture of commitment and responsibility for ecological sustainability in the electorate. As all of the study organizations identify, corporate ecological responsibility alone is unlikely to make the critical difference in the unsustainable consumption of materials and energy that characterizes the broad culture. Each acknowledges that the impetus for CER is credibility and leadership in the areas that will make the most difference if the community follows suit. As one example, Vancouver's Mayor Larry Campbell announces that "while corporate greenhouse gas emissions account for only about 1% of the emissions within Vancouver, the [Corporate Climate Change Action] plan...clearly signal[s] that Vancouver is committed to addressing climate change issues, [and] provides a number of very realistic and repeatable examples of how individuals and organizations can act independently to reduce greenhouse gas emissions" in order to be "environmentally, socially and economically responsible (cited in 1 Corporate CCAP 2004)." Vancouver Councilor David Cadman adds that the CCAP "demonstrate[s] how organizations and we as individuals alike can create a culture of energy efficiency (1 Corporate CCAP 2004, emphasis mine)." Government intervention is one necessary dimension of correcting market failures and recalibrating society to a more ecologically sustainable trajectory; however, in Canada this is largely the scope of senior government. However, I encourage local and regional governments to seriously consider implementing those performance tools within their jurisdictional power related to purchasing, building, and beyond. As far as building is concerned, local and regional governments studied can offer actors in the region the leadership, support, experience, and regulatory and policy tools to ensure that the over 173,000 new dwelling units added in the next three decades make the least ecological impact. 186 In turn, the leadership of these institutions can further influence other municipalities to follow suit. To this end, Vancouver has recently introduced a community green building policy for South East False Creek (2004) and is developing a green buildings policy for community application that is expected to require 186 Local and regional governments in practice may be both leaders and followers in the movement towards ecological sustainability. While attempting to enforce basic regulatory compliance with more conservative business on the one hand, local and regional governments have also had to modify regulations and guidelines in order to accommodate green innovation and change on the other hand. To the latter end, institutions have explored a range of strategies: (a) packaged model standards to replace existing codes, regulations and policies; (b) removal of regulatory barriers in the form of amendments to building, plumbing, zoning, seismic, and fire codes as necessary (this may involve strengthening or relaxing standards, or providing for exemptions, depending on the technical issue); (c) design guidelines to optimize height/massing and building orientation in service of reduced energy needs; and, (d) promotion of larger buildings that demand less utility infrastructure, to name only a few. 171

all new commercial buildings to attain a LEED standard.' 87 Vancouver's characterization of South East False Creek as a learning lab for ecologically sustainable design in the community is an exceptional practical example of the philosophy of responsibility. Richmond is also actively considering developing a community based green buildings policy that will involve a LEED standard (Naysmith 2004, pers. comm.). The adoption and implementation of ecologically responsible, ethical, and sustainable purchasing policies has the potential for market transformation in the community, region, and beyond. As public institutions require higher standards for products, services, and the ecological sustainability performance of firms providing them, firms are likely to change to retain their major customers, with a resultant shift in the market towards more and better ecologically preferred products and services. While all of the study organizations recognized this power and potential, the City of Vancouver is the only one working extensively on supply chain management. With its newly approved Supplier Code of Conduct, Vancouver must now ensure that supply firms are compliant as part of the bid evaluation process. Recognizing that its major suppliers, and prospective suppliers, will in some cases have to make major operational changes, the City is prepared to work with those who do not fully comply with the code and companion policy to assist them to improve their workplace practices. As Vancouver Councilor Cadman points out, the city corporation is a culture that operates within the larger culture of the community, region, and globe. At the community and regional level, the culture forms not only the philosophical climate but the electoral base to which City action is accountable. Naysmith makes the interesting reflection that "if [performance tools] didn't exist, we would still be trying to develop green buildings, we would still be developing green products and materials, because this is the way the world is going (2004, pers. comm.)." His view on sustainability performance management resonates with the conclusion of this study: a management system provides a solid foundation, a way to make disparate initiatives connected, coherent, and effective, and a means of staying on track and on target over time (Naysmith 2004, pers. comm.). Most importantly, a SPMS emphasizes responsibility. The world may be going in a "green" direction, but is it shaping both behavior and technology? Can the Greater Vancouver region begin to do its part to attain a 50% reduction in fossil fuel-based energy and material consumption and waste production globally by 2050 (Carley and Spapens 1999 cited in 14 Rees 2001). Can the region, as part of the wealthy north, begin to seriously consider the need to reduce its consumption by 80-90% (14 Rees 2001)? 18 In May 2004, Council decided that LEED Silver would be the minimum design goal of SEFC, with the intent to move toward achieving LEED Gold as a goal, both without formal certification under the LEED system. In addition, buildings in SEFC will be required to adhere to a series of mandatory requirements that respect the 1999 Council endorsed policy guidelines for SEFC (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). The City of Vancouver hopes that policies requiring ecological sustainability and LEED in South East False Creek provide a new level of "base case" sustainability performance that can be applied to other projects in the City and community-wide private sector development (Vancouver SEFC Report 2004). 172

Ultimately, as individuals and organizations grow into more influential ecological champions, it can be reasonably expected that the cultural paradigm will shift to synchronize to follow a more sustainable trajectory. Putting the planet's population on a more sustainable trajectory will take a paradigm shift of the dominant global culture that, as William Ruckelhaus points out, "will have to be a fully conscious operation (cited in 33 Boyd 2004)." In Canada and in the developed north, responsibility for inequitable ecological footprints must be taken to ensure that wealthy nations do not simply choose market-friendly technological solutions to purchase "improved environmental quality and living standards...at the expense of lower quality elsewhere and a greater overall human load on the biosphere (2 Rees 2001)." This will require careful analysis and collaboration for the common good at the global scale. 4.9 DIRECTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH. Additional research would serve many dimensions of this study. Moreover, while this study took a broad scope in its attempt to integrate many themes, important issues were raised but by necessity could not be addressed in depth. This section will provide a brief summary of what I view as the most salient dimensions requiring further research. As it stands, the study as organized could be developed with other parameters to add further insight into sustainability performance management, such as case studies from other regions to add insight and learn about other practices in sustainability performance management. On the other hand, another study could address a different jurisdictional context and look at sustainability performance management opportunities for senior (provincial and federal) governments. In terms of strategic sustainability focus, more investigative work must be done on how regions can meaningfully address issues of globally unsustainable economic and population growth. In terms of the latter, a different study could investigate how local and regional governments in the Greater Vancouver region can begin to take action to challenge the assumptions of market capitalism, such as continued economic growth, in their current political and jurisdictional context. Moreover, my choice of supply and demand side management as the most tangible sustainability strategy takes a public administration and utilities focus. However, a land use and design focus, building on the work of smart growth, is another important approach to sustainability and has a major impact on individual and cultural consumption habits and lifestyle choices. I determined that supply and demand side management of buildings is the most tangible sustainability strategy in British Columbia but a focus on transportation could also be supported. Ecological fiscal reform is another strategy and scope that should be further researched. 188 188 As two examples, Rees suggests that local and regional governments should grapple more directly with bringing consumer prices for many goods and services more in line with the total social and ecological costs of providing 173

In this study, I created a model for a sustainability performance management system comprised of four basic system components and dealt with culture, capacity, and cohesion as separate issues. It would be interesting to further explore the development of other management system models, and attempt a more sophisticated method of dealing with culture, cohesion, and especially capacity. I took a narrow and partial construction of capacity with the recognition that other factors could be included for further insight. In terms of the possible principles guiding a SPMS, the literature identifies a very wide range of sustainability principles. It would be interesting to further explore whether other sustainability principles are more fundamental and/or critical than the ones chosen for this study for a local or regional government context. Moreover, each of the principles chosen as fundamental could bear more in depth investigation. As one example, the people principle discusses culture without making specific reference to global cultural diversity in ecological sustainability planning and performance management, although this is a major issue. In particular, sustainability practitioners concerned with behavioral change must attune themselves to different values, beliefs, and ways of knowing and frame their performance management systems and messaging accordingly within recognition of and sensitivity for the history of western social and ideological domination. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, this analysis focused on the effectiveness of the SPM system in study organizations, not the performance of the system. An impact evaluation documenting and rating the actual consumption and waste reduced is a critical research piece that could be undertaken when commitment to ecological sustainability in the region has further crystallized. This might include a criterion-referenced evaluation to determine the extent to which specific objectives have been achieved at the desired level of attainment (the criterion). This study raised some important issues but could not address them in depth. As far as the strategic sustainability focus on over consumption is concerned, it would be fruitful for further research to investigate how public institutions might engage corporate employees and the community in a broader and deeper dialogue about the responsibility dimension of reduced consumption, that is, voluntary simplicity, greater life quality and meaning and, as Rees characterizes it, the support of the sustainable development of human beings (4 2002)."" To this end, and more broadly, research could focus on how to encourage informal use of stories in local and regional government. Research might also focus on best practices in how to formally use narrative, stories, and dialogue in reporting and other system components. them and consider imposing accelerating taxes on over-consumption and pollution while reducing income and payroll taxes by an equivalent amount in gross terms (2002). 189 Simplicity allows for material security but instead of acquisitiveness, focuses on material quality over quantity, relationships, belonging, community, and personal and family development. 174

Regional collaboration in sustainability performance management is the logical companion to this study; put another way, this would be the study of the application of the principle of integration of people and information applied to the region as a whole. Collaboration has been a key driver in Greater Vancouver. It would be useful to investigate how collaboration came about and how it could be strengthened. The other logical companion to this study is research on applying sustainability performance management to the community that would involve the examination of local and regional governments in their roles as regulators and service providers. Finally, the influence and implications of international initiatives (i.e. the Olympic Games, the International Gas Competition, and the Kyoto Protocol) on sustainability performance management in the Greater Vancouver region and/or other regions would be an interesting and important realm of study. 4.10 RECOMMENDATIONS. Six practical recommendations can be distilled from the insights produced by this investigation into sustainability performance management. These suggested courses of action promise to enable local and regional governments to develop an effective SPMS that can guide change efforts in a context of innovation and uncertainty. It is not advisable that institutions wait until a consensus of administrators, a quorum of politicians, and a majority of citizens are ready to take responsibility, but rather to build on the championship that already exists. 1. CLEARLY DEFINE THE DESTINATION & THE TARGETS. Local and regional governments should adopt a clear and operational definition of sustainability that acknowledges the critical factors contributing to global and regional un-sustainability. Institutions should set reduction in consumption of materials, water, and energy and reduction in waste as the clear strategy for sustainability. Within this strategy, specific objectives and measurable targets should be set. Targets should relate to overall corporate performance for a net reduction in consumption and waste. Strategies, objectives, and targets should be clearly outlined in a management framework for the corporation and approved by the political executive. The framework and specific targets should be reviewed and recalibrated after every major accounting and reporting period to ensure that the sustainability system is on track. Regional Best Practices: City of Vancouver's emissions reduction targets in its Corporate Climate Change Action Plan, extended to a range of other important targets including overall corporate energy use and reductions in various categories (renewable/non-renewable), use and reduction of key materials, and reduction in waste production. 175

City of Richmond's visioning process, wherein organizational goals and targets are clarified into simple messages that reinforce a focus on excellence and drive daily performance. SYSTEMATICALLY ADAPT TO CHANGE. Local and regional governments should adopt a coherent sustainability performance management system with individually defined, yet strategically aligned, components. In adopting an overarching strategy, organizations should take care to reframe existing demand and supply side management tools and components and integrate them to serve systemic objectives and targets. Local and regional governments should take advantage of the range of performance-oriented sustainability tools, such as Power Smart, Energy Performance Contracts, and LEED, while ensuring that they serve, rather than drive, sustainability performance management. Institutions should also value subjective information and create opportunities to tell stories that enhance and disseminate practical wisdom, reward champions, and provide insight on results and processes. Institutions should create central SPM information systems that contain both objective and subjective information. The system should have a customized and manageable collection of key indicators to systemically monitor changing conditions over time so that the organization can adapt its priorities and actions accordingly. Indicators should link ecological conditions to corporate consumption and waste behavior. While institutions should take advantage of information system programs such as Partners for Climate Protection, they should ensure that emissions tracking work is fitted into the SPMS information system, which should be measuring other waste streams and other sustainability parameters. In addition to objective information, SPMS information systems should stock subjective information and encourage the dissemination of holistic intelligence and practical wisdom. One way of achieving this is might be through internet supported chat and messaging on organizational intranet sites. Other ideas should be generated and explored. Institutions should regularly report out on their framework objectives and targets, integrating information into an accurate, accessible, and integrated presentation of their progress on sustainability. Reports should be specifically developed for particular purposes and particular audience to meet different information and presentation needs. Objective and factual representations of sustainability should be companioned with dialogue and narrative. None of the reports produced by study organizations meet this standard. The sustainability performance management system, including its components and its guiding principles, should be reviewed with regularity and should incorporate feedback that helps improve its cohesiveness and overall effectiveness. Most importantly, objectives and targets should be recalibrated regularly to ensure 176

that sustainability milestones are achieved in the context of changing political, socioeconomic, and biophysical. Regional Best Practices: City of Richmond's Environmental Management Strategy, with its current focus on energy efficiency and dematerialization reshaped into sustainability language and formalized into a Council-approved system. City of Richmond's Conservation Challenge, staff training, and extensive electrical efficiency retrofits that widely and deeply engage practitioners in the change process. The Greater Vancouver Regional District's Sustainability Challenge, sustainability stories, and staff training as well as ecologically responsible and innovative projects that widely and deeply engage practitioners in the change process. City of Vancouver's Ethical Procurement Policy, Supplier Code of Conduct, Energy Efficiency Policy, Green Buildings Policy and other tools that govern the major functions of the corporation. Wherever possible, these tools should be expanded in scope for optimal impact. In the region, the Greater Vancouver Regional District's use of the Global Reporting Initiative provides the best model to follow, particularly in the range of corporate performance indicators that the District has not yet adopted. The City of Richmond's State of the Environment reports (1998; 2001) provide a few examples of corporate performance indicators. PERSONALIZE CHANGE & BUILD THE CULTURE. Local and regional governments should take an approach to sustainability performance management that personalizes change for all the individuals in the corporation and works to build a positive and challenge-fueled culture. Opportunities for involvement in the management process should be created wherever possible to catalyze the process of ecological conscientization and nurture it into championship. Practical ways of achieving this is to provide participatory and experiential learning opportunities in the form of training or corporate team challenges. Other models should be explored that give people the opportunity to get together face to face. The simple encouragement to practitioners to talk more often and to different colleagues, be inquisitive, and listen to each other should be emphasized. Regional Best Practices: The Greater Vancouver Regional District's Sustainability Challenge. The City of Richmond's Conservation Challenge and visioning process. 177

4. INVEST IN LONG TERM REWARDS. Politicians and practitioners should be encouraged to invest in long term change from a perspective of balancing risks and rewards. The imperatives of the global state of un-sustainability, and the dividends of quality, durability, and legacy should rival consideration of short term costs in decisionmaking processes. Life cycle analysis and full cost accounting should become standard procedure, and creative, credible, and unconventional techniques for valuing the environment investigated and implemented. That being said, tools must be fiscally responsible and aligned with approved resource allocations. Taking systematic steps towards ecological sustainability is an investment, an outlay of resources for future profit or benefit that may or may not be quantifiable in monetary terms and may not demonstrate its most important benefits in the short term. Small steps should be taken in combination with tools that have high materiality or impact for sustainability. In order to implement the system and its components, it may be necessary to enrich the current experience and knowledge available among staff and to add more staff and resources given the sheer scale, number, and distributed nature of City activities and responsibilities. Regional Best Practices: In the region, the City of Richmond is exemplary in its willingness to allocate resources to implementing a performance system for ecological benefit (i.e. its Environmental Management Strategy). The City of Vancouver's bold commitments to performance tools such as its Ethical Procurement Policy, Supplier Code of Conduct, Green Building Policy, and commitment to ecologically sound neighborhood planning as in South East False Creek have great potential for reduced consumption of energy and materials. 5. COLLABORATE. Organizations should strive to seize opportunities for interdisciplinary and collaborative ways of working to enhance sharing of expertise, knowledge, skill, and insight. Administrative units charged with advancing ecological sustainability and departmental managers should optimize ways of partnering in the creation of the sustainability performance management system as a whole and on various components and tools. At the formal level, an organizational Sustainability Caucus or Task Force might be established as a forum for sustainability performance management issues. This formal body may bring political executives more closely into the process of sustainability management and may foster important relationships and networks. 178

Regional Best Practice: The City of Richmond's culture of collaboration offers a model of how the sharing of information, expertise, and enthusiasm can optimize the organization's capacity to make progressive sustainability achievements. COMMIT TO IMPROVE. The question of what a responsible and ecologically sustainable public institution might look like encompasses as yet unimagined possibilities. The aim of this research has been to make a contribution towards answering this question. In addition, directions for further research have been pointed out. These recommendations conclude with a parting challenge to local and regional governments: make a commitment to continual improvement, to realistic yet ambitious targets and achievable timelines, and to an unquenchable curiosity about the dimensions of this question and possible answers! Regional Best Practice: The City of Richmond's commitment - and follow-through - to review and adaptation underlines its commitment to improve over time. The challenge implicit in Richmond's vision to be "the most appealing, livable, and well-managed community in Canada" both inspires and supports its commitment to improve. 179

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Appendix A: Two Concepts of Sustainability The chart below summarizes the key differences between shallow sustainability and strong/ecological sustainability: WORLDVIEW CONCEPT OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPHERES DEMOGRAPHIC SETTLEMENT TREND ECONOMIC IDEOLOGY SHALLOW SUSTAINABILITY Based on view that humans are separate from the rest of nature Simple view of society, economy, and environment Globalized metropolitan areas designed according to smart growth principles Continued quantitative economic growth through consumption; assumption of near perfect substitutability of human made for natural capital, 190 and as long as the aggregate stock of manufactured and natural capital are held constant, the system is considered sustainable STRONG/ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY Based on view that all species, including humans, are interdependent Systems view: society & economy dependent upon ecosphere Self-sufficient regions Qualitative growth, with greater simplicity and social justice; assumption that manufactured capital cannot substitute for the integrity and extent of natural systems and resources, rather it is imperative to separately preserve a healthy functioning biosphere, as well as an adequate supply of manufacturing capital MAJOR TOOLS Cost benefit analysis Carrying capacity; risk and PROPOSED SOLUTION Technological mitigation of damage by consideration of the "environment" reward assessment Radical transformation of human behavioral root causes of unsustainability Figure A-l Two Concepts of Sustainability 1 The economic growth is overly simplistic, mechanistic, and incapable of effectively representing the complex evolutionary forces, systems dynamics and thermodynamic laws at play in economic behavior (9 Rees 2001). The model assumes that the economy is an open, independent, self-regulating, and self-sustaining system whose productivity and growth are not seriously constrained by the environment. Proponents of economic growth believe that through technology, humanity will be able to compensate for the depletion of any important natural resources. This doctrine of near-perfect substitution, as it is termed, has led some academics to adopt the view that technological advancement can not only solve environmental problems but entirely replace the human need for natural resources (Solow 1974 cited in 11 Rees 2001; Simon cited in 3 Rees 2001). However, this does not address the fact that the ecologically important flow in the economy is unidirectional, thermodynamically irreversible, and unsustainable; namely, the extraction of useful matter and energy from the ecosphere and the return of wastes back to the ecosphere (4 Rees 2001). 193

A.l SHALLOW OR COMPOSITE SUSTAINABILITY. Shallow sustainability relies on a simple understanding of social, environmental, and economic spheres, which are typically treated as distinct.' 91 In this model, social and environmental considerations are incorporated into economic business-as-usual, basing the achievement of sustainability on the mechanics of free and open markets. Lead proponents are recognized as the World Commission for Environment and Development and the Smart Growth or New Urbanism movement.' 92 Shallow sustainability is based on the view that humans are separate from the rest of nature. As a result, environmental initiatives are usually designed to ensure better management and control of the environment for human benefit (483 Jacob 1994) or to mitigate the damage inflicted by industrial economies and western [or northern] lifestyles on local ecosystems or the global environment (9 Boyd 2004). To this end, the model supports the development of globalized metropolitan areas informed by new urbanism. Natural resources are primarily conceptualized as forms of "natural capital", with declining natural capital not considered problematic as long as manufacturing capital grows to compensate.' 93 In other words, substitution between natural and manufactured capital is assumed, and as long as the aggregate stock of manufactured and natural capital are held constant, the system is considered sustainable (3 Rees 2001). Proponents of shallow sustainability typically employ cost-benefit analysis in valuing environmental considerations.' 94 Furthermore, they are reluctant to consider sustainability solutions that are not "cost effective" in the short term, that is, solutions that involve greater capital outlays than business-as-usual. Finally, the underlying socio-economic causes of the current state of un-sustainability remain unchallenged, despite their underlying assumptions or the problems they continue to raise for effectively achieving progress towards sustainability. 191 The term "environmental" is used here instead of "ecological" to distinguish between two perceptions of the human-nature relationship. I argue that the term "environment" vaguely expresses the perception that the environment is "out there", a categorical term for "everything else." Ecology is a definite term that refers to the biosphere and its network of interrelated ecosystems with distinctive abiotic features and inhabitant species. Ecology further recognizes that humans are one of many inhabitant species in ecosystems. 192 The Commission's report linked efforts toward solving global environmental problems with poverty reduction by provision of secure livelihoods, especially in the "developing" world. While conserving and enhancing the resource base and changing the quality of growth were referenced in the Report, the Commission assumed that any limits on the environment's ability to meet human needs were imposed not so much by nature as "by the state of technology and social organization" and in fact, suggested a 5 to 8 fold increase in industrial activity (2 Rees 2001). 193 Natural capital is subdivided into nonrenewables (like oil and minerals), and renewables, (like freshwater, forests, fertile soils, and the ozone layer), which are further subdivided into those that provide goods and those that provide services. Explicit analogies are made between the stocks and flows of resources and money in a bank: a renewable resource's stock 195 is the resource's capital or principal, which generates a flow of interest or income that can be tapped for human consumption and well-being (47 Homer-Dixon 1999). 194 Some critics dismiss the attachment of monetary values to ecological "goods and services" as oversimplistic and reductionist on philosophical grounds. Others raise practical problems with individual approaches and criteria for monetary valuation (16 Bell and Morse 2003). The most popular approach is some version of cost benefit analysis (CBA) (Turner 1991 cited in 72 Bell and Morse). 194

A.2 STRONG OR ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY. On the basis of biophysical science, systems theory, and biocentric philosophy, the ecological sustainability model posits that all species, including humans, are interdependent (480 Jacobs 1994; 29 Naess 1989) to the extent that there can be no human society or economy in the absence of a functional ecosphere (1 Rees 2001). Lead proponents include the Factor 10 Institute, 195 the Natural Step, and Rees and Wackernagel. The region is considered the optimal spatial unit for cultural development and for tracking progress towards sustainability (3 Aberley 1993; 54 Throgmorton 2003). For a more detailed argument, see Appendix B. Although the model holds that the human economy is subordinate to the biosphere, it is recognized as the most significant determinant in the current state of un-sustainability and for achieving future ecological and social goals. 196 The model holds that economic systems must recognize the limits to ecological carrying capacity, and take care not to deplete natural resources faster than regeneration rates, nor discharge wastes that exceed the assimilative capacity of ecosystems (10 Rees 2001). Emphasis is placed on qualitative development, characterized by learning, ingenuity, efficiency, and adaptation. The model holds that manufactured capital cannot substitute for the integrity and extent of natural systems and resources, and that it is imperative to separately preserve a healthy functioning biosphere (in terms of constant capital stocks), as well as an adequate supply of manufacturing capital (Rees 1995; 2002). Proponents and practitioners working with this model recognize that financial costs must be assessed with alternative methods that take into account true value, and that sustainability decisions must be made with a long term view of the rewards of action and risks of inaction. In summary, strong sustainability is concerned with the transformation of underlying socio-economic causes of un-sustainability that are embedded in the history of western/northern cultural development, and many of its ideologies, systems, institutions, and behavior patterns (478 Jacob 1994). To this end, the model promotes reduced consumption, a steady-state economy, human population control, and wilderness protection to ensure the survival of functional ecosystems and a constant supply of natural capital. ' 5 The Factor 10 Institute identifies northern consumption, economic growth paradigms and global population growth as the three major sustainability issues. Schmidt-Bleek and the Factor 10 Institute believe that industrialized countries must reduce their resource consumption by at least a factor of 10 in order to reach a globally sustainable level of material flows. 196 Systems theory. Strong sustainability subscribes to the systems theory view that human society and the economy are interrelated sub-systems dependent on the ecosphere. A system is defined by Senge et al (1994 cited in 86 Bell and Morse 1999) as a perceived whole whose elements 'hang together' because they continually influence each other over time in a dynamic, co-evolutionary process that operates toward a common purpose. A system has an identifiable boundary, interacts with its environment in either a closed or open fashion, is purposeful and goalseeking, and retains its identity under changing circumstances (87 Bell and Morse 1999). Rees further specifies that the human economy is "a self-organizing open subsystem within the hierarchy of complex subsystems contained by the ecosphere (262 2002)." 195

Appendix B: Cities and Regions There are two controversial issues that arise in talking about pursuing ecological sustainability at the scale of cities and regions that should be identified, though it is not within the scope of the thesis to discuss them in depth: (1) the identification of an appropriate scale for action on sustainability; and, (2) the question of whether cities, as geographic units, can be sustainable. In the early 1900s, Patrick Geddes first defined the region as the ideal spatial unit for planning. Geddes believed that planning must start with a survey of the resources of a natural region, a survey of the human responses to it and the resulting complexities of the cultural landscape. He believed that regional study revealed the "sensual reciprocity between men and women and their surroundings", the "motor force of human development" being undermined by the centralized nation-state and large-scale industry (142 Hall 1996). Modern planners often encounter difficulty in defining natural regions, given that "boundaries in nature are sometimes clear and distinct but, more often than not, they are fuzzy and controversial (60 Aberley 1993)." Leading bioregionalist David McCloskey suggests that "an ecoregion emerges...as a composite whole where the most significant features converge in a distinct and sustained way (62 1993)." Key natural features and dimensions typically include: hydrologic features; geographical landforms; geologic formations; tectonic imprints and soil series; climatic zones and seasonal migrations of high and low pressure cells; botanical and zoological features such as type, number, and diversity of species and especially their seasonal ranges; and, ecological features such as habitats, landscapes, and biomes.' 97 Contemporary analysts typically use watershed boundaries (specifically major rivers or main tributaries) to define a region. Contemporary analysts from various disciplines have located sustainability planning within regionalism (137 Hall 1996). Regionalism, or "bioregionalism", refers to the development of a political or social system that is based on the natural boundaries of a geographic area and that constrains consumption and waste absorption to the area's productive capacity. As such, the bioregional model is one of regional self-reliance, with minimal dependence on economic trade. 197 It is quite likely that, if McCloskey's numerous criteria for establishing the natural boundaries of a region were rigorously applied, there could be argument over whether the GVRD's jurisdictional boundaries match the natural regional geographic boundaries. Three reasons compel me to accept the GVRD's boundary as the defining boundary of the Greater Vancouver area: (1) the region has strong natural boundaries of ocean to the west, mountains to the north, and river's mouth to the southeast, which give natural definition to the area; (2) operational practicality - the boundaries have created a region that functions consciously as a cultural unit; and of course (3) practical convenience; taking issue with boundaries and adjusting research on that basis would be an enormous task and would not advance the concepts being researched in this case. 196

Self-reliance and constrained consumption and waste generation at the regional level counteracts some of the most pernicious aspects of globalized economic growth, namely unsustainable over-consumption by the north, largely on the basis of inequitable trade relationships with the developing south. In respect of this argument, James Throgmorton holds that sustainability planning must place "neighborhoods and towns in the context of 'the region' and...place the region in the context of economic globalization and global environmental systems (16 2003)." 198 In the current context of globalization, it must be noted that the relative level of sustainability in an urban area may be heavily influenced or even dependent upon what happens outside of that area. Nevertheless, regionalism offers the best convergence of spatial, political, and regulatory units in which practitioners can examine the current state of un-sustainability and take remedial action. Most importantly, collaboration and collective decision-making at a regional level helps counteract the limitations that political borders, legal jurisdiction, and economic tax base impose on sustainability practitioners. Rees (2003) and Throgmorton (50 2003) believe that in order to achieve ecological sustainability, regional cities must reduce consumption of materials, water, and energy, and make decisions within the scope of a watershed (14 Throgmorton 2003). 199 Rees and Wackernagel observe that according to the principle of patch ecology, cities are unsustainable by definition because "modern cities and industrial regions are dependent for survival and growth on a vast and increasingly global hinterland of ecologically productive landscapes (29 Rees and Wackernagel 1996)." To measure this hinterland, Rees (1992) developed the ecological footprint concept that takes into account population and per capita rates of consumption and waste production that, in turn, vary with income, prices, social values, and technological sophistication. In this measure the greater the population and per capita consumption, the less sustainable the ecological footprint. While Rees (1997) 198 Planning theorists have reached differing conclusions about the effects of (bio)regionalism on economic behavior. Peter Calthorpe and William Fulton (2001 cited in Throgmorton) believe that regions, particularly metropolitan regions, are now the basic building blocks of the global economy. They contend that "in today's global economy, it is regions, not nations, that vie for economic domination throughout the world" (2001 cited in 16 2003); Throgmorton also believes regionalism will lead to cities that "thrive in a context of economic globalization" (60 2003). In contrast, bioregionalists such as Aberley believe that an increased emphasis on bioregionalism will lead to the evolution of regionalized cultures based on prosperous economic self-reliance (98 1993). Aberley argues that "the identification of bioregions will allow a reorientation of human allegiance away from nation states and consumerism. Sustainably configured societies would grow in symbiosis with the natural capabilities of land and water environments to sustain use...the focus of human ingenuity would be radically shifted to the evolution of regionalized cultures! Bounded only by the imperatives for social justice and the conservation of life within ecological carrying capacities, a healthy spectrum of social identities would develop. And the new measure of economic success would be the degree to which all bioregions could be assisted in achieving prosperous selfreliance and a high quality of life" (98 1993). 199 Throgmorton's three keys are (1) the development of regionalism, (2) modest ecological footprints involving a major reduction in consumption, which in turn will slow economic growth; and, (3) a factor-10 economy (50 2003). 197

refers to the concept of a "sustainable city" as an oxymoron, the notion has become so popular that prizes are now awarded to cities deemed to be the most sustainable. 200 While greater regional self-reliance and spatial distribution of population makes sense in terms of sustainability science, neither is politically popular nor reflective of global trends. On the contrary, most elected officials firmly believe they must do whatever is necessary to attract and retain investment in the context of the globalized economy (50 Throgmorton 2003). Urbanization trends demonstrate that by 2010 more than half of the world's population will live in cities, making humanity a predominantly urban species for the first time in its history (WWI 2004). While it is not within the scope to satisfy either of these important issues, sustainability practitioners must be aware of the human tendency to denial and the global-scale dynamics that earmark the current context of their work. Taking responsibility for sustainability means that immediate actions must be taken in the context of the existing milieu and governance structures and institutions. 200 There is a Sustainable City award in Europe (61 Bell and Morse 1999) and European cities have begun to actively consider their ecological footprints in local planning and decision-making (Throgmorton 2003). Furthermore, the United Nations has selected a number of cities worldwide to promote the sustainable city concept (61 Bell and Morse 1999). An International Center for Sustainable Cities, also known as the Sustainable Cities Foundation, is based in Vancouver. 198

Appendix C: Interview Questionnaire C.I STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF RESEARCH. Increasing global ecological degradation has demanded that regions take a proactive response to sustainability in their own realms and beyond. Local and regional governments have key opportunities and responsibilities in their roles as corporations - as well as service providers and regulators - to reduce consumption of materials and energy. The most effective means of taking corporate ecological responsibility is through a strategic, systemic, and sensitive sustainability performance management approach. The purpose of research is to investigate (a) what a performance management system for sustainability should look like, (b) how it might be practically applied to a real local and regional government context, and, (c) how it might be used to assess the sustainability efforts of a sample of local governments and the regional government in Greater Vancouver. The underlying rationale for this study is to demonstrate the practical value of the model and highlight best approaches and successes and "blind spots" to point out how case organizations can improve and build upon their existing efforts. C.2 A REMARK ON METHODOLOGY. After the literature review phase of research, I concluded that sustainability performance management systems were not commonly implemented in those terms in Greater Vancouver. To avoid excluding many prospective research participants from the discussion, I decided to ask indirect as well as direct questions. I wanted to discern practitioners' levels of ecological consciousness, access the deeper narratives of how people work individually and collectively to grapple with making broad imperatives, like reducing consumption, operational in their own realms of responsibility and influence. I employed the following questionnaire as a basic template to cover key study topics and adapted it to suit the expertise of each interviewee. C.3 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. How are environmental or sustainability benefits translated into corporate objectives, if at all? What are the overarching environmental and/or sustainability objectives for [local or regional government]? How do you know? How do you evaluate what is or is not environmentally sustainable? 2. Where objectives are created, are they translated into performance tools with specifications and criteria? How much of an emphasis, both formal and informal, is given to the use of these tools and successful achievement of the objectives? 199

3. Has [local or regional government] articulated a series of environmental or sustainability indicators, objectives, and target outcomes by which to measure its performance on a routine basis other than in the State of the Environment Report (SOER) or Sustainability Report (SR)? If so, in what form? Please describe which measurement tools, if any, have been selected and how they were selected. 4. To what extent is environmentally responsible building and environmentally responsible purchasing connected to a performance management strategy for achieving environmental or sustainability objectives? Are environmental criteria used in purchasing and building related to the objectives and target outcomes (where they exist) by which [local or regional government] measures its performance? 5. How has your SOER or SR been used since its development? Did the information within the SOER influence 'green purchasing', or 'green building' and the strategic design and objectives of each activity? Has your SOER been used as an evaluation tool to identify whether these tools have been successful in addressing environmental or sustainability issues? 6. How often is the existing performance management system, or components thereof, reviewed, new information collected, synthesized, and communicated? 7. Are there any aspects of a sustainability performance management system still under development? What are future goals and directions for [local or regional government]? 200

Appendix D: SPMS Scoring System D.l WHAT THE SCORES MEASURE. A simple scoring system was developed for this study to take an approximate measure of the degree of effectiveness of each study organization's sustainability performance management system (SPMS). The scoring system also allowed for a determination of (a) the degree of effectiveness of each system component; and, (b) the degree of emphasis on each individual SPM principle in each organization. Specific definitions for each parameter are provided in the chart below: : COMPONENT SYMBOL DEFINITION, FRAMEWORK F Strategies, plans, or visions TOOLS T Guidelines, policies, bylaws, programs, funds, employee training INFO SYSTEM IS Indicators, indexes, inventories, narratives REPORTING R Documents that communicate performance on ecological conditions and/or human consumption \ "* ~" ""^ L COHESION CO Degree of connectivity between system components CAPACITY CA Size and structure of organization PRINCIPLE._ ^ ~_ - *- = - PERFORMANCE P Specific, measurable, and material objectives and targets related to reduced consumption of materials, water, and enerqy PEOPLE E Practitioner engagement through interactive learning and consultation, and reward for accomplishment REWARD & VALUE C RV Degree of collaboration between practitioners of different disciplines or professional backgrounds Willingness to consider long term ecological heath and find means of valuing ecological factors in decision-making INTEGRATION 1 Degree of integration of information of different types (subjective/objective), and from different disciplines ADAPTATION A Degree of consistency and regularity of review and updating, and synchronicity with other review mechanisms v ' Figure D-1: Definitions for SPMS Scoring Method D.2 SCORING CRITERIA. A series of criteria were developed to score the degree of adoption of each of the five sustainability principles in various components of the management system (framework, tools, information system, and reporting). These are described in the charts on the following page: 201

PRINCIPLE OF PERFORMANCE (TOTAL POINT VALUE = 40) 0 No evidence of corporate sustainability strategy (reduction in materials, energy, water; waste reduction), objectives, or targets in tools or management system. 1 Vague and/or general corporate objectives without strategy or targets in tools or management system. 2 Specific corporate objectives with either a strategy or targets (but not both) in tools or management system. 3 Sustainability strategy with specific corporate objectives and targets in tools or management system that address at least a partial dimension of sustainability. 4 Sustainability strategy with specific corporate objectives and measurable targets with lowmedium materiality or impact in tools or management system. 5 Sustainability strategy with specific corporate objectives and measurable targets with high materiality in tools or management system. PRINCIPLE OF PFOPLE (TOTAL POINT VALUE = 45) ENGAGEMENT... 0 No evidence of formal opportunities for learning or involvement of internal practitioners. / No attempt at audience specificity in reporting. 1 Provision of formal opportunities for top-down rote, impersonal learning and/or involvement of internal practitioners. / Minimal attempt at audience specificity in reporting. 2 Provision of formal opportunities for top-down personalized learning and/or involvement of internal practitioners. / Basic attempt at audience specificity in reportinq. 3 Provision of formal opportunities for top-down interactive learning and/or involvement of internal practitioners. / Medium attempt at audience specificity in reportinq. 4 Provision of formal opportunities for top-down interactive learning and/or involvement of internal practitioners that include a dimension of reward and recognition. / Significant attempt at audience specificity in reporting. 5 Support for formal and informal opportunities for participatory, interactive learning and/or involvement of internal practitioners that include a dimension of reward and recognition. / Reporting fully specialized for needs of different end-users. COLLABORATION " 0 No evidence of solicitation of feedback or interdisciplinary collaboration. 1 Minimal solicitation of feedback with no response. 2 Satisfactory consultation with verification that feedback has been received and will be taken into account. 3 Meaningful consultation with evidence that feedback has been taken into account; some informal interdisciplinary collaboration. 4 Meaningful consultation and/or healthy culture of informal interdisciplinary collaboration. 5 Dynamic culture of formal and informal interdisciplinary collaboration and meaningful consultation where appropriate. Figure D-2: Scoring Criteria for SPMS Principles (Part I) [...over//] 202

PRINCIPLE OF RLWARD AND VALUE (TOTAL POINT VALUE = 25) 0 No investment in SPMS development / No interest in using performance tools or techniques to assess ecological value. 1 Minimal investment in SPMS development / Tools and/or techniques used to the extent that they result in cost savings; attitude focused on analysis of hard economic costs by means of conventional accounting systems. 2 Basic investment in SPMS development /Tools and/or techniques used to the extent that costs can be recovered; attitude focused on analysis of hard economic costs by means of conventional accounting systems. 3 Medium investment in SPMS development / Demonstrated willingness to explore performance tools, technologies, and ecological valuation techniques. Use of full cost accounting/life cycle analysis supports pilot projects that may involve higher up-front capital costs, longer payback periods, or even price premiums. 4 Significant investment in SPMS development and/or maintenance / Demonstrated focus on the rewards of durability and legacy. Business model grounded in full cost accounting/life cycle analysis, but not restricted to it. 5 Bold commitment to SPMS development and/or maintenance / Commitment to long term investment and rewards of durability and legacy. Cost has ceased to become the most central issue. PRINCIPLE or INTEGRATION (TOTAL POINT VAI UF - 25) 0 No evidence of integration of information. 1 Corporate performance information drawn together from different disciplines (economic, social, ecological, and governance). 2 Corporate performance information ground into measurable management objectives and/or indicators. 3 Strategic linkage between measurable socio-economic and ecological management objectives and/or indicators for corporate performance. 4 Strategic linkage between measurable socio-economic and ecological management objectives and/or indicators for corporate performance and provision of subjective information. 5 Strategic linkage between measurable socio-economic and ecological management objectives and/or indicators for corporate performance integrated appropriately with subjective information. PRINCIPLE OF ADAPTATION (TOTAL POINT VALUE = 20) 0 No evidence of adaptation. 1 Commitment to an update to information and/or management system made but not undertaken. 2 Some evidence of an update to information and/or management system. 3 Infrequent and/or inconsistent updates to information and management system. 4 Consistent, regular updates of information and system reviews. 5 Consistent, regular updates of information and system reviews and synchronization with other change/review mechanisms. ;.. Figure D-2: Scoring Criteria for SPMS Principles (Part II) I applied scores for system cohesion and organizational capacity as more general measures without any specific criteria. I based the numerical values used to score performance on these criteria but made a subjective determination. One the basis of each criteria, a score of either minimal (value of 1), weak (value of 2), medium (value of 3), strong (value of 4), or optimal (value of 5) was determined. I allowed 203

specificity of integers only (no decimal places). I attained the overall score for system effectiveness by converting the sum of all points into a percentage value and then giving the value a rating of minimal (0-20%), weak (21-39%), medium (40-59%), strong (60-79%), or optimal (80-100%). D.3 RELATIVE WEIGHTING. I used a simple weighting to convey that some principles had a greater degree of importance to the effectiveness of certain components of the system than others. The principle of performance is double weighted to reflect its higher priority with a total possible point value of 40. The engagement dimension of the people principle is single weighted for all components. The collaboration dimension of the people principle is double weighted for framework and tools to reflect its greater importance for these components, and is not rated for the information system component. In effect, the people principle also has a higher priority on par with performance with a total possible point value of 45. The principle of reward and value is double weighted for the tools component of the SPMS with a total possible point value of 25. The principle of integration is double weighted in the tools and reporting components and not rated in the information system component. This principle has a total possible point value of 25. Finally, the principle of adaptation is single weighted for all components, with a total point value of 20. The grey shading in the chart below indicates double weighting, and black shading indicates that the parameter is not rated. Components of a SPMS were given different relative weight as demonstrated by different point values. The information system component was given least weight, with 25 points; reporting was given 40 points; the framework was given 40 points; and, finally, performance tools the most weight with 50 points. Cohesion between components and organizational capacity were each given the same weight, or total possible number of 25 points each. I considered generic estimation to be sufficient for the purposes of this study. The following chart shows the distribution of total possible points: POINT SCORING OF SPMS EFFECTIVENESS P E c RV I A TOTAL F no /5 /10. IS /5 /5 /40 100% T no /5 /10 no 710 /5 /50 100% IS no /5 15 /5 /25 100% R no IS IS 15 /10 /5 /40 100% CO I2S 100% CA 125 100% TOTAL /40 100% IAS 100% 125 100% /25 100% /20 100% /205 100% Figure D-3: Point Scoring System 204

D.4 CASE SCORE SHEET. SCORING OF CASE ORGANIZATIONS - SPMS EFFECTIVENESS P E C RV 1 A TOTAL GREATER VANCOUVER REGIONAL DISTRICT F 4 4 8 1 4 2 23 58% T 6 4 2 6 8 2 28 56% IS 6 0 3 4 13 52% R 2 3 1 4 8 4 22 55% CO 14 56% CA 23 92% TOTAL 18 45% 22 49% 14 56% 20 80% 12 60% 123 60% CITY OF VANCOUVER Figure D-4: Master Scoring Matrix for Case Studies 205

Appendix E: Comparative Organizational Structures E-1 GREATER VANCOUVER REGIONAL DISTRICT ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS DIVISIONS WORKGROUPS GVRD BOARD 1 CORPORATE STRATEGIES Engineering Purchasing & Risk Management Policy & Planning Demand Side Management Policy & Research Business Services Innovative Technology Permitting & Enforcement E-2 CITY OF VANCOUVER ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE EXECUTIVE SERVICE GROUPS SERVICE UNITS PROGRAMS/GROUPS CITY COUNCIL Service Groups Facilities Development Green Buildings Program Chief Administrators' Office Engineering Services Community Services Planning Licenses & Inspections Environmental Protection / Special Office for the Environment Corporate Services Financial Services Materials Management Facility Design Management Sustainability Office/Group 206

E J CITY OF RICHMOND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE EXECUTIVE SERVICE UNITS DEPARTMENTS DIVISIONS/GROUPS CITY COUNCIL Corporate Finance & Finance Programs Corporate ' 1 Management Services Purchasing Chief Administrators' Office Engineering & Public Works Enqineerinq Emergency & Environmental Programs Facility Planning & Construction Facility Operations & Maintenance E-4 CITY OF BURNABY ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS DIVISIONS STAFF CITY COUNCIL Finance Purchasinq I Chief Manager's Office Engineering Development Services Planning & Building Long Range Planning Current Planning Environmental Planner 207

Appendix F: Comparative Ecologically Responsible Purchasing Policies in Study Organizations GREATER VANCOUVER REGIONAL DISTRICT. Procurement of Recycled And/Or Environmentally Friendly Products and July 1990 Services In recognition of the GVRD's commitment to being an environmentally conscious organization and in support of its leadership role in this area, BE IT RESOLVED that all departments, in conjunction with Purchasing and Supply staff, review their contracts and tender specifications for goods and services to ensure that, wherever possible and economical, such specifications are amended to provide for expanded use of products and services that contain the maximum level of post-consumer waste and/or recyclable content without significantly affecting the intended use of the product or service, and that it is recognized that cost analysis is required in order to ensure that the products are made available at competitive prices. Crrv OF VANCOUVER. Contracts Goods and Services Policy: Statement of Principle on Environmentally Sound Purchasing Section 2.1, 1993 In order to contribute to waste reduction and to increase the development and awareness of environmentally sound purchasing of goods and services, contracts and tender specifications should be reviewed to ensure that wherever possible and economical, specifications provide for expanded use of durable products, reusable products, and products that contain the maximum level of post consumer waste and/or recyclable content or that minimize environmental impacts. Energy Efficiency Purchasing Policy November 2004 (1) The City must purchase energy efficient equipment, supplies, and appliances wherever possible. This requires that product specifications be compliant with: Energy Star guidelines and recommendations Natural Resources Canada Office of Energy Efficiency (NRCOEE) guidelines and recommendations. (2) This policy applies to a wide spectrum of products including, but not limited to: Appliances HVAC equipment Electric motors Office equipment 208

Lighting and Signage Transformers Consumer electronics (3) These criteria must be included in all materials specifications involving the purchase of supplies or equipment by the City of Vancouver. Green Building Policy June 2004 THAT Council adopt a minimum requirement of LEED Cold (including full registration and certification LEED BC and the Canadian Green Building Council) for all new civic buildings greater than 500 square funded out of future Capital Plans, unless otherwise determined by Council and that Council make the LEED points in the Energy and Atmosphere section mandatory to ensure a minimum of at least 30% e reduction in all new civic buildings to support the recommendations of the "Cool Vancouver" Task Fo December, 2003 and as adopted by Council (Council Report File 3501)- this involves a 30% improvem energy consumption over the City's current bylaw of ASHRAE 90.1 APPROVED (Council Report File 350 Ethical Procurement Policy February 2005 (1) Guiding Principles 1.1 The City of Vancouver will: ensure that its Ethical Purchasing Policy (EPP) and accompanying Supplier Code of Conduct (SCC) ar reviewed regularly and require compliance with ILO core labour conventions; share information with current and future suppliers so they are aware of the City's expectations in te product certification and workplace practices; rely on a combination of approved external independent certifications, supplier disclosures and certific and public disclosure of information about factory and production facilities, to ensure that suppliers co with the EPP; evaluate and accept on a case-by-case basis any instances where it is reasonably determined by the supplier practices may differ from policy so long as the purpose and spirit of the policy is always uph work with suppliers who do not fully comply with the policy to assist them to improve their workpla practices; reserve the right to discontinue business with suppliers who are not responsive to requests to addre concerns around workplace practices and instances of non-compliance with the EPP; where opportunities exist (or are emerging) work collaboratively with other organizations on monitor verification processes (e.g. municipalities); adhere to all applicable legal requirements and trade agreements; and, require that suppliers ensure subcontractors comply with the SCC. 1.2 The City recognizes that to be successful and meet its stated objectives that its EPP must also b on: Collaboration: Working with suppliers and other key stakeholders to continuously improve purchasing activities and workplace practices; Credible verification: Working with recognized agencies to ensure compliance with the SCC (E.g. Fair Association, Verite, Worker's Rights Consortium); Fiscal responsibility: Ensuring that implementation and management of the EPP is aligned with appro resource allocations; and. 209

Fairness and Transparent The decision making process must be open, transparent and respect the ri all key stakeholders to a fair and just process. (2) Implementation, Compliance and Monitoring 2.1 The City will incorporate criteria in the overall evaluation process of suppliers related to corporate responsibility, workplace practices and fair trade certification in the award of contracts, and will not kno award contracts to any supplier who is not in substantial compliance with the performance standards contained in the SCC. The SCC will be one of the criteria in the overall evaluation process. 2.2 The City expects all its suppliers to respect its SCC and to actively do their utmost to achieve the standards. The City believes in cooperation and is willing to work with its suppliers to improve perform where necessary. 2.3 The City expects that new or potential suppliers commit to respect the attached SCC within a reas period of time as mutually agreed to by the City and supplier at the time of contract. In choosing new potential suppliers, the City will give preference to suppliers who are already in compliance with SCC s over those who are not. 2.4 The City will require that suppliers uphold the SCC through specific language in supplier contracts, including agreement to independent facility inspections if so desired by the City. 2.5 The City will require that suppliers provide details on factory and production facility locations of su and subcontractors and will make this information publicly available (e.g. annual reports, web site pos etc). 2.6 The Manager of Materials Management will respond and investigate credible complaints with respec violations of the SCC that are brought to his/her attention using a combination of research and dialogu suppliers. 2.7 If the Manager of Materials Management believes that workplace conditions do not meet the stand outlined in the City's SCC, he/she will notify the supplier and request that corrective action be taken. 2.8 The City reserves the right to ask for proof of compliance with all applicable labour, health, safety environmental laws, and may inspect working conditions, at any time (or request independent verifica compliance). Suppliers must maintain current and sufficiently detailed records to substantiate their compliance with the SCC and the City may ask that they are independently verified at the supplier's expense. 2.9 Compliance with the SCC will become part of the City's supplier evaluation process (along with oth factors including service and performance). (3) Reporting and Evaluation Application of the City's EPF will be monitored by the Manager of Materials Management who will annu report to Council on implementation progress, financial implications, supplier compliance, complaints a remediation activities, supplier feedback, and other stakeholder input. Where the City has knowingly e into, or maintained, contracts with suppliers and their subcontractors who do not fully comply with th these exceptions will be reported to Council along with a rationale for maintaining the ongoing relation 210

(4) Review The Manager of Materials Management will be responsible for reviewing the EPP and SCC annually and reporting findings to Council annually. Through consultations with key stakeholders (suppliers, subject exper city staff, etc.) the Manager of Materials Management will identify and recommend revisions to the EPP and SCC. Such review will include a review of new items for potential inclusion within the scope of the EPP (e.g. new fair trade certified agricultural products). Supplier Code of Conduct Section 10 Environmental Commitment December 2004 City suppliers and their sub-contractors will ensure all waste materials, as a by-product of production, are disposed of properly in an environmentally responsible manner, and according to the local and international laws and regulations. CITY OF RICHMOND. Energy Conservation Policy February 1991 It is Council policy that the City of Richmond is committed to considering the efficient use of energy in the planning and operating of all the facilities under its jurisdiction. Each member of management is responsible for the energy-efficient operation of his/her area of responsibility, and each employee has a vital role to play in supporting this policy. To carry out this policy, the City of Richmond will maintain an active and aggressive energy conservation awareness program among employees; consider life cycle costs when purchasing new equipment and when undertaking major repairs to equipment (that is, products and systems with superior efficiency, which will pay for their premium costs within their usable life will be preferred); provide, within reason, the best available energy-efficient system; upgrade existing facilities and equipment to higher efficiency as budgets and circumstances allow where the change offers a simple payback of nor more than five years; maintain equipment to energy-efficient standards; maintain a continuous education program in energy efficiency procedures and practices; encourage all employees to suggest and initiate projects that will save energy; ask all employees to observe established energy conservation practices; and, monitor energy consumption so that energy efficiency goals can be established and performance measured and reviewed annually. Environmental Purchasing Policy October 2000 In order to increase the development and awareness of environmentally sound products and services, City of Richmond staff will review their contracts and tender specifications for goods and services, to ensure that wherever possible and economically feasible, specifications are amended to provide for consideration of environmental characteristics. Consideration may be given to those environmental products that are certified by an independent accredited organization. The City of Richmond as a whole will endeavor to increase its use of products and services that are more responsible to the environment in the way that they are made, used, transported, stored and packaged and disposed of. It is recognized that analysis is required in order to ensure that the products are made available at competitive prices, and that the environmental benefits provided by a product or service should not significantly affect the intended use of that product or service. 211

CITY OF BURNABY. Resolution on Environmental Purchasing November 2001 Be it resolved that all departments, in conjunction with Purchasing and Supply staff, review their cont and tender specifications for goods and services to ensure that, wherever possible and economical, su specifications are amended to provide for expanded use of products and services that contain the maxi level of post-consumer waste and/or recyclable content without significantly affecting the intended use product or service, and that it is recognized that cost analysis is required in order to ensure that the p are made available at competitive prices. 212

Appendix G: Comparative Chronology of SPM Efforts in Study Organizations 2005 2004 LEGEND 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 +1 s s m s $ VISION CORPORATE PLAN(S) MANAGEMENT STRATEGY PURCHASING POLICY PERFORMANCE REPORT OTHER BYLAWS SI POLICIES Q GRANT FUNDS (?) t EMPLOYEE TRAINING CONFERENCES & COMMITTEES EMISSIONS INVENTORY Figure G-1 Chronology of SPM Development in Greater Vancouver 213