UNIVERSITY OF DEFENCE / CZECH REPUBLIC. Economics and Management

UNIVERSITY OF DEFENCE / CZECH REPUBLIC Economics and Management 2013

UNIVERSITY OF DEFENCE / CZECH REPUBLIC ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT 2013 1 Economics and Management - p. 1-2013 Brno 30 May 2013 Published by University of Defence in Brno

ISSN 1802-3975

EDITORIAL BOARD EDITOR IN CHIEF Pavel FOLTIN Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic EDITORIAL BOARD Ladislav ANDRASIK Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovak Republic Ghita BARSAN Nicolae Balcescu Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania Vasile CARUTASU Nicolae Balcescu Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania Miroslav CEMPIREK Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Marijana CINGULU Faculty of Economics & Business, University of Zagreb, Chorvatsko Petr CECH Institute of Hospitality Management, Prague, Czech Republic Monika GRASSEOVA Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Frantisek HANZLIK Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Hubert HRDLICKA Language Training Centre, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Josef KALAS Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Ales KOMAR Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Miroslav KRC Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Oto KUBIK Academy STING Private College, Brno, Czech Republic Marek KULCZYCKI The Tadeusz Kosciuszko Land Forces Military Academy, Poland Stefan KURINIA National Defence University, Warszaw, Poland

Ivan MALY Faculty of Economics and Administration, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic Ivan MRAZ General Staff, Prague, Czech Republic Árpad POHL Faculty of Military Science and Officer s Training, National University of Public Service, Budapest, Hungary Ladislav POTUZAK Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Milan SOPOCI Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovak Republic Oleg STANEK The University of Quebec at Rimouski, Canada Jiri URBANEK Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Cezar VASILESCU Regional Department of Defense Resources Management Studies (DRESMARA), Brasov, Romania Jaroslav ZELENY Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Iva ZIVELOVA Faculty of Business and Economics, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry in Brno, Czech Republic EXECUTIVE EDITOR Vitezslav JAROS Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Copyright 2013 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior permission of University of Defence in Brno University Press.

C O N T E N T S Štefan ANTOLÍK COMPARISON OF TOOLS FOR INFORMATION SECURITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM...... p. 7 Alena BUMBOVÁ, Zbyněk VEČEŘA, Pavel MIKUŠKA, Josef KELLNER and Alena LANGEROVÁ DEVELOPMENT AND OPTIMIZATION OF THE UV REDUCER FOR THE DETERMINATION OF EXPLOSIVES...... p. 15 Monika DAVIDOVÁ THE EDUCATION IN THE AREA OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT.. p. 21 Lucie DOUDOVÁ and David HAMPEL TESTING STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN ECONOMIC TIME SERIES... p. 29 Emilie FRANKOVÁ EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION: UNDERSTANDING OF THE TERM COMMUNICATION BY FUTURE PROFESSIONALS.. p. 38 Vendula HYNKOVÁ FISCAL RESTRICTION AND ITS IMPACT ON THE ECONOMY INCLUDING THE MILITARY ASPECTS... p. 47 Zbyšek KORECKI, Radka LOPOUROVA, Milan LAUBER and Samuel A. DARKWAH CUSTOMER SERVICE OF SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT OPERATION WITHIN ASSA ABLOY CZECH & SLOVAKIA......... p. 53 Vítězslav RASZKA and Miroslav KRČ ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS ON LOCAL ECONOMY (HOST NATION)........ p. 61 Veronika SADOVSKÁ and Josef NAVRÁTIL HEALTH PROTECTION OF FIREFIGHTERS AND OTHER PERSONS AGAINST HARMFUL SUBSTANCES FROM FIRES... p. 68 Ján SPIŠÁK MILITARY CONCEPTS A BACKGROUND FOR FUTURE CAPABILITIES DEVELOPMENT...... p. 75 Marek ŠOLC ENERGY SECURITY AN IMPORTANT ASPECT OF NATIONAL SECURITY... p. 82 The Authors Bibliographies:... p. 88 The Reviewers Bibliographies:... p. 91 5

The language revision has not been made. The authors are responsible for the papers content. 6

COMPARISON OF TOOLS FOR INFORMATION SECURITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Štefan Antolík Abstract: The article deals with the analysis of risks in information security management system, briefly describes the current international standards focused on information security. Follow, article describes the process of the risk analysis in the process of information security management, describes the methods used for risk analysis. In conclusion, the article is a comparison of selected methods used for risk analysis. Keywords: security, analysis, tools, information 1. Introduction Information security (IS) as any area of human life develops dynamically. A typical problem for some organizations is the lack of attention to information security, lack of time and financial resources to this area, insufficient number of independent skilled workers who deal with information security, improper configuration of some key IT equipment and low level of awareness of most workers in the security policy of the organization. The process of analysis and valuation of risk used in the information security management system (ISMS) to identify and quantify the risks the organization of information security. The organization then responds to these identified risks creating security measures that aim to reduce these risks to a tolerable level. This process is repeated periodically. The quality of the analysis is thus strongly linked with the quality of the ISMS, or the rate at which protects the organization [7, 8]. 2. Characteristics of existing international standards in the field of IS The most important standards in the field of information security include the following standards [9]: - ISO/IEC 27000:2005- Information technology Security techniques Information security management systems Overview and vocabulary, - ISO/IEC 27001:2005- Information technology Security techniques Information security management systems Requirements, - ISO/IEC 27002:2005- Information technology Security techniques Information security management systems Code of practice from information security management, - ISO/IEC 27003:2010- Information technology Security techniques Information security management systems Information security management systems implementation guidance, - ISO/IEC 27004:2009- Information technology Security techniques Information security management systems Information security management measurements, 7

- ISO/IEC 27005:2011- Information technology Security techniques Information security management systems Information security risk managements, - ISO/IEC 27006:2011- Information technology Security techniques Information security management systems Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of information security management, - ISO/IEC 27007:2011- Information technology Security techniques Guidelines for information security management systems auditing, - ISO/IEC 27035:2011- Information technology Security techniques Information security incident management. 3. Status of risk analysis in the process of information security management Risk analysis in information systems is essential for an effective system for protecting information systems. The objective of risk analysis is to identify and assess threats to which the information system is exposed in order to be selected relevant measures. The risk analysis identifies threats, and their risks, that is a need to be accepts or correct. In the context of information systems security, risk analysis includes: analysis modules of asset, threat analysis, vulnerability analysis respectively protective measures. To build an effective information security management system we are ISO standards, in particular the specific ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 27002, TNI ISO/IEC TR 13335 (the world's third and fourth parts of this standard, replacing the standard ISO/IEC 27005:2008) and ISO/IEC 20000 [1]. Risk analysis is the process, through which are identified security risks that need to be checked and accepted [2, 4]. Risks are assessed in terms of the possible impact caused by disruption of attribute information. ISO/IEC TR 13335-1 provides four basic approaches to risk analysis (basic difference between these approaches is the level of depth of risk analysis) [3]: Use the same basic approach for all information systems. And regardless of the risk to which they are exposed and systems to accept that level of security is not always adequate, - Use an informal approach to risk analysis and focus on the information systems that are viewed as systems exposed to the highest risk, - Perform a detailed analysis of the risks of using a formal approach for all information systems, - Perform a combined approach. This means first starting to realize a general analysis of the risks and identify information systems exposed to high risks. Consequently, for these systems perform a detailed analysis of the risks and all the other systems apply standard measures. 8

4. General procedure of risk analysis In the following figure is the procedure and steps, which risk analysis consists. Risk Analysis Determine the boundaries of the analysis Identification of assets Asset valuation and determination of dependency Assessment of threats Assessment of vulnerability Identification of existing / planned measures Evaluation of risk Figure 1 The process of risk analysis comprising a detailed description [6] - Determination of the boundaries of the risk analysis: Limit the risk analysis is an imaginary line dividing the assets, which are included in the analysis of other assets. In determining the boundaries of the analysis is based on the plans of management, or from the initial study. Assets that are due to the ongoing process to reduce the risk to the relationship management will be included in the analysis and will lie inside the boundaries of the analysis. Other assets will lie outside the limits of risk analysis, - Identification and valuation of assets: In this step, there is the formation of the list of assets included in the business environment, processes and information that will be evaluated within the scope of the ISMS design, - Assessment of threats: In this step, there is the formation of the list of threats looming assets generally making use of the list of threats, - Assessment of vulnerability: In this step, there is the formation of the list of potential vulnerability for existing assets based on the list of well-known vulnerabilities, - Identification of existing and planned security measures: Step serves to identify and document all existing and planned measures, which are linked to a list of assets, - Evaluation of risks: Step serves to calculate risk based on established lists of threats and vulnerabilities associated with the assets included on the list. 5. The selected tools used in the process of risk analysis 5.1 Callio Callie Secura 17799 Tool created by Callie Technologies is a Web-based tool. Working with databases and allows the user to implement and operate information security management system (ISMS). Supports standard 17799 and ISO 27001. It can produce documents that are required to obtain certification of these standards. It also provides document management and editing database you use this tool. This tool is also available in the demo version, which is available on the Web site Callie Technologies for trying. From a user perspective, this tool is easy to use since it is a web solution intuitively divided into sections. It contains a system, that is in the work of user helpful explanations and instructions. 9

5.2 Cobra Tools made by company C & A Systems Security is a British software system for risk analysis. It allows the organization to focus on the safety of risky assets. Evaluating the potential impact of threats and vulnerabilities, and then generates recommendations and solutions properly. Automatically connects to the impact of possible threats to the assets of the company. It provides the opportunity to ensure as little or no impact on the assets. Tool COBRA is offered only in English language. It is intended primarily for commercial organizations and organizations that are focused on ISO 17799. To test the demo version is available on the manufacturer's website. Control tool should be easy for users who are not familiar with tools for analysis and management of risks. There is also an auxiliary user guide. The tool is based on modules, which can be modified to obtain more accurate solutions and recommendations. 5.3 Countermeasures Countermeasures come from USA made by the company Alion. This tool performed the analysis and management of risks based on a series of US-American standards NIST 800 and OMB Circular A-130. The tool lets the user define the evaluation criteria through a "tailor-made" list provides an objective assessment of the assets and determines the safety aspects. The tool is available to the network, as well as in the working configuration. The tool is available only in English language. It is one of the most expensive tools for risk analysis (Enterprise version - $ 14,500). There is a possibility of getting discounts for the academic sector and government organizations. The tool can be as an independent application or as a Web server. It is intended primarily large multinational organizations such as banks, oil companies, insurance companies, universities and public companies. Price for product incorporates a two-day training to work with the application. The system provides automatic installation and simple user interface with an auxiliary manual. The advantage of product is support included in the price. The tool offers the ability to export documents to MS Excel format or save to a database. 5.4 Ear/Pilar This tool for risk analysis comes from Spain and consists of 2 parts, and it is EAR - a commercial product PILAR - limited to public administration. This tool is supported by the Spanish Agency called CCN (Spanish National Agency for Safety). For analysis and risk management this tool is used mainly methodology "Magerit". Supports management of risks in the long term and provides escalating analysis for continuous improvement of the system. It focuses primarily on the qualitative and quantitative analysis and risk management. Assessed operations evaluate their impact on the business area of the company. The tool is available in 4 languages and English, French, Italian and Spanish. Areas that can get this tool for free or discounted are academic organizations and the Spanish public administration. Other areas for which the EAR / PILAR commercially designated as multinational companies, local government organizations and large companies. The tool is designed as a client / server application. The manufacturer provides support. Tool helps to obtain certification according to the ISO/IEC 27001:2005. The manufacturer provides technical training. Installing the tool is automatic. Using is the intuitive, but the user must be familiar with the methodology "Magerit". 5.5 Ebios Ebios created Central Information Systems Security Division in France. The tool is supported by an organization called Club Ebios. This tool differs mainly in that the 10

software is open source and is mostly free. It works on the principle of the method 5tich EBIOS phases. All the work and results allows the user to capture the resulting documents. The tool is available in 4 languages and English, French, Spanish and German. Its used by EU countries such as France, Belgium, Luxembourg and others. Outside the EU, is used in countries such as Tunisia and Quebec. Today, this tool uses about 1000 known entities from the public but also the private sector. Ebios is assigned for government and supranational organizations, both commercial and non-commercial companies. Ebios is an independent application created the Java programming language that works with the type of XML documents. Therefore, it does not matter, what platform the user uses the services Ebiosu. The tool also supports editing of risks, threats and vulnerabilities. Also, offers treatment of issues in identifying risks. 5.6 Proteus Tool for risk analysis Proteus comes from the workshop of the government of the United Kingdom Infogate. Mainly oriented to government organizations worldwide. Supportive of BSI (British Standards Body), ISF (Information Security Forum) and Institute of HICP. Proteus is a comprehensive tool for working at a web server. It offers analysis and management of security risks especially for government agencies as well as large multinationals. Proteus helps organizations in the implementation of standards and security guidelines such as ISO 17799, BS ISO 27001, BS 25999, SOX, CobiT, PCI DSS and others. 5.7 RiskPAC The system developed by the U.S. CPA firm that specializes in the area of risk analysis. We are talking about an expert system in which they are implemented elements of artificial intelligence. The system by consequential a further package of programs - RecoveryPAC that lets you create disaster recovery plans and IS System Manager, which allows users to create their own questionnaires. System Manager is a tool for quick and easy development of questionnaires. Allows you to create new or modify existing questionnaire. System Manager provides the ability to create or edit questions, manage the creation of assessment questionnaires and provides advice based on the responses of users. System RecoveryPAC is a tool that allows you to create customized action plans recovery systems. Management system recovery activities consists of three basic modules (Project Management module, modeling module data recovery, business recovery planning module) 5.8 RiskWatch RiskWatch is a package of software products used for risk analysis in accordance with the world standards for information security (ISO/IEC 17799), in accordance with the standards for financial institutions FFIEC issued by a governmental agency (The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council) and by the U.S. of the 2002 Sarbanes- Oxley. This package contains: - RiskWatch for Information Systems & ISO 17799, - RiskWatch for Financial Institutions, - RiskWatch for Physical & Homeland Security, - RiskWatch for Physical Security & C-TPAT. RiskWatch for Information Systems & ISO 17799 provides a convenient base for webbased questionnaire form, which can be installed on the server and use it as a client / server (i.e. can approach it authorized and responsible person for each security from their own workstations). RiskWatch for Financial Institutions used for risk analysis in financial institutions, and issues from the Gramm Leach Bliley Act, California SB 1386 11

(Identify Theft Standards) and standards for information systems organization FFIEC issued. 5.9 CRAMM (CCTA Risk Analysis and Management Method) Acronym CRAMM we understand two different things: - UK government methodology for valuation and risk analysis of security, - Support software tool that helps in applying this methodology in practice. There is a tool sold in version 5.2 for the Microsoft Windows operating system. In the nineties was CRAMM used primarily UK government and it also took a number of commercial organizations and government offices around the world. Currently, the most widely is used methodology CRAMM its kind in Europe. Currently distributed in three versions - CRAMM expert CRAMM express and BS 7799 (ISO 27001) Review. It is also possible to order the trial version, which is used for short-term trial of the product. Since this is a robust solution, it also affected the final price of the product, which is now in units of one hundred thousand. As a further disadvantage of the product can be mentioned staff training tool to use and understand methods CRAMM, the inability to use one license on multiple computers and outdated graphical user interface. Due to a complexity of the issue of IS security, data and computer networks can one person be an expert in all areas. Rapid development of IT, constantly changes in IS and new trends in the presumption of safety ever greater demands on limited resources. There is also a wide range of risks that may threaten the security of the information system or network. With so many risks, it is difficult to measure the level and locate vulnerabilities and weaknesses IS. If it also happens, as the introduction of countermeasures for one set, new risks may arise elsewhere. Therefore, there is an objective need for such CRAMM validated method that can serve to promote information security management processes. Risk analysis according to the methodology CRAMM examines the security of IS assets, but gathers them into logical units - models assets, which are then subject to risk analysis. Risk analysis by the tool CRAMM in accordance with the methodology consists of three phases, each of which is supported by questionnaires and instructions: - Identification and valuation of assets, - Determination of risk - analysis of threats and vulnerabilities, - Risk Management proposal of safety measures. 5.10 Casis Advanced Security Audit Trail Analyzer - its goal is to collect data from the information system, the correlation of these data and generate security alerts according to userdefined rules. It contains no methods for risk analysis. 5.11 GSTool Developed by the Federa Office for Information Security (BSI) in Germany. After collecting the necessary information the user has a comprehensive system for reporting performed of structural analysis. 5.12 ISAMM Information Security Assessment and Monitoring Method Collection instructions and best practices in the field of information security based on ISO/IEC 27002. Comprises three main parts: determining the scope, risk assessment, reporting. 5.13 Modulo Risk Manager Software helping organizations to efficiently and automatically perform detailed risk assessment and coordinate projects through a centralized collection of data related to technology (such as software/hardware), not technical assets (such as people, processes) and physical security. Supports standards Sox, PCI, HIPPA, GLBA, FISMA, BASEL II, 12

Callio Casis Cobra Countermeasures CRAMM Ear/Pilar Ebios GSTool ISAMM Modulo Risk Manager Real ISMS Riskwatch RM Studio ISO 27001, BS 25999, COBIT. Produces a risk profile that may have a direct impact on the company and on the direct investment in security. Streamlines and reduces the direct cost to execution of the audits the company. 5.14 Real ISMS On-line solutions for easy implementation and maintenance of ISO 27001 certification. 5.15 RM Studio Supported standards ISO 27001, ISO 9001, ISO 14001:2004, ISO 13485 WLA-SCL: 2006, PCI DSS 1 & 2, BS 25999-2:2007 as well as user-defined standards. RMS combines continuity management processes and risk management. It is based on the methodology of ISO/IEC 27001 and 27005 safety standards. 6. Comparison of selected tools of risk analysis in IS Comparison tools is understood not only in terms of risk analysis, but are taken into account also other tools and features, and it is the ability to identify and opportunity risk management. This comparison allows a better opt for the selection of a suitable tool for when seeking a comprehensive software solution to support the ISMS, or required only a specific functionality. Table 1 Comparison tools- software solutions Tool Identification Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes of risk Risk analysis No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Risk management Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Calio C E R T Supported standards ISO 17799 ISO 27001 M O D Table 2 Comparison of selected tools for risk analysis [5] Language Target Š Support availability audience K E F I E C G L S N K O Tel. Txt N R T S Z L. 2 Cobra ISO 17999 1 Countermeasures 2 Ear/Pilar Ebios ISO 13335 ISO 17799 ISO 15408 ISO 27001 ISO 13335 ISO 15408 ISO 17799 Ebios 3 2 13

Proteus Cramm 14 ISO 27001 BS 25999 SoGP PCI DSS SOX ISO 27001 Cramm 3 2 (CERT- support for obtaining certification; MOD- ability to make own modifications of the instrument 1- weak, 2-good, 3-excellent; ŠKOL- need for training of staff; EN- English language; FR- French language; IT- Italian language; ES- Spanish language; CZ- Czech language; G- government; L- large companies; S- small and medium-sized companies; N- noncommercial target groups; K- commercial target groups) 7. Conclusion Risk analysis of IS being a very intensive process for time and knowledge and is very prone to error analysis. During the analysis must take into account many aspects affecting the safety of IS. Due to the characteristics of the risk analysis process is understandable effort to speed up the process, clarify and improve using special software tools. Selection of the appropriate instrument is crucial to the future quality of the risk analysis. Tools to support risk analysis used to support the identification of strategic assets of company, creating a database of assets and classification surveys, which help in identifying possible the most common risks associated with business objectives; helps develop appropriate measures to minimize the threat; identify security incidents and help to resolve them; help deciding on security policy. References [1] ISO/IEC 13335-1:2004 Information technology Security techniques Management of information and communications technology security part1: Concepts and models for information and communications technology security management. [2] NAGYOVÁ, A., MARKULÍK, Š. Bezpečnosť z hľadiska informačnej ochrany, In: Spektrum, Vol. 7, No. 2, 2007, 9-10. [3] ORAVEC, M., KAŠKO, E. STN ISOIEC 27001 v kontexte právneho rámca SR, In: Bezpečnosť práce, č. 7, 2008, 3-7. [4] ROSENBERGER, Ľ. Význam procesu analýzy rizík v systéme manažérstva informačnej bezpečnosti (SMIB). In: Economics and Management E&M 2, MK ČR E 17538, 2010, 21-27. [5] SCHREIDER, T. Risk Assessment Tools. In: A Primer, september 2010, [vid. 16. február 2013]. Available from: <http://www.securityrevue.com/article/2007/08/manazerstvo-rizika-a-jeho-ulohyv-oblasti-bezpecnosti-technickych-zariadeni/> [6] STRNÁD, O. Systém riadenia informačnej bezpečnosti. Ostrava, Amos 2011, ISBN 978-80-904766-6-0. [7] ŠOLC, M. Informačná bezpečnosť v spoločnosti. Ekonomika Management Inovace č. 1, ročník III., 2011, 12-24. [8] ŠOLC, M., TOMČOVÁ, T. Prečo uvažovať o zavedení systému manažérstva informačnej bezpečnosti?. Bezpečnosť práce, č. 2, 2009, 28-33. [9] VIRČÍKOVÁ, E., ŠOLC, M. Integrované manažérske systémy. Košice, TU 2012, ISBN 978-80-553-0927-9.

DEVELOPMENT AND OPTIMIZATION OF THE UV REDUCER FOR THE DETERMINATION OF EXPLOSIVES Alena Bumbová, Zbyněk Večeřa, Pavel Mikuška, Josef Kellner and Alena Langerová Abstract: In the study the procedure of developing and optimizing the UV reductor and the chemiluminescence detector for the determination of explosives has been described. The final miniaturized version of the photolytic reductor uses a 15 W Xe flashing lamp. Thanks to the optimization of flow rates and composition of reagents very low detection limits have been achieved. The use of this miniaturized optimized reductor and chemiluminescence detector in connection with an original microcolony liquid chromatograph is a prerequisite for the construction of an analyzer which will be able to determine energetic compounds in the air. Keywords: chemiluminescence detector, nitramines, nitroesters, UV reductor 1. Introduction It is known that the photolytic reduction of nitrate induced by UV radiation absorption provides a simple method for its conversion into nitrite, for the detection of which we developed in the past an extremely sensitive detector which works on the chemiluminescence principle [1, 2]. We have found out that a similar reaction also happens in photolysis of some organic compounds which have nitrogen in their molecule. Energetic compounds [3], e.g. trinitrotoluene (TNT), pentaerythrite tetranitrate (PETN), hexogene (RDX), octogene (HMX), ethylenglycol dinitrate (EGDN), trinitrobenzoic acid (TNBK), glycerol trinitrate (NG) and picric acid (PA), also fall into the class of these compounds. Dimethyldinitrobutane (DMDNB) also undergoes photolysis; it is used as a marker of energetic compounds. It can be expected that also other energetic compounds which include C-NO 2, C-ONO, N-NO 2 groups or, if need be, NH 2 group in their molecule will undergo this type of photolysis as well. Although the photolysis of the abovementioned nitrogen compounds is a complicated process comprehensive of many reactions and reaction intermediates, the resulting reaction, e.g. in case of nitrate, can be described using a simple stoichiometric equation (R1 reaction) as follows: NO 3 + h NO 2 + ½ O 2 (R1) The yield of R1 reaction depends on UV energy, UV radiation wavelength, composition of the medium in which the reaction proceeds and, last but not least, also on the time, during which UV radiation affects a given compound. 2. Results 2.1 UV reductor Optimization For simplification nitrate was used as a model compound during the optimization of the UV reductor. The aim was to develop a reductor which will support the on-line 15

conversion of selected nitrogen oxo compounds into nitrite with the subsequent rapid and sensitive detection of the produced nitrite. At the beginning the chemiluminescence (CL) method for the detection of nitrite produced due to photolytic conversion of nitrate was used. This method is based on the oxidation of nitrite by hydrogen peroxide in an acid medium into peroxonitrous acid (R2 reaction) which is determined as peroxonitrite through chemiluminescence reaction with luminol. H + HONO + H 2 O 2 > HOONO + H 2 O (R2) For the detection itself the continual system was used when a sample solution (i.e. the nitrite after the output from the UV reductor) was being mixed continuously with the reagent solution (4 mm H 2 O 2 and 3 mm EDTA in 0.3 M H 2 SO 4 ). During the flow through the reaction capillary tube (PTFE, 0.5 mm I.D., length 30 cm) H 2 O 2 in an acid medium oxidizes the nitrite into the peroxonitrous acid which is determined directly in the chemiluminescence detector using the chemiluminescence reaction with luminol after mixing with the CL solution (2 mm luminol and 3 mm EDTA in 0.6 M KOH). The emitted CL radiation is detected using the photomultiplier. The area of peak is measured as a CL signal. The detection limit of nitrite is 4 10-9 M (for the signal/noise ratio = 3). In optimizing the UV reduction conditions a few parameters which affect the reduction efficiency of nitrogen oxo compounds into nitrate fundamentally have been tested experimentally: Composition of the carrier liquid; Flow rate of the carrier liquid and the exposure time; Material (PTFE, quartz) and dimensions (length and bore) of the reaction capillary tube; Parameters of UV light sources (i.e. wavelength of emitted radiation, performance of a UV source); Optimization of the UV reductor geometric arrangement; Temperature. In the course of the UV reductor development a few UV reductor versions varying in a used lamp and material of the capillary tube for the flow of liquids or, if need be, geometry of their mutual configuration, were tested. The result of the first phase of optimizing both the UV reductor and the new detection method was the simplification of the whole system. The optimized final version of the reductor included a 125 W Hg lamp (RVK 125 W, Teslamp Praha). The capillary tube is fixed parallel to the lamp longitudinal axis at the distance of 35 mm from the lamp body. The optimum flow rate of a sample through the reductor is 300 µl.min -1 ; the temperature inside the reductor is 190 C. The detection limit for the determination of nitrate under the abovementioned optimum conditions is 2 10-9 M (S/N = 3). The total analysis time comprehensive of both the sample flow rate through the UV reductor, and the subsequent continuous detection is 12 s. In accordance with the preliminary experiments it is possible to detect many energetic compounds in aqueous solutions, the concentration of which is 10-10 M (TNT) and 10-11 M (Pentaerythrite tetranitrate, HEXOGENE, OCTOGENE, DMDNB). The final UV reductor version was tested successfully for the photolytic conversion of organic nitrogen oxo compounds (TNT, Pentaerythrite tetranitrate, HEXOGENE OCTOGENE) with the subsequent continuous CL detection of products. Further, the 16

possibility for the determination of the abovementioned compounds in the air was tested. It has been confirmed that the developed UV reductor can be used with success within the rapid and sensitive detection of selected energetic compounds. The photolytic reductor developed in 2010 (FR 2010) is not too suitable for the terrain and mobile use due to its large size. When using the FR2010 for the direct detection of real samples of nitrogen oxo compounds in the air the interference of nitrous acid and sulphur dioxide occurring in the air together with the studied nitrogen compounds was detected. Therefore, at first it was necessary to approach the elimination of these interferences before the reductor miniaturization. On the basis of the literature search it was decided to remove HNO 2 from the sample solution through its reaction with sulfamidic acid (SMA) to form nitrogen. The reaction can be described using the following equation (R3): HNO 2 + H 2 NSO 3 H H 2 SO 4 + N 2 + H 2 O (R3) The sulfamidic acid solution was being mixed with the sample solution before its entering the UV reductor. The optimization of sulfamidic acid (SMA) concentration and the reaction time was carried out with the aim of removing HNO 2 quantitatively from the sample solution before its entering the reductor. The optimum SMA concentration is 2 g/l and the reaction time is dozens of seconds. The SO 2 interference can be eliminated with the addition of formaldehyde which reacts with SO 2 to form hydroxymethansulfonate (HCHO). HCHO was added to the SMA solution; the optimum formaldehyde concentration was 0.02 M. The interferences of other pollutants were not detected. 2.2. Miniaturization of the reductor and optimization of detection 2.2.1. Arrangement of the measuring apparatus The measuring apparatus includes a photolytic reductor, chemiluminescence (CL) detector and continuous liquid-flow system which enable the continuous connection of photolytic conversion and CL detection in figure 1. At first, the sample solution is being mixed with the SMA solution continuously. Then the resulting mixture passes through the reductor where the sample is exposed to radiation from the UV lamp during the flow rate through the reaction quartz capillary tube. The absorption of UV radiation induces the photolytic conversion of nitrate and nitrogen oxo compounds occurring in the sample into unidentified reaction products. The solution coming out of the reductor is being mixed with the luminol solution in the CL detector; reaction products react with luminol and the emitted CL radiation was detected using a photomultiplier. The area of peak is measured as a CL signal. 17

Figure 1: Apparatus scheme PC computer, PP peristaltic pump, FR photolytic reductor, FL flashing lamp, PMT photomultiplier, CLD chemiluminescence detector When developing the miniaturized photolytic reductor (MFR) we compared its characteristics with the reductor developed in 2010 (FR2010). 2.2.2. Optimization of determination During the development of the MFR a few parameters were tested experimentally. These parameters affect fundamentally the reduction efficiency of nitrate and energetic compounds as well as the detection limit for the determination of these compounds as follows: - Influence of radiation wavelength upon the conversion of nitrogen compounds, - UV reductor geometric arrangement, - Flow rate of the luminol and SMA solution through the redactor, - Flow rate of the sample through the redactor, - Composition of the SMA solution, - Composition of the luminol solution. When developing and optimizing we used nitrate, TNT, PETN, RDX, HMX, EGDN, TNBK, NG, PA and DMDNB. We tested another UV radiation source than the Hg lamp in the miniaturized photolytic reductor (MFR) for the reason of miniaturization. On the basis of the literary search a flashing Xe lamp was selected as a UV radiation source, the performance of which is 15 W (Hamamatsu, L4633-01 type, lamp diameter 26 mm). Its advantage is the following: small size, lower power and no heating of the sample when passing through the reaction capillary tube inside the redactor. Sample heating results in sample degassing; the escaped gases (O 2 and N 2 ) cause that the detector shows increased signal fluctuations, which results in the decrease in reliability of the determination as well as lowering of the method detection limit. On the other hand, due to the smaller diameter of the flashing lamp, only a shorter part of the reaction capillary tube is irradiated in comparison with the arrangement in the FR2010. Hypothetically, it was expected that the lower lamp performance when compared with the Hg lamp in the FR 2010 could probably lead to the lower photolysis efficiency of the studied compounds even if, on the basis of the literature, it was evident that it wouldn t have to be like that. In spite of that, the MFR was constructed so that the Xe lamp with a parabolic collimator was used for the final version. The parabolic collimator concentrated UV radiation rays on a cylindrical parabolic mirror which was made of aluminium and positioned vertically to the lamp axis. 2.2.3. Final configuration of the miniaturized photolytic redactor The final configuration of the miniaturized photolytic reductor includes a 15 W Xe flashing lamp which irradiates a quartz capillary tube (ID 530 µm, the length of irradiated part is 25 mm) fixed vertically to the longitudinal lamp axis at the distance of 30 mm from the lamp. The parabolic aluminium mirror is installed beyond the capillary tube and focuses the light on the capillary tube. The advantage of the Xe lamp is that it does not cause the heating of the sample due to its lower performance. However the necessity of cooling does not take place and the apparatus is simplified. The optimum composition and flow rates of reagent and sample solutions are summarized in Table 1. 2.2.4. Limit of detection The final optimized version of the miniaturized reductor (flashing 15 W Xe lamp) in combination with optimized flow rates and reagent composition has been used for determination of the limit of detection (LOD) of the studied compounds. The values of the obtained limits of detection are given in Table 2. For the comparison the values of 18

limits of detection obtained using the photolytic reductor from 2010 (150 W Hg lamp) are also mentioned. Table 1 Optimized compositions and flow rates of solutions for the MFR Flow velocity Composition (µl.min -1 ) Sample 172 - SMA solution 104 0.02 M SMA (2 g/1 L), HCHO (1.6 ml 37% HCHO/1 L), acetone (0.5 ml/1 L) Luminol solution 299 0.001 M luminol, 0.01 M sodium pyrophosphate, 0.1 M KOH Table 2 Comparison of detection limits (mol/l) of studied compounds (3 S/N) Compound LOD (mol/l) LOD (mol/l) LOD ratio 150 W Hg lamp 15 W Xe lamp for Xe / Hg lamp Trinitrotoluene 3.5 10-8 6.0 10-6 170.8 Pentaerythrite tetranitrate 5.0 10-8 3.3 10-6 66.7 Hexogene 6.3 10-9 6.8 10-8 10.8 Octogene 3.9 10-9 2.5 10-8 6.4 Ethylenglycol dinitrate 4.6 10-8 3.0 10-7 6.5 Picric acid 1.9 10-8 1.0 10-7 5.2 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-dinitrobutane 5.5 10-8 3.0 10-7 5.5 G glycerol trinitrate 2.1 10-8 5.0 10-7 24.3 Trinitrobenzoic acid 9.2 10-8 5.5 10-7 6.0 HNO 3 6.9 10-8 4.9 10-7 7.1 3. Conclusion It results from the comparison of LODs values that the photolytic reductor with the 150 W Hg lamp (i.e. FR2010) has minimum 5x lower LOD value for all the studied compounds than the newly developed miniaturized version of the photolytic reductor with the 15 W flashing Xe lamp (i.e. MFR). Nevertheless, despite the lower efficiency of the UV lamp in the MFR it was a success to achieve such limits of detection through the optimization of flow rates and the composition of reagents. The limits of detection in connection with an original microcolony liquid chromatograph are a prerequisite for the construction of an analyzer which will be able to determine energetic compounds in the air. The financial support of the Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic by the grant No. 0901 8 7150 R is also gratefully acknowledged. References [1] SMITH, J.P., HINSON-SMITH, V. The New Era of SAW Device. Anal. Chem. 78(11), pp. 3505-3507, 2006. 19

[2] GOODPASTER, J.V., McGUFFIN, V.L. Fluorescence quenching as an indirect detection method for nitrated explosives. Anal. Chem. 73(9), pp. 2004-2011, 2001. [3] MEANEY, M.S., McGUFFIN, V.L. Luminescence-based methods for sensing and detection of explosives. Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 391, pp. 2557-2576, 2008. 20

THE EDUCATION IN THE AREA OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT Monika Davidová Abstract: The paper focuses the attention to the current system of education in the area of crisis management at all level, the basic accesses of development managers. The final part of the paper proposes to the new project of education and development of the crisis managers at University of Defence. Keywords: education, crisis management, human resource management 1. Introduction At present, knowledge is essential to the performance of any activities. Development of new technologies, innovation and changes in working process forces us constantly evolve and educate. Only well-prepared employee brings to his employer advantage and higher competitiveness. Employer who realizes the necessity of further education of employees, plans systematically, organizes, implements, monitors and evaluates the educational process in accordance with economical possibilities. The paper connects to the research project of economic laboratory. 2. Current state of education in the area of crisis management Education in the field of crisis management is based on The Concept of Education in the Field of Crisis Management in Connection with the Reform of Public Administration and Related Legal Standards Regulating Preparation and Training Other Employees in Public Offices, Officers of Territorial Units and Employees of Legal Persons and Entrepreneurs published in 2004 [1]. This concept contains appraisal of current state, education in the area of crisis management in which are taken into consideration basic facts, system for the preparation of persons, further professional training, target groups followed by coordination of the educational process and financial security. Education in the field of crisis management and population protection in the Czech Republic takes place in three levels: - Courses, - Secondary and higher vocational education, - University education. Courses and trainings are provided by training centres of the Ministry of Interior i.e. Population Protection Institute in Lazne Bohdanec, training centres of population protection of the Czech Republic (regional headquarters of Fire Rescue Service) and Institute for Local Administration. Figure 1 focuses attention on areas of activities of the training centres and courses. 21

Training centre Field of activity Course Population Protection Educational and training: Basic, specialized, training, Institute in Lazne -processing methodological retraining, supplementary, Bohdanec aids, language. - organizing lectures, courses, workshops, international conferences. Scientific and research: - developing of strategic concepts of the Fire Rescue Service of the Czech Republic, - improving areas of methods, technology, technological resources, ensuring the population protection. Institute for Public Administration Prague Informative: - collecting and evaluating information for the Fire Rescue Service of Czech Republic, - processes analysis of the population protection in the world and its development trends Specialised: - providing expert, advisory and consulting services, - provides chemical consulting services and supervises and regulates Chemical laboratory practice. Educational: - methodological guidance and coordination of the special professional competences as a qualification requirement for the state administration in delegated jurisdiction - Education of officials offering a comprehensive range of accredited training programs for the upgrading the qualification. Continuous and deepening education, training for elected representatives, preparation for special professional competence exams, initial training, basic pedagogical training of lecturers. Figure 1: Training centres which provides cources and traings in the field of crisis management Source: own 22

On education in the field of crisis management also participate in secondary institutions, whether public or private (refer to Figure 2). Name of the school Study program Course Military Secondary School and College in Moravska Trebova Protection of Troops and Population ------------------------------------ ------- Fire Service College in Frydek-Mistek ----------------------------------- -------- Population Protection and Crisis Management Secondary Public School and College of Crime Prevention and Crisis Management Prague, ltd. Crisis Management ------------------------------------ ------- Figure 2: Secondary and higher vocational in the field of crisis management Source: own From the Figure 3 is obvious that The University of Defence provides the most fields of study in the area of the crisis management. University Faculty Name of the programme Police Academy of the Czech Republic in Prague Czech Technical University in Prague Jan Amos Komensky University Prague Private University College of Economic Studies, Ltd. University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice University of Technology in Brno Faculty of Security Management Faculty of Biomedical Engineering Faculty of Health and Social Studies Name of the field of study Public Administration Security Management in public administration Population Protection Planning and Management of crisis situations Economics and Management Protection and Safety of Organizations Protection Inhabitants Security Studies Security Management of Protection of Inhabitants Focused on Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Noxa and Explosives Faculty of Chemistry Population Protection Crisis Management and Population Protection 23

University of Defence in Brno Masaryk in Brno University Karl Englis College in Brno Faculty of Economics and Management Faculty of Social Studies Economics and Management Protection of Troops and Population Political Science Security and Law Studies Rasin College Economics and Insolvency VSB Technical University of Ostrava Palacky University in Olomouc Tomas Bata University in Zlin Silesian University in Opava University Pardubice of College of European and Regional Studies Faculty of Security Engineering Faculty of Physical Culture Faculty of Logistics and Crisis Management Mathematical Institute in Opava Faculty of Economics and Administration Fire Protection and Industrial Safety Population Protection Population Protection Security Management Modelling and simulation of processes of protection of troops and population The civil protection Weapons of mass destruction, harmful substances and the protection against them Security and Strategic studies Security and Legal Activities in Public Administration Crisis Management Emergency Planning and Crisis Management Security Planning Population Protection Population Protection Applied Mathematics Applied Mathematics in Risk Management for solving crisis situations Economics Management Security and Legal Activities and Management of Protection of Business and Society Security and Legal Activities in Public Administration Figure 3: Selected universities providing programmes close to the area of security Source: KLABAN, V. Vzdělávání v oblasti bezpečnosti. In: Bezpečnostní management a společnost. Sborník z mezinárodní konference pořádané Katedrou ochrany obyvatelstva FEM UO v Brně. Brno: Univerzita obrany, 2012, p. 194, ISBN 978-80-7231-871-1. University of Defence provides through educational activities also courses published in Journal: [2] - Psychosocial Aspects of Disaster and Crisis Management (secured by the Faculty of Military Health Sciences, duration 1 week), - Crisis Management, Combat Readiness, Mobilization Planning (secured by the Faculty of Economics and Management, duration 3 weeks). Educational institutions mentioned above provide professional-business basis. Nevertheless the business basis should be followed by educational activity that would eliminate weak points of personality of manager in order to enhance his competences and reduce potential losses, whether material, financial or human. 24

3. Training and development of crisis managers Education in the field of crisis management is currently examined by academic staff. [3] The majority of authors focus their look only at the brief summary of the current state i.e. concepts, legislation and overview of selected educational institution providing programs for education managers. Only chosen authors attempt to find deeper connections e. g. by concentrating on each manager competencies, psychological aspects, development of personal qualities, human behaviour under pressure and possible elimination of weaknesses of manager while dealing with crisis situations. For instance the publication from authors Horák, Krč, Ondruš and Danielová Crisis Management Guide for Public Administration [4] discusses the crisis management, economic measures for crisis states, crisis legislation and terminology. In the first part characterizes the author of the chapter management and its function. Among other things, the emphasis is also placed on personal aspects of manager and chosen methods of the decision making process. Authors point out the fact that one personality is not capable enough to solve stages of decision making process, managers generally handle only one specific stage of this process. The work of a crisis manager differs from the work of a common manager especially in specific working conditions. According to Moricová [5], a crisis manager manager in organization (company), leader of the public administration in the relevant resorts, management staff departments of crisis management in state and local government, mayor, the commander of the military and police forces, Fire Rescue Service, Medical Rescue Service. A crisis manager needs to consider and at the same time be capable of planning possible alternative solutions of situations, continually exercise, undergo trainings, be able to analyse information, communicate (both with colleagues or people affected by the crisis situation), declare and call off emergency situations. Work capability of a crisis manager is the degree of consistency between requirements and assumptions. It consists of physical, psychological, vocational and moral component. Capability and qualification of a crisis manager ought to be professional (ability to manage, organize, coordinate, make decisions flexibly and dynamically), social (lead people, motivate, stimulate, maintain moral quality of personality, be able to stand up to the psychological strain), conceptual (plan, realize solutions to situations, see connections and consequences of the decision). Requirements for performing work of a crisis manager, the role of crisis management, functions and principles that should be followed by crisis managers, work capability and personal qualities ought to be the basis for answers to these questions: How should the education of crisis managers along the line of psychology and resource management go on? Is it possible to eliminate weak points of manager personality and by that enhance his competences and reduce potential losses? A claim exists that managers learn best through working. However it is not possible to leave managers to their fate by their employer and moreover their further education and progress cannot be a random process. Specialist publications recommend three basic approaches to a growth of a manager: [6] - Informal education learning through work, - Formal education, - Feedback, help and support. 25

Informal approaches of a manager to education and development result from everyday work. Managers must be able to deal with any new situation lessons learned from this could be applied in the future. Discussion with other colleagues, superiors may reveal manager s weaknesses, which need to be developed. Formal approaches to development of managers include: - Progress while working by means of coaching, consulting, monitoring and response from the senior managers, - Progress through gaining work experiences such as job rotation, working in project teams learning through work, - Formal education through courses, - Structured self-development according to the individual learning programs. Manager obtain feedback from mentor, an expert in the field of education of managers who provides advices aimed on improving performed activities and leads the future graduate in his career. 4. New challenges in education of crisis managers New challenges in education of crisis managers may be seen in thematic orientation of current courses that do not offer focus on weaknesses of managers with goal of enhance his competences and reduce potential losses. How then may look like model of further education of crisis managers at the University of Defence? The main target group would be formed of selected lead workers of middle and senior management. Course would focus on acquiring knowledge and skills from the area of resource management and psychology for the support of lead workers. The emphasis would be on topics from the areas: - Resource management (human resources, financial resources economics of national defence, area of law and selected specialization soldiers, firemen, police members, pilots, doctors), - Psychology (human and organizational failure, stress and tiredness, information process, communication, management of work tasks, team work and leadership). These thematic fields would be actively applied by the target group on the course during solving case studies and own presentational activities, but also in practise. Thematic focus of the course, learning methods and organizational form of teaching would copy the course Crew Resource Management Instructor Course (CRM Instructor Course), which was orientated on dealing with crisis situations in aviation. The Author of this article attended Crew Resource Management Instructor Course (CRM Instructor Course) in London in 2011 from the resources of the research project Laboratory of Safety and People Protection in which is she involved as co-investigator. The aim of this project is application of new findings into Czech environment with focus on creation of methodology for education, development and military personnel training crisis managers. The entry requirement for the course would be to study the pre-preparation materials (sent by the University of Defence), which would be an essential pillar of the educational event from which the course participants would be able to draw during solving case studies and practical tasks. Lecturing activity would provide lecturers from the University of Defence and selected experts from the Ministry of Defence and Ministry of the Interior. The Figure 4 is the proposal of the education of crisis managers along the line of psychology and resource management. 26

Knowledge, skills, competences, experiences, work capability, personal qualities. Course at the University of Defence including psychological and physiological testing (personality structures) Individual planning of education and progress of manager and (elimination of weak points) New Knowledge, skills, competences, experiences, work capability, personal qualities. Entrance questionnaire Feedback of educational process Final questionnaire Figure 4: Proposal of education of crisis managers along the line of psychology and resource management at the University of Defence Source: own Manager would entry into educational activity with his current knowledge, skills, competences, experiences, work capability and personal qualities. After processing the entrance questionnaire he would study and develop himself according to the resource management and psychology topics. The part of this course would be psychological and physiological testing (personality structure), which would take place at the University of Defence through psychological tests, questionnaires and on biofeedback focused device (BFB) and that all would perform trained staff. Afterwards, experts would provide recommendations based on the results of the diagnostics, which would be the essential material for the individual plan of education and manager development. After completion of the course would graduates fill in the final questionnaire, where would they evaluate the course progress i.e. positives and negatives, suggestions to add other topics into course, approaches and leading of lecturers, self-reflection etc. Economical aspect of this proposal lies in visions and mainly in The University of Defence possibilities. Within the research project the Laboratory of Safety were purchased biofeedback devices and trained staff. A space for these devices ensures the University of Defence. Aspects that could further affect the cost of the crisis managers testing: - Time demand of testing, evaluation of tests and formation of the individual education plan and development of manager (current trained staff provide education, guide bachelor and master theses, teach courses in lifelong learning), - Consumables (medical, office supplies), - Who would finance education and development of managers from other resorts (Ministry of the Interior police members and firemen), - Will it be just single testing or will managers be tested at intervals and several times to monitor the elimination of their weaknesses. 27

If the proposal of education and crisis managers development along the line of psychology and resources management was approved and realized, then the University of Defence would become an important institution that dictates the directions of new trends and implements them. 5. Conclusion The education in the field of crisis management is specific and that is why it should prepare future crisis managers responsibly. Crisis managers should after the accredited educational activities completing undergo further education, which would be aimed on development of their personality and elimination of weaknesses and this would ultimately help reduce potential losses. References [1] The Concept of Education in the Field of Crisis Management in Connection with the Reform of Public Administration and Related Legal Standards Regulating Preparation and Training Other Employees in Public Offices, Officers of Territorial Units and Employees of Legal Persons and Entrepreneurs, 2004. [2] Journal of Educational Activities for 2012. [3] FOLTIN, P. Vzdělávání pro bezpečnostní systém státu. In: Bezpečnostní management a společnost. Sborník z mezinárodní konference pořádané Katedrou ochrany obyvatelstva FEM UO v Brně. Brno: Univerzita obrany, 2011, p. 164 168. ISBN 978-80-7231-790-5. [4] HORÁK, R. Manažer v krizových situacích, Obrana a strategie, 2004, č. 1, p. 157 165. [5] JURENKA, M. Vzdělávání v oblasti krizového řízení, Vojenské rozhledy, 2005, 2, p. 99-102. ISSN 1210-3292. [6] KLUČKA, J. Príprava nového študijného programu na katedre krízového manažmentu. In: Bezpečnostní management a společnost. Sborník z mezinárodní konference pořádané Katedrou ochrany obyvatelstva FEM UO v Brně. Brno: Univerzita obrany, 2011, p. 298 301. ISBN 978-80-7231-790-5. [7] KLABAN, V. Vzdělávání v oblasti bezpečnosti. In: Bezpečnostní management a společnost. Sborník z mezinárodní konference pořádané Katedrou ochrany obyvatelstva FEM UO v Brně. Brno: Univerzita obrany, 2012, p. 194, ISBN 978-80-7231-871-1. [8] HORÁK, R. KRČ, M. ONDRUŠ, R, DANIELOVÁ, L. Průvodce krizovým řízením pro veřejnou správu. Praha: Linde, 2004. 528 p. ISBN 80-7201-471-471- 4. [9] MORICOVÁ, V. Vzdělávanie krízových manažérov so zameraním na rozvoj osobnostních kvalít. In: Bezpečnostní management a společnost. Sborník z mezinárodní konference pořádané Katedrou ochrany obyvatelstva FEM UO v Brně. Brno: Univerzita obrany, 2012, p. 344 351. ISBN 978-80-7231-871-1. [10] ARMSTRONG, M. Řízení lidských zdrojů. 10. vydání, dotisk. Praha: Grada Publishing, 2008. p. 493, ISBN 978-80-247-1407-3. 28

TESTING STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN ECONOMIC TIME SERIES Lucie Doudová and David Hampel Abstract: The paper is focused on testing significance of structural changes in time series. This problem is related to (non)constancy of regression parameters. Such assumption of linear regression model can be broken when a structural change appears, for example the world financial crisis actually. Basic methods dedicated for this purpose are group of Chow tests and CUSUM test. Different approaches to parameters constancy testing in the Chow style are discussed from the statistical point of view. Results of chosen methods are illustrated by application on data about military expenditures in the Czech Republic and the financial data. Keywords: economic time series, structural changes, testing parameters constancy 1. Introduction Quantitative methods are increasingly applied not only in the technical disciplines, but also in the social sciences. They cover a wide range of topics such as organization and decision making, see [13] and [15], risk analysis [11] or education [3]. In economics, a considerable attention is paid to the analysis of time series, see e.g. [10]. Regarding the statistical methods, one of the most widely used is a regression analysis. One of the important assumptions in regression analysis is that the parameter vector is invariant against the changes in data matrix within the sample, i.e. the parameters remain constant. In practice, this assumption may be violated over time and it gives rise to the problem of structural change. For example, the annual economic data may exhibit a structural change in the consumption pattern if there is a war and the point of structural change will be the first year of war. Consequently the parameters of the model before and after the war will not remain the same. Actually, financial crisis affects economic data in the similar way and it is necessary to take this fact into account. Since the stability of the regression coefficients is such an important part of the assumptions underlying the classical regression model, it may be advisable to regard it as a hypothesis to be tested. When the suspected variation of the regression coefficient is systematic, tests of the stability hypothesis are readily available. In the case of stochastically varying coefficient, it was found that a typical effect of coefficient variation is to make the regression disturbance heteroscedastic and possibly autocorrelated. This suggests the use of tests for homoscedasticity and nonautocorrelation. Further, to the extent that stochastic coefficient variation is caused by misspecification due to omitted variables or nonlinearity, tests such as RESET or the rainbow test would be appropriate. If we have well specified model where autocorrelation or heteroscedasticity is detected, appropriate modifications of parameters constancy tests should be used, see for example [2], [4], [6] and [16]. In this paper, several approaches to parameter constancy testing are analysed. Results of chosen methods are presented using actual data including structural change. 29

2. Material and methods To illustrate problems in the field of parameter constancy testing we use two datasets. The first one consists of military expenditures in the Czech Republic from the year 1993 to 2010, see Fig. 1. The data were obtained from Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, see [14]. This data are derived from the NATO definition, which includes all current and capital expenditures on the armed forces, including peacekeeping forces; defence ministries and other government agencies engaged in defence projects; paramilitary forces, if these are judged to be trained and equipped for military operations; and military space activities. Excluded are civil defence and current expenditures for previous military activities, such as for veterans' benefits, demobilization, conversion, and destruction of weapons. The Czech army has been considerably diminishing since 1993. It counted over 130 thousand people at that year, yet 68 thousand members were recruits in compulsory military service. In 1999 the Czech Republic joined NATO and the military went through significant structural changes including reduction. In 2003 the army had only 44 thousand employees and almost 20 thousand recruits. The year 2005 was a breakpoint in the history of the Czech army. The compulsory military service was discontinued and the army has begun to be fully professional. Since then, the number of soldiers and civilian employees has been decreasing each year (see [9]). We can expect a breakpoint in military expenditures in 2005 which is given by the real structural changes. Figure 1: Military expenditures in the Czech Republic from the year 1993 to 2010 (left graph); consumer credits provided by commercial banks from 2004 to 2010 in the Czech Republic (right graph). The second data are about consumer credits provided by commercial banks from 2004 to 2010 in the Czech Republic (obtained from the ARAD system of the Czech National Bank), see Fig. 1. This data are suspected to be affected by financial crisis, which started probably in the year 2009. Such suspicion where should be so-called break date is the necessary first step in the analysis. We can explore data by its graphical representation or by segmentation based on known historical events as a beginning of the new Act, emergence of a new government, etc. In further text we describe several parameter constancy tests. Outside the original papers and own calculations we use books [1], [8] and [12] for this purpose. 2.1. The Chow forecast test The idea behind the test (originally developed in [7]) is to divide the complete regression model into two independent regression models such that the sample of size T is divided into two subsamples of sizes T1 and T 2, where T = T1 T2. In the case of time series data, the observations should follow the natural order, i.e. the first T1 observations in the first subsample and the remaining in the second subsample. In 30

practice, such division should be based on historical event resp. is precised in accordance to information criterions when building up the model. In general, the size of the second sample T 2 should not be more than 5 15 % of the sample size T (see [12]). Partition y = X, where y is T 1 vector, X is T K matrix, into two independent regression models could be as follow: y1 = X1 1 1, y2 = X2 2 2, where y 1 is T 1 1 vector, X 1 is T 1 K matrix, y 2 is T 2 1 vector and X 2 is T 2 K matrix, with E ( 1 ' 2 ) = 0. Set = y ˆ 2 y2. The test statistics of Chow for testing the constancy of parameters through H0: = 1 2 (i.e. parameters remain same in both submodels), is of the form 1 1 ( I X ( X ' X ) X ' ) F = T 2 2 T2 ˆ' ˆ 1 1 1 1 2 T1 K (1) F F (, ) under H0. The decision rule is to reject H0 when 1 T2 T1 K. This test can be used sequentially as follows (see [5]). Divide the observations into G mutually exclusive groups with m 1 ( m 1 > K ) observations in the first group, m 2 m m m T observation in the second group, etc. Note that = 1 2 G. Further, let ng = m1 m2 m g for g = 1,2,, G. Clearly, n G = T. The sequential F test then involves the construction of G 1 F statistics, each defined as SSE SSE F g = n g m SSE g 1 g g 1 K g 1, g = 2,3,, G, SSEg n is the least squares residual sum of squares based on the first g where SSE 1 observations and g is the residual sum of squares based on the first n g 1 Fg 1 are mutually independent, so the probability seq that observations. The statistics none of G 1 test statistics rejects the null hypothesis is 1 seq = (1 2)(1 3) (1 G) g, where, g = 2,3,, G is the probability of Error Type I for the g th test. Now, the null hypothesis will be rejected if any Fg F1 ( mg, ng 1 K) seq, g = 2,3,, G. How to determine the optimal number of groups of observations is unfortunately still an open question. 2.2. The Chow test as a mean-shift test The analogy of the Chow forecast test can also be derived using a bit different idea. Assuming that the observations follow the model y =, 1 X1 1 and the period of forecasting follow another linear model with parameter vector as y = X 2 = = 2 2 2 X X X, 2 2 ( ) 2 2 31

where = X 2 ( ). Since = 0 is equivalent to =, so the hypothesis of parameter constancy can be formulated as H0: = 0 can be tested using the statistic F of Chow from (1). 2.3. The Chow test with both T1 and T2 relatively large Now we discuss situation, when both T 1 and T 2 are sufficient to construct two individual models (let us remember, that in previous text the size of the second sample T 2 should not be more than 5 15 % of the sample size T ). The first model we should write as yt = 1 2xt 2 K xtk t, (2) t = 1,, T1, and the second one as yt = ( 1 K 1) ( 2 K 2) xt 2 ( K 2K ) xtk t, (3) t = T1 1,, T1 T2 = T. The hypothesis of parameter constancy is in this case of the form H0: K 1 = 0,, 2K = 0, i.e. both models are the same in terms of parameters. It is possible to show that statistic SSE ( SSE1 SSE2) F = K SSE1 SSE2, T 2K where SSE1 resp. SSE2 are the residual sums of squares from the models (2) resp. (3) and the term SSE is residual sum of squares from the model yt = 1 2xt 2 KxtK t, t = 1,, T. The decision rule is to reject H0 when F F1 ( K, T 2K). 2.4. The CUSUM test This test is connected to the so-called recurrent OLS method. In this method we solve y regression 1 = X t 1 1 for t = K 1,, T, where vectors y 1 and 1 have dimension ( t 1 1) and X t 1 is t 1 ) matrix. By this manner we obtain recurrent OLSE 1 bt 1 = ( X ' t 1 Xt 1) X ' t 1 y1 yˆ = and prediction t xtbt 1 f with prediction error t = yt xtbt 1. Recurrent OLS method is based on the set of equations b = b A x f A = ( where t X t X f t et = k 32 t t ) 1 ~ iid k t A t t = = t 1 A t 1 1 x A t t t x, t t 1 t t 1 A k t 1 t x x A X, dimension of t is t K. Under normality assumption, 2 N(0, ), t = K 1,, T. e Values t b are called recurrent OLS residues. Both t e and t are usable for parameters b constancy testing: when parameters are varying in time, values of t e and t will varying e visibly. If a structural change appears, absolute values of t will be relatively high and et b will be correlated in time. This all we can usually identify in graphs of t e and t. t t 1 (4)

The proper CUSUM testing is based on recurrent OLS residues (4). Under null hypothesis, that regression parameters are constant, are CUSUM statistics (cumulative t eu CUSUMt = ~ N(0, t K), sums) approximately normally distributed, u= K 1 s t = K 1,, T, where s is OLSE of based on total model. CUSUM test detects change of regression parameters in the timet, when the equation CUSUM t form too. 2 t K holds for the first time. This test can be useful in graphical 3. Results and discussion All the results and graphs are obtained from our own implementations of described procedures in computational system MATLAB R2021a or Gretl 1.9.11 software. By this manner we have full control over these implementations, so we are sure that results are connected to particular method exactly. 3.1 Analysis of military expenditures data The data are depicted in Fig. 1, left graph. The structural break is clearly visible, and statistical verification is given by the Chow test statistics (1), F = 79.2. Trend of the data can be modelled as where beta s are parameters, is time vector (1993 2010) and is a dummy variable: zeros for 1993 2005 and ones for 2006 2010. Parameters and can be interpreted as coefficients of a basic regression line and parameters and as additions for appropriate line coefficients in the years 2006 2010. We can estimate model equation as with all parameters statistically significant. 3.2 Analysis of consumer credit data Consumer credit data depicted in Fig. 1, right graph, brings more complex problem. At the first sight on the graph, there are no visible breakpoints. After considering the onset of financial crisis, the part of the data from the October 2009 seems to be shaped a bit different than previous data. These hypotheses have to be tested by exact tools. It is possible to evaluate parameters constancy roughly by depicting parameter estimates depending on time. Parabolic model was chosen for this purpose, results are given in Fig. 2. It is possible to see, that for all parameters holds: after stabilization (initial estimates are based on a few observations only) visible deflection from the end of 2008 is apparent. Moreover, SSE rise meaningfully (see right lower graph in Fig. 2) from that time. 33

Figure 2: Modelling consumer credit data omitting breakpoint. Used model 2 yt = 0 1xt 2xt t. Subsets of data (gradually observations 1st to 10th, 1st to 11th,...) were analysed, parameters were estimated and depicted in dependence on time: upper left graph ˆ 0, upper right graph ˆ 1, lower left graph ˆ 2. SSE depending on time is presented in lower right graph. Further useful tool is graph with data and predictions from recurrent OLS method (Fig. 3, left graph). Data and predictions begin to differ visibly from the end of 2008; this difference augments from the end of 2009. Testing statistics of the Chow forecast test is F = 73.53, what is more than critical value 1.7575, the null hypothesis about parameters constancy is rejected ( T 1 was set to December 2008). Graphical representation of the CUSUM test is given in Fig. 3, right graph. CUSUM exceeds the criterion approximately in December 2009, where strong difference between data and recurrent OLS prediction appears. After detecting breakpoint, the next step is to choose appropriate model. Separation of the data can be done by dummy variables and for both parts can be used arbitrary function. The previous tests give only limited information about the time of breakpoint. This can be found by exploring SSE or information criterion (AIC, BIC, HQC, etc.) by setting different breakpoints sequentially. For our data, the first part is modelled by quadratic function and the second part by linear function. The breakpoint is set to December 2008, what is in accordance with results of the graphical analysis (Fig. 2 and 3) and also with the real beginning of financial crisis. Graph of this model is depicted in Fig. 4 together with parabolic model omitting the breakpoint. Higher quality of the model with breakpoint is visible. 34

Figure 3: Left graph: Data and predictions (and residues) from recurrent OLS method. Right graph: CUSUM statistics and CUSUM criterion for consumer credit data. Figure 4: Consumer credits data modelled with appropriate model (before breakpoint parabolic, after them linear) versus model omitting breakpoint (parabolic). Of course, this model is only illustrative. It is necessary to count with seasonality and verify classical model assumptions. Using Gretl software, we choose the model including constant, time, square of time, time*d (D means dummy variable, zeros before and ones after the breakpoint), square of time*d, periodic seasonal component for January, February, March and December, time * periodic seasonal component for December and lagged consumer credits as a model with the lowest informational criterions. All parameters are significant (p-values are always lower than 0.02). Moreover, parameters are meaningful, for example parameter for December seasonal component is positive, but time*periodic seasonal component for December is negative, what we can interpret as regular crediting of Christmas gifts, but with decreasing tendency in years. This model has adjusted coefficient of determination 0.99; we cannot reject following hypotheses: of proper specification (RESET test, p=0.271), of residuals normality (chi-square test, p=0.411), of nonautocorrelation (Breusch-Godfrey test, p=0.215) and of homoskedasticity (Breusch-Pagan test, p=0.969). The comparison of real data and predictions from this model is shown in Fig. 5, right graph. We try to model differences of consumer credits, because of relatively high variance inflation factors (VIFs), what can mean multicolinearity in the model. In this case, we obtain model with constant, D, time, time*d, periodic seasonal component for January, February, March, September and December and time*periodic seasonal component for December as a model with the lowest informational criterions. This model has the same good properties as previous model; even more, all VIFs are less than 10. The comparison of real data and predictions from this model is shown in Fig. 5, left graph. 35

Y d_y 5000 predicted real 4000 3000 2000 1000 0-1000 -2000 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 200000 predicted real 180000 160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Figure 5: Final consumer credits data models. Left graph: differences, right graph: original data. In both cases, full line means real data, dashed line model predictions. 4. Conclusions Tests of parameters constancy seem to be a useful tool to explore possible structural change in the data. Some authors, however, have considered assumption that parameters should be stable too restrictive and proposed models that allow for variation in the regression coefficients. Some of these models are based on economic theory or other prior knowledge. As a rule, these models involve nonstochastic, systematic coefficient variation. Examples are personal changes in behavior, or changes in production function coefficients caused by technical progress. Almost all regression models with time-varying coefficients are related to the wellknown Kalman filter state-space model. This model provides a flexible tool for modeling variation in the regression coefficients and is very popular in engineering. Generally, models with varying coefficients have not been widely used in econometrics because of the ad hoc nature of their specification. Variation of the regression coefficients can be justified mainly as a way for accounting for a suspected misspecification of the regression equation. References [1] Cipra, T. 2008. Finanční ekonometrie. Praha: EKOPRESS, 538 p. [2] Conerly, MD, Mansfield, ER. 1988. An approximate test for comparing heteroscedastic regression models. J. Amer. Statist. Assoc. 83, p. 811 817. 36

[3] Čechová, I, Beránková, J, Zerzánová, D, Nedoma, R, Hrdlička, H. 2012. Military professionals and their language training: research projects findings. Economics and Management 2012/1, p. 15-24. [4] Giles, D, Scott, M. 1992. Some Consequences of Using the Chow Test in the Context of Autocorrelated Disturbances. Economics Letters 38, p. 145 150. [5] Harvey, AC. 1976. An alternative proof and generalization of a test for structural change. The American statistician 30, p. 122 123. [6] Honda, Y, Ohtani, K. 1986. Modified Wald Tests in Tests of Equality between Sets of Coefficients in Two Linear Regressions under Heteroscedasticity. The Manchester School of Economic & Social Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 54(2), p. 208 218. [7] Chow, GC. 1960. Tests of Equality between Sets of Coefficients in Two Linear Regressions. Econometrica 28(3), p. 591 605. [8] Kmenta, J. 1997. Elements of Econometrics (2nd edition). Michigan: University of Michigan Press. 800 p. [9] Ministerstvo obrany České republiky 2006. Ročenka 2005 Praha, AVIS. 244 p. [10] Neubauer, J. 2006. Modelling of Economic Time Series and the Method of Cointegration. Austrian Journal of Statistics 35, no. 2-3, p. 307-313. [11] Odehnal, J, Sedlačík, M, Michálek, J. 2012. An Analysis of the impact of institutional environment on terrorism risk. Economics and Management 2012/3, p. 74-83. [12] Rao, CR, Toutenburg, H, Shalabh, Heumann, C. 2008. Linear Models and Generalizations Least Squares and Alternatives (3rd edition). Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer. 570 p. [13] Saliger, R. 2012. Organizační struktura armády České republiky. Economics and Management 2012/2, p. 89-96. [14] SIPRI. 1994-2011. Yearbook: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security. Online: http://www.sipri.org/yearbook [15] Štěpánek, B., Otřísal, P. 2011. Aplikace vybraných matematicko-statistických metod při rozhodovacích procesech v působnosti Join CBRN Defence Centre of Excellence. Economics and Management 2011/2, p. 112-118. [16] Thursby, JG. 1992. A comparison of several exact tests and approximate tests for structural shift under heteroscedasticity. J. Econometrics 53, p. 363 386. 37

EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION: UNDERSTANDING OF THE TERM COMMUNICATION BY FUTURE PROFESSIONALS 38 Emilie Franková Abstract: The paper presents partial results of extensive qualitative research performed at the Faculty of Business and Management of Brno University of Technology. Within the research, the meanings of key management and economic terms in the minds of future professionals were explored by means of mind mapping. The paper deals with one of the examined terms communication and the possible connections between an effective interpersonal communication and the meaning and understanding of the term communication in the minds of respondents students of the field of Managerial Informatics. The obtained results are commented upon and discussed. The conclusion summarizes the recommendations for the teaching of effective interpersonal communication both at schools and within further training of managers, entrepreneurs and employees. The paper is one of the outputs of specific research project Usage of Mind Mapping Method for Mapping of Meaning (Understanding) of Terms registered at Brno University of Technology under no. BD 17001011. Keywords: communication, meaning associated with the term communication, mind mapping 1. Introduction We cannot avoid communicating. This statement [1] can be considered the basic rule of social or interpersonal communication. We are often reminded that a human being is a social being and that we become people thanks to growing up among others and communication with them interweaves with our entire lives [2]. However, if that is so why do people so often not understand each other? May that be because the term communication, so frequently used nowadays, is used and understood in different meanings, which can easily cause problems not only in our personal but also study and work environments? The term communication comes from Latin communicare, which means to share, divide with, join with; the base of the word is communis which means common [3]. The quoted Czech entry in the encyclopaedia confirms our everyday experience that the word can be used in many different meanings, e.g. for conveying information, electronic communication, verbal communication, nonverbal communication, interpersonal communication, mass communication, group communication and others; moreover, in Czech it is used for roads, in English it is used for messages or documents and in plural for routes and transportation for moving troops [4]. It follows that the term usage is complicated by the many different meanings. However, if we seek our interpersonal communication to be effective and we wish to achieve mutual understanding, then it is vital that the communicators use terms in the same or at least similar ways.

Within an extensive qualitative research implemented at the Faculty of Business and Management, Brno University of Technology, we explored what meanings the term communication is associated with in the minds of respondents and how these meanings can affect the mutual understanding. 2. Research Aim and Methods 2.1. Mental Mapping of the Term Communication The above mentioned qualitative research focuses on mental mapping of meanings of key economic and management terms in the minds of future professionals in these fields. The respondents of the first stage of the research implemented in school year 2009/2010 were the students of first years of various study fields in the daily program, and the collection of data (i.e. the creation of mental maps) was carried out at the beginning of the first year, i.e. at the beginning of their studies. The research project assumes that future professionals will expand and deepen their knowledge of key terms from the fields of economics and management during their university studies and that this shift will be possible to record at a higher level of their studies. It means the research is designed as longitudinal. 2.2. Research Aims The aims of the part of qualitative research presented here were: - to elicit respondents mind processes related to the relevant term; - to capture the content and the structure of these mind processes by the method of mind mapping; - to use results of the obtained mind maps analysis for a demonstration of the possible ways of using this method for the mapping of the meaning (understanding) of terms; - to point out the possible use of this method for both teaching and managerial and entrepreneurial activities. 2.3. Methodology and Research Sample The method used in the presented research for the examination of the term communication in the respondents minds was mind mapping, i.e. an intentional evocation of theme-oriented mind processes and the capturing of their content and structure in mind maps ([5]; [6]; ]7]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]; [12]). The creativity expert Tony Buzan is considered to be the author of the concept of mind maps [13]. However, the use of spatial structures, models and images for the formation and expression of thinking and mind processes and systems has been known for many years (e.g. [14]; [15]; [16]; [17]; [18]; [11]; [12]; [19]; [7]). Nowadays, various methods for mapping and their different aims and results of their use both for individuals and for teams and organizations are being published and widely discussed ([5]; [6]; [20]; [21]; [22]; [23]; [24]; [25]; [26]; [27]; [28], etc.). The publications of these and other researchers prove that an appropriate mapping method used in correspondence with the demanded aim brings valuable information for the development of an individual, a team or an organization ([10]). Within the presented research individual mind maps were created. The respondents, i.e. the students of the first year of study fields in a daily program at the Faculty of Business and Management of Brno University of Technology, were among others presented with one of the key management terms, i.e. the term communication and their task was to capture their mind processes based on this central point and the resulting structure by means of an individually created mind map. 39

The obtained maps were analysed both as regards their form and content. The paper concentrates on the results of the content analysis of first level associations for a group of students (men) of Managerial Informatics. Among all respondents there were 102 of them, or rather 95 as this number of students submitted complete data and the remaining 7 students handed in incomplete data; therefore, they were excluded from further processing. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Results of the Term Communication Meaning Examination The results of the mind map analyses showed that each respondent created an original mind map capturing the content and structure of their mind processes initiated by the provided instruction and the central point, i.e. the term communication. In the analysis, we assume that the meaning of a provided (central) term, i.e. the meaning the respondents associate with the term, and also their knowledge related to the term, are reflected in different meaning levels visualized in each of the analysed mind maps. This paper will only present the first levels of meanings (associations) as we consider these to be the meanings which are most closely connected with a term [8]. In the qualitative methodology, each response, even a unique one, is significant. The mind maps obtained from 95 respondents concerning the term communication contained 581 first level associations in total. The following tables present the associations according sorted into the identified meaning categories; we are aware that the classification of associations is not always clear; further, that other ways of classification are also possible and some associations could be classified to different categories from those we have chosen. Table 1 presents the understanding of the term communication in the sense of interpersonal communication; Table 2 presents the understanding of the term communication in the sense of technical support for interpersonal communication, and Table 3 shows the associations expressing the evaluation of communication. We did not include associations of communication connected with transport (in total 18 first level associations) and those connected with the communication among animals (in total 2 first level associations). Moreover, further 14 first level associations were excluded from the tables for their variety and specific nature or unclarity of meaning. Table 1 Communication in the sense of interpersonal communication. Source: the author. Number of Content of identified categories first level associations 88 verbal communication, speech, language, letters, etc. 30 purpose of communication (relationship, relationships, greeting, fun, message conveying, education, lobbing, etc.) 28 people, a person 21 nonverbal communication, body language, gestures, etc. 18 place of communication (school, army, sport, disco, pub, shop, work communication, in private, space, etc.) 14 talk, chat, dialogue, conversation 12 clichés, swearing, lies, bullshit, etc. 12 friends, friendship, partnership 40

10 with parents, with a partner, with a professor, between a married couple, etc. 10 the essence of communication (basic feature, exchange of information, current, need, message, base of interpersonal relationships, necessity, etc.) 7 meeting, negotiations, discussion, team communication 5 social, society, contact 5 eloquence, expressing, impression, art 4 becoming closer, making ourselves understood, cooperation 2 names, titles 2 monologue 2 family 15 unclassified associations 285 sum of first level associations in the sense of interpersonal communication The overview of first level associations and their classification in Tables 1 and 2 show that the term communication is predominantly associated with interpersonal communication in the respondents minds (285 first level associations), and further with the technical support for interpersonal communication (235 first level associations). We can state that the meaning of the term communication reflects the necessity and the importance of interpersonal communication in the lives of individuals and the society and that in this group of respondents, Managerial Informatics students (men), the meaning of the term communication is probably linked not only to their common user experience with working on PC but also to the content of their study field. Table 2 Communication in the sense of technical support for interpersonal communication. Source: the author. Number of Content of identified categories first level associations 76 information media (internet, TV, radio, media) 55 telephone devices, incl. mobiles, faxes, PDA and HTC 25 communication applications for communicating via internet (email etc.) 25 computer communications (PC with components, data, informatics) 24 communication devices in their temporal development (from pigeon post to modern technologies) 10 wireless communication infrastructure (e.g. wifi, satellites, etc.) 7 voice communication via telephone devices 6 social networks for communication on the internet (mainly facebook) 5 wire communication infrastructure 2 other communication using telephone devices (SMS, videochat) 235 sum of first level associations in the sense of technical support 41

We also separated and classified first level associations with an obvious evaluating aspect (see Table 3). They form a small fraction of the total number of first level associations (4.6 %); however, it is notable that most of the evaluating associations are negatively biased 19 out of 27 evaluating associations. On the other hand, we are aware (as has been mentioned) that the classification of associations is sometimes ambiguous and other ways of classification can be used, which could show a different ratio between the negatively and positively biased meanings of the term. Number of first level associations Table 3 Associations with evaluating aspects. Source: the author. Content of identified categories 12 problem, problems, lack, not good at, unskilled, sometimes zero, hard to start, stagnates, tiredness, complicated, a lot of effort 6 joy, respect, sharing, tolerance, ethics, responsibility 3 aversion, fight, bullying 2 important, importance 2 stupid topic, silly 2 defects, noise 27 sum of evaluating first level associations 3.2. Fictitious mental map capturing the obtained results Figure 1 represent fictitious mental map capturing the obtained results. Source: the author. 42

3.3. Comparing results with the results of the mind mapping of the term communication in another group of respondents The results of the mind mapping of the term communication in the presented group of respondents are shown in Table 4 and compared with the results of the mind mapping of the term communication in another group of respondents see Table 5. The group for comparison, even though a smaller one, contained students (men) in the first year of Tax Consultancy field in the Faculty of Business and Management of Brno University of Technology. Also in this group, the mind mapping of meanings of terms was carried out at the beginning of their studies. In total, 13 respondents of the comparison group provided 82 first level associations (the table does not include associations concerning communication among animals 1 first level association in total neither associations concerning communication in the sense of transport 2 associations in total). All 82 first level associations acquired from the comparison group respondents were classified in the same system of categories as those created for the focus group; none of the associations had to be classified as unclassified associations. Table 4 The overview of first level association categories for Managerial Informatics respondents. Source: the author. First level associations absolute relative Content of the main identified categories number number 285 52.10 interpersonal communication 235 42.96 technical support for interpersonal communication 27 4.94 associations with an evaluating aspect 547 100.00 sum of first level associations Table 5 The overview of first level association categories for Tax Consultancy respondents. Source: the author. First level associations absolute number absolute number Content of the main identified categories 52 63.42 interpersonal communication 23 28.05 technical support for interpersonal communication 7 8.53 associations with an evaluating aspect 82 100.00 sum of first level associations The comparison of the two groups of respondents supports the above mentioned opinion that the meaning of the term communication in the respondents minds is affected by their dominant field. The associations of the respondents from the Tax Consultancy were connected with interpersonal communication to a higher degree than in the case of the respondents of Managerial Informatics, where on the other hand the associations of the technical support for interpersonal communication were more frequent. The influence of the field studied before entering the current field of study has been confirmed not only in this study into mind mapping of the meaning of the term 43

communication but also in the results of mapping of other significant terms from the fields of economics and management in our previous study [10], where the process of mind mapping proved that the respondents future information professionals in comparison to future managers and entrepreneurs understand the term informatics in a wider range of meaning, which can be interpreted as a sign that they are better informed about the meaning of the term. 4. Conclusion The paper deals with the term communication and its understanding by future university graduate professionals in the field of managerial informatics. The meaning of the term in the respondents minds is explored using a qualitative procedure referred to as mind mapping. The analysis of the obtained individual mind maps identifies categories of associations and classifies the first level associations into three basic categories: communication in the sense of interpersonal communication, communication in the sense of technical support for interpersonal communications, and associations with an obvious evaluating aspect concerning communication. The results of the classification are presented in tables and also visualized in Fig. 1, which represents a fictitious mind map of first level associations. The classification used for the first level associations predominantly shows the necessity and importance of interpersonal communication in the lives of individuals and the society and, what is more, the influence of respondents study fields on the meanings associated with the term. Moreover, a negative bias of associations with evaluating aspect concerning communication was identified. This aspect of the evaluation of communication will be further monitored and explored. As we remembered in the introduction, we cannot avoid communicating. This basic rule of interpersonal communication concerns both personal, family, and social life and also studies and work. The paper presents the understanding of the term communication by one group of respondents explored within larger research it will certainly be interesting to compare the results of the understanding of the term by other groups of respondents; however, these results are not available at the moment. Still, based on the presented results we can recommend the teaching practice of managerial and entrepreneurial study fields to focus both on knowledge and skills related to the psychology of interpersonal communication and its technical support, and also on the clarification, training and emphasis of positive principles and aspects of social contact and interpersonal communication which as a consequence could support effective communication substantially (see also e.g. [1]; [29]: [2]). A similar recommendation can also be given to managers and entrepreneurs who chair various businesses and work meetings including intentional effect on their co-workers. 44 References [1] KŘIVOHLAVÝ, J. Jak si navzájem lépe porozumíme : kapitoly z psychologie sociální komunikace. Praha: Svoboda, 1988. [2] FRANKOVÁ, E. Komunikace v řízení: studijní text pro kombinovanou formu studia. Brno, Akademické nakladatelství CERM, 2008. [3] Wikipedia, Open Encyclopedia [in Czech]. Retrieved February 19, 2011. Available from: http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/komunikace [4] Dictionary.com. Retrieved March 14, 2011. Available from: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/communication [5] BUZAN, T. Mentální mapování. Praha: Portál, 2007.

[6] BUZAN, T., BUZAN, B. The Mind Map Book. 4 th revised ed. Harlow: Educational Publishers LLP, 2008. [7] FRANKOVÁ, E. Myšlenkové mapy a jejich využití při rozvoji manažerů. In: Česká ekonomika v procesu globalizace. Brno: MU, 2006, 96 100. [8] FRANKOVÁ, E. Pojem informatika a chápání tohoto pojmu u budoucích manažerů a podnikatelů. In: Ekonomika, financie a manažment podniku [CD- ROM]. Bratislava, Ekonomická univerzita, 2009. 6 p. [9] FRANKOVÁ, E. Kreativita a inovace v organizaci. Praha: Grada Publishing, 2011. [10] FRANKOVÁ, E., MARKOVAC, V. (2010). The Term Informatics, Its Meaning and Understanding by Future Professionals. Management Research and Practice [online]. Vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 154 164. Available from:http://mrp.ase.ro/no22/a2.pdf. [11] O KEEFE, J. Týden pro větší tvořivost. Praha: Talpress, 1996. [12] RITTER, D. & BRASSARD, M. THE CREATIVITY TOOLS MEMORY JOGGER. SALEM: GOAL/QPC, 1998. [13] ŽÁK, P. Kreativita a její rozvoj. Brno: Computer Press, 2004. 75 90. [14] GUILFORD, J. P. The Nature of Human Intelligence. N.Y. - London: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1967. [15] GUILFORD, J. P. Three Faces of Intellect. In: W. B. BARBE & J. S. RENZULI eds. Psychology and Education of the Gifted. New York: Irvington Publishers, Inc. 1975, [16] DE BONO, E. Letters to Thinkers. London: Penguin Books, 1987. [17] DE BONO, E. Atlas of Management Thinking. London: Penguin Books, 1990. [18] BIRKENBIHL, V. Piliny v hlavě? Návod k užívání mozku - od majitele mozku k uživatelům mozku. Hradec Králové: Svítání, 1996. [19] BENDER, P. U. Niterný leadership. Praha: Management Press, 2002. [20] GARAVAN, T. N., DEEGAN, J. Discontinuous change in organizations. Using training and development interventions to develop creativity. Industrial and Commercial Training [online]. 27(11), 18 25. Retrieved February 17, 2010. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/insight/viewcontentservlet?contenttype =Article&Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0370271104.html [21] ZAMPETAKIS, L. A., TSIRONIS, L., MOUSTAKIS, V. (2007). Creativity development in engineering education: the case of mind mapping. Journal of Management Development [online].26, 370 380. Retrieved February 17, 2010. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/insight/viewcontentservlet?contenttype=article &Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0260260405.html [22] Mind maps chart the way to business efficiency. (1998). Journal: Education + Training [online]. 40(4), 173 174. Retrieved February 17, 2010. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/insight/viewcontentservlet?contenttype=article &Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0040400417.html [23] KOH, S. C. L., TAN, K. H. (2006). Operational intelligence discovery and knowledge-mapping approach in a supply network with uncertainty. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management [online]. 17, 687 699. Retrieved February 17, 2010. Available from: 45

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/insight/viewcontentservlet?contenttype=article &Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0680170601.html [24] WEXLER, M. N. (2001). The who, what and why of knowledge mapping. Journal of Knowledge Management [online]. 5, 249 264. Retrieved February 17, 2010. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/insight/viewcontentservlet?contenttype=article &Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/2300050305.html [25] VAN DEN BERG, C., POPESCU, I. (2005). An experience in knowledge mapping. Journal of Knowledge Management [online]. 9, 123 128. Retrieved February 17, 2010. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/insight/viewcontentservlet?contenttype=article &Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/2300090209.html [26] LIEBOWITZ, J. (2005). Linking social network analysis with the analytic hierarchy process for knowledge mapping in organizations. Journal of Knowledge Management [online]. 9, 76 86. Retrieved February 17, 2010. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/insight/viewcontentservlet?contenttype=article &Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/2300090106.html [27] HELLSTRÖM, T., HUSTED, K. (2004). Mapping knowledge and intellectual capital in academic environments. Journal of Intellectual Capital [online]. 5(1), 165 180. Retrieved February 17, 2010. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/insight/viewcontentservlet?contenttype=article&filename=published/emeraldfulltextarticle/articles/2500050109.ht ml. [28] DRIESSEN, S., HUIJSEN, W-O., GROOTVELD, M. A framework for evaluating knowledge-mapping tools. Journal of Knowledge Management [online]. 11(2), pp. 109 117. Retrieved February 17, 2010. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/insight/viewcontentservlet?contenttype=article&filename=published/emeraldfulltextarticle/articles/2300110209. html [29] MCLAGAN, P., KREMBS, P. Komunikace na úrovni : jak dosáhnout ještě vyšší výkonnosti pomocí účinné komunikace. Praha: Management Press, 1988. 46

FISCAL RESTRICTION AND ITS IMPACT ON THE ECONOMY INCLUDING THE MILITARY ASPECTS Vendula Hynková Abstract: Nowadays it seems to be very adversarial topic the fiscal restriction and the fiscal policy at all. Fiscal policy means how the level of government spending and the taxation are set by government policymakers. These days the priority of the Czech Government is to lower state debt and prevent the dynamically increasing indebtedness that can lead even to the state bankruptcy. Regrettably, the fiscal restriction causes primarily the reducing of aggregate demand for goods and services. We can take this in the account in the short run. Together with the tax raise we can remain the serious output gap for a long time. And this gap can be serious due to the multiplier effect we have already been able to observe. Keywords: fiscal restriction, military expenditures, government debt, budget deficit, multiplier effect 1. Introduction This paper will outline the consequences of restrictive fiscal policy including the impact on defense area. The first chapter mentions the reason for choosing current fiscal policy, then describes the development of Government debt, budget deficits, state budget revenues and expenditures in given period. The second chapter reflects the negative impact of fiscal restriction on military expenditures. And the most important third chapter describes negative multiplier effect of the restrictive macroeconomic policy and points out the danger of additional fall of real GDP, tax revenues and continuous putting pressure on government expenditures (including military expenditures). 2. The Czech Government and its Fiscal Policy The Government of the Czech Republic has recently decided to increase tax burden and reduce government spending. This type of its policy is called fiscal restriction. The Government s goal is to decrease government debt and start it with the restraint of budget deficits. Table 1 shows the figures illustrating the rise in Government debt during 7 last years, from the year 2006 to 2012. Whereas in 2006 the debt was 885.4 billion CZK (billion = 10 9 ), in 2012 it was doubled to 1,692.8 billion CZK. The growth can be described as exponential. Graph 1 is pointing out this fact. The exponential growth of debt was stopped by fiscal restriction in 2012 and this trend is still continuing at the beginning of current year 2013. 47

Table 1 Government Debt and Debt as a percentage of Nominal GDP Variable/Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Government Debt (Billion CZK, 10 9 ) Debt as a percentage of Nominal GDP 885.4 948.1 1,023.4 1,104.3 1,285.6 1,567.9 1,692.8 26.4 % 25.9 % 26.5 % 29.3 % 33.8 % 40.8 % - (not available) Source: The Finance Ministry of the Czech Republic: http://www.mfcr.cz [1]; The Czech Statistical Office: http://www.czso.cz [2]. Figure 1: Growth of Government Debt in 2006-2012 Now it is time to look more deeply of what happens in the Czech economy during the fiscal restriction and what we can expect that will happen with the government debt in following years. We can find annual figures of approved state budget revenues, expenditures and budget deficit from the website of Ministry of Finance of the Czech Republic. These numbers are transferred in Table 2. As we can see, there is a decline in state budget revenues in 2010 due to the peak of recent economic recession in 2009. Then state budget revenues have been rising slightly until now, probably not so much as Czech policymakers have been expected. Government spending was managed to decrease only in 2011 and also not so rapidly for that purpose of reducing debt as it was expected. Thus, mainly due to mandatory expenditures, we have to accept budget deficit and we are still getting into debt. The situation of every indebted economy has been worsened due to the consequences of recent global economic recession started in 2008. 48

Table 2 State Budget Revenues, Expenditures and Budget Deficit of the Czech Economy Variable/Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Approved State Budget Revenues, 884.4 949.5 1,036.5 1,114.0 1,022.2 1,044.0 1,084.7 billion CZK (mld. = 10 9 ) Approved State Budget Expenditures, 958.8 1,040.8 1,107.3 1,152.1 1,184.9 1,179.0 1,189.7 (10 9 ) Budget Deficit, billion CZK 74.4 91.3 70.8 38.1 162.7 135.0 105.0 Source: The Finance Ministry of the Czech Republic: http://www.mfcr.cz [1]; The Czech Statistical Office: http://www.czso.cz [2]. Figure 2 represents the development of stated budget revenues, expenditures and deficits within the chosen period. During successful years 2006, 2007 and 2008 state budget deficits copies the gap between increasing government spending and revenues, except the 2007 it diminished, and the lowest deficit was showed in 2009: 38.1 billion CZK. After the recession in 2008 the situation worsened, mainly in 2009, when the approved budget deficit climbed up to 162.7 billion CZK. In that time, income taxes together with GDP decreased and government spending was still on the higher level. Figure 2: Development of State Budget Revenues, Expenditures and Budget Deficit 3. Fiscal Restriction and its Impact on Military Expenditures Government s goal was to decrease government spending. And it touched the military expenditures very dramatically. Table 3 illustrates approved military expenditures in their nominal value and as a percentage of nominal GDP in the period 2005-2011. As we can see, there is a decline in military spending after the year 2009. Military spending was strangled and a lot of saving there was required. For the year 2012 it was 43.474 billion CZK and for the year 2013 again the lower spending 42.053 billion CZK. The problem is that the obligation stated by the NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) is to keep the minimum military spending at the level of 2 % of GDP. And this is quite 49

far from almost 1 % GDP these days. Primarily Defense Ministers call for stopping this downward trend and are afraid of the security of the country. Due to the cuts, we have found ourselves on the edge that threatens the security of our country We may save some milliards in the short time, but we can cause irreparable damage in the long run (translated), Alexandr Vondra, the previous Defense Minister of the Czech Republic, said in June 2012. [3] Not only the Czech Ministry of Defense is continuously afraid of decreasing military spending in our country, but also The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) of decreasing aggregate military expenditures. Strict fiscal policy of European member states of NATO and rapid growth of China s real GDP seems to be the main causes why the Europe was overtaken by Asian military spending in last year 2012. Asian countries increased their defence budget by more than 3% in real terms last year, the IISS said. China increased its share of total military expenditure on weapons in the region to more than 30%. Official Chinese military spending totalled nearly $90bn last year, more than two-and-a-half times the 2001 level. [4] Now the Table 3 shows the development of military expenditures as a part of government spending, both in nominal value and as a percentage of nominal GDP. And in Figure 3 we can see the downward trend of military expenditure ratio in the Czech Republic. Variable/Year Table 3 Nominal GDP and Military Expenditures of the Czech Economy 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Nominal GDP, billion (10 9 ) CZK 3,116.1 3,352.6 3,662.6 3,848.4 3,739.2 3,775.2 3,809.3 Approved Military Expenditures, mil. 52,953 55,694 53,906 54,167 55,984 48,867 43,878 CZK Military Expenditures/Nominal 1.69 1.67 1.48 1.41 1.49 1.29 1.15 GDP (%) Source: The Finance Ministry of the Czech Republic: http://www.mfcr.cz [1]; The Czech Statistical Office: http://www.czso.cz [2]. 50

Figure 3: Development of Czech Military Expenditures as a percentage of Nominal GDP 4. Negative Multiplier Effect in the Economy When the government decided to lower state expenditures in the way of decreasing state purchases and the number and wages of state employees, it means that fiscal restriction began. Assume now a model situation to clarify what occurs during the fiscal restriction. For example, there is a cut of 10 billion CZK on government expenditures. According macroeconomic theory we know that it does not mean that budget deficit will be certainly reduced. We are also afraid of tax revenues fall due to this cut. Because of fiscal restriction, the real GDP will decrease, even by more than 10 billion CZK considered. The fiscal restriction is said to have a multiplier effect on aggregate demand and then on real GDP. The immediate effect of the decrease in state expenditures is lower demand and this means the occurring output gap, raising rate of unemployment, higher state benefits and lower profits for private firms. But it is not all, negative multiplier effect comes. As the workers get lower earnings and firm owners get lower profits, they respond to this decrease in profits and salaries by reduction of their own spending on consumer goods and services. As a result, the government restriction lowers the demand for products of many other firms in the economy. Decrease in GDP can be higher. And this is happening nowadays. Lower earning and profits reduce consumer spending once again and so on. Thus, there is negative feedback as lower demand leads to lower income that in turn leads to lower aggregate demand. As all these impacts are added together, there is no surprise that the total effect on the quantity of goods and services demanded can be much smaller than the initial decrease in government spending. We know the multiplier effect, but we do not know the figure of multiplier exactly. According to the macroeconomic literature we can derive that this figure depends on the following values: marginal propensity to consume, marginal rate of taxation and marginal propensity to import. [5] Marginal propensity to consume is the fraction of extra income that a household consumes rather than saves. The larger marginal propensity to consume in the economy is, the greater is this induced negative effect on consumption and aggregate demand. 51

The Government of the Czech Republic decided also to increase indirect taxes and expects now the improving of the situation with the state budget deficit and government debt. But it seems that the multiplier effect is ignored and also the effects related to the shadow economy flourishing. According the euobserver.com website, almost every member state of the European Union, including the Czech Republic, slides in recession. Recession occurs when the real GDP is falling longer than 6 month. Although there is an optimistic forecast consisting in the end of recession in spring 2013, we can expect more likely the continuing fall of real GDP and higher rate of unemployment in the Czech economy. According to estimates released on Thursday (14 February) by EU statistics agency Eurostat, economic output in the 17 eurozone countries fell by 0.6 per cent of GDP. This compares with a 0.5 per cent decline across the EU as a whole. [6] National statistics of the Czech economy and the statistics of European Union are worrying for policymakers. They are now seeking new ways how to improve economic situation. 5. Conclusion It is obvious that fiscal restriction has negative impact on the economy and undesirable effect in defense sector. Negative multiplier effect can worsen the economic situation and prolong the putting pressure on seeking more savings in the state budget. National statistics reflecting the health of the economy and also figures calculating government debt and budget deficits will be the evidence whether the continuing fiscal restriction should be considered as a legitimate measure. References [1] Ministry of Finance of the Czech Republic. State Budget. Available from: <http://www.mfcr.cz/cps/rde/xchg/mfcr/xsl/verejne_finance.html>. [vid. 9. 2. 2013]. [2] Czech Statistical Office. Macroeconomic Indicators. Available from: <http://www.czso.cz/eng/redakce.nsf/i/statistics>. [vid. 15. 2. 2013]. [3] ČT24. Omezení výdajů na obranu Vondra odmítá, ohrozilo by bezpečnost. Available from: <http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ct24/domaci/183768-omezenivydaju-na-obranu-vondra-odmita-ohrozilo-by-bezpecnost/>.[online]. [26. 6. 2012 broadcast]. [4] NORTON-TAYLOR, R. Asia s military spending likely to overtake Europe this year. [online]. Available from: <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/mar/07/asia-military-spending-overtakeeurope>. [7. 3. 2012]. [5] FRANK, R. H., BERNANKE, B. S. Principles of Macroeconomics. 3rd Edition. McGraw-Hill/Irwin: New York, 2007. ISBN 978-0-07-319397-7. 561 p. [6] FOX, Benjamin. Eurozone Still Mired in Recession. [online]. Available from: <http://euobserver.com/economic/119080>. [10. 2. 2013]. 52

CUSTOMER SERVICE OF SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT OPERATION WITHIN ASSA ABLOY CZECH & SLOVAKIA Zbyšek Korecki, Radka Lopourová, Milan Lauber and Samuel A. Darkwah Abstract: The aim of this article is to evaluate current company transformation in the framework of the modern supply chain theory and offshoring trends being implemented in ASSA ABLOY. The new approach in company development is based on an effort to create Centre of Excellence being focused on specific type of production in low cost countries. Keywords: supply chain management, Center of Excellence, customer service, offshoring 1. Introduction Globalization has brought a new sight to development of the supply chain and its particular components and functions definition. Supply chain can be explained as a net of organizations connected to products flows, services flows, financial flows and information flows from the place of their origin to clients [5] or sequence of events being focused on the final customer. Development from logistical channel to supply chain has been influenced by economic environment and globalization trend with an effort to achieve efficient international division of labour. Globalization from the economic point of view represents deeper mutual cooperation among the countries of the core and peripheries. In comparison to the above mentioned definitions, supply chain means double-sided material flow and its operation brings new added value mainly for the final customers. According to [3] supply chains are then transferred into horizontal and vertical supply nets. Logistical channel forms the subsystem of the supply chain which is more demanding in case of information flow structure. Necessity to define logistical channel and system correctly belongs to basic preconditions of supply system successful transformation. Logistical channel can be defined as the sequence of activities, the performance of which is necessary for the final customer requirements fulfilment in the right time, quantity, quality and at the required place, [2] while logistical system can be explained as a set of organizations and their relationships, the elements of which deal with planning and sequence of activities performance within the logistical channel [2]. Supply chain is a set of horizontally and vertically connected logistical channels and supply system is a set of horizontally and vertically connected logistical systems. Result of precise definition of modern logistics functions (distribution, client service, reverse logistics) is the ability to restructure existing systems which enables us to separate activities and their holders. 53

The structure of the supply system will be used for better understanding the whole company production process: Figure 1: Supply system structure Source: adjusted by [2] Contemporary system analysis from the point of view of its determinism or stochastism, dynamics or statics is the necessary condition for system theory and supply system understanding. Let s suppose that company ASSA ABLOY, Czech Republic system is dynamic with the ability to adapt to customer demand. Than we can determine formula: Y (t) = b 1 u(t-1) + b 2 u(t-2) +..+ b m u(t-m)- a 1 y(t-1) - a 2 y(t-1) - - a n y(t-n) (1) for the assumption of system reaction to inputs u (t) and outputs y (t) in time t. A i and b i values represent regressive invariables for expression of dependence of the system reaction to inputs and outputs in time.[4] If the supply system (whis is influenced by customer behaviour and ability of a company to react to changing conditions) is defined than we talk about supply net. Horizontal and vertical dimensions belong to basic characteristics of the supply net. Vertical dimension is determined by the number of degrees through which material flows and horizontal structure is represented by the number of partners within the same degree. Offshoring can be defined as a process of mother company activity or a complex of activities transfer to low cost countries. It can be connected to increasing unemployment within mother company country, problems with production quality assurance, unreliable level of customer service and more demanding inventory management [1]. 54

If company decides to transfer part of its manufacturing process, it is important to consider: - appropriate product/service, - political and legal system of low cost countries, - production plants alocation, - level of infrastructure, - lead times length, - available production capacities, - inventory level, - possibility to use local suppliers and logistic services providers (e.g. for transportation, warehousing etc.), - operation of company ERP (Entreprise Resource Planning) system from the international point of view, - analysis of benefits and costs of this transfer from financial point of view [6]. Brno can serve as good example of offshoring trend operation in the Czech Republic. For instance American company FEI has decided to transfer one of its production plants for electron microscopes from Netherlands to Brno and the main reason was lower manufacturing costs. American company NetSuite (IT branch) has opened its research and development center in Brno first after California thanks to high density of IT specialists in our region and of course lower salaries than in the USA. Group Hartman (healthcare products) has transfered two of its Czech plants to India and China. Average hour wage rate in the Czech Republic was 4.50 EUR, in India 0.80 EUR in 2010. The effort to reach compromise between production costs optimization and the ability to satisfy customers needs has led to Centers of Excellence establishment which should represent higher level of operation from the point of view of quality, centralization of specialists and concentration on predefined products manufacturing in conformity with global company strategy. 2. Transformation of FAB ltd. into subsystem Centre of Excellence ASSA ABLOY Czech & Slovakia ASSA ABLOY is the world s largest lock group.the Nordic region constitutes the Group s base, with market-leading positions in Sweden, Finland, Denmark and Norway. The Group is also the market leader in Belgium, France, the Czech Republic and Germany and achieves leading position in Great Britain through VingCard, the forefront of the worldwide market for electronic hotel locks. The group is the second largest player in the USA. ASSA ABLOY is active in the product segments construction locks, industrial locks, door and window hardware and other accessories and electromechanical locks including hotel locks. ASSA ABLOY is also active in the security doors product segment in the USA and in automobile locks in the Czech Republic. Securitas AB s shareholders received the Assa Group as a dividend in 1994, after which Abloy was acquired from Metra Oy Ab through a new issue. As a result, Metra Oy Ab became the largest owner in ASSA ABLOY. Globally, the lock market comprises many small and medium-sized companies, many of which have very strong positions in their local markets, with long 55

histories. The total size of the lock market is estimated at SEK 150 billion. One characteristic of the market is that a high proportion of sales (approximately 50 percent) derives from the after-sales market. Strong brand names, local standards, closeness to national distributors and customers, combined with the brand loyalty of various customers, also contribute to company stability. ASSA ABLOY involves five divisions (EMEA with maximum sales share, Americas, Asia-Pacific, Global technologies, Entrance systems) being localized in Europe+MiddleEast+Africa (EMEA), America, China, Australia and New Zealand with following sales shares in %: Figure 2: Sales shares of the ASSA ABLOY divisions Source:adjusted by [12] There are numbers of very strong brand names in the Group, for example ASSA- Sweden, ABLOY-Finland, TrioVing-Norway, RUKO-Denmark, Vachette and JPM- France, FAB-Czech Republic, IKON-Germany, Sargent and Curries-U.S. as well as VingCard and Elsafe in hotel security. 3. Market and market trends Mechanical locks, electronic locks and security doors form the most important elements of the ASSA ABLOY production program. Production of mechanical locks is more or less stable as can be seen from the following figure. Locks production has significantly increased thanks to the contract with Skoda company covering deliveries for Skoda s latest model, the OCTAVIA. 56 Figure 3: Production share 2009-2011 Source: [10,11,12]

4. Operational excellence EMEA has implemented new strategy in order to be able to reach production synergies among Group companies. The new strategy has been focused on effort to concentrate core components at specialized facilities. The Czech Republic based on this solution has been specialized to cylinders production. At the same moment it has been decided the non-core components will continue to be outsourced by suppliers from low-cost countries. The new strategy has supposed that production plants in Western Europe will be focusing on final assembly and customatizion of product to maintain high-level customer service. The new strategy was also aiming towards supply management to benefit from economies of scale. In following year 2007 the EMEA has been continuing to locate specialized production of cylinders into the Czech Republic. Relocation of parts of production has been decided due to level of expenses in countries. The Czech Republic, as a low-cost country becomes the Centre of Excellence in cylinder production during restructuring process. During period 2007 2013 several Western Europe enterprises have been closed and removed to the Czech Republic when huge financial resources have been invested to the new infrastructure. During restructuring process plants in Germany, Norway, Denmark and Finland have been closed. Table 1: Personnel by country, distribution by men and women 2006 2007 2008 Woman Man Total Woman Man Total Woman Man Total Czech 558 345 903 712 403 1115 578 507 1085 Republic Denmark 126 149 305 149 259 408 141 273 414 Norway 268 405 673 219 466 685 245 422 667 Sweden 258 975 1559 587 903 1490 536 897 1433 South 364 383 747 165 530 695 206 328 534 Africa 2009 2010 2011 Woman Man Total Woman Man Total Woman Man Total Czech 494 486 980 523 512 1035 550 586 1139 Republic Denmark 150 251 401 124 224 348 131 317 448 Norway 157 357 514 151 319 470 139 411 550 Sweden 487 884 1371 465 837 1301 517 1340 1857 South 193 274 467 183 241 424 187 231 418 Africa Source: [7-12] EMEA (Europe, Middle East and Africa) has accomplished in the period 2006-2008 most of the restructuring programs. The aim was to let final assembly and product customatization in high-cost countries and focus the low-cost countries on production process itself and establish Centers of Excellence there. During 2009 the group strategy has been intensified due to effort to improve cost-efficient balance via improvement of production efficiency and relocation of component production to low-cost countries. The aim was also to coordinate procurement for different production units by specialized purchasing managers. 57

5. Customer service measurement Level of client service can be measured by ratios of client service scale evaluation and quality of required services. Eight groups of client service level rates are distinguished by theory: - availability and completeness of services, - speed of services, - flexibility of services, - reliability of services, - frequency of services, - information support of services, - quality of client service, - handling complaints. One of the most important ratios is the first one, which is expressed by % of orders fulfilment in time. Percentage of fulfiled orders is the rate between quantity of fulfiled orders and quantity of orders being received from the final customers. Percentage of items fulfiled per one order in time belongs to important factors as well. It is represented by the relation between fulfiled items and received items per one order. Percentage of fulfiled orders can be expressed in finance as well. It means the rate between sales value and received orders value. Transformation process of ASSA ABLOY will be demonstrated on the ratio of services reliability. It is possible to predict that random fluctuations of logistical services elements (right goods, quality, place, documentation, customer) which can be caused by production process transfer to low-cost countries would be minimized thanks to information dominance of leader country. Despite this fact it is necessary to evaluate reliability of services through the ratios of variability, e.g. standard deviation of delivery cycle Ơ 1 : (2), where L values represent lenghts of delivery cycles within particular time period and Lˉ means delivery cycle average value. Customer Services Competivive Benchmarking process involves following stages: - identification of client service ratios features crucial for customers, - ratios weights assignement; - relative importance of ratios determination; - position of a company comparison with its competitors; - market segmentation according to customers requirements and determined level of client service [2]. Client service strategy creation is based on the ability to gain relevant information related to customer service level evaluation. Results depend on quantity of respondents and size of the region being analyzed etc. 58

There are several methods of client service rates importance determination. One of them can be expressed by the following formula: (3), where pˉi means average rank of each ratio, k number of ratios, n quantity of respondents. Different evaluation approaches are considered to be used in case of higher quantity of ratios, e.g. point scale within the interval 1-10 or 1 100.[2] Following pairwise comparison enables to determine the sequence of ratios e.g. according to Fullers triangle method. Results can be helpfull for management to determine the customer services importance and order of ratios and their values importance for a customer, which is necessary for the next marketing strategy with a regard on the company competitors. Despite all of the above mentioned approaches to the customer service evaluation, determination of the region s role within the companies strategy is the main step which defines the way of knowledge transfer (manufacturing, customer service). It is based not only on economic ratios connected to production, distribution and client service but also to level of labour force education and its wages. Table 2: Salaries and wages, other remuneration and social costs 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Czech Republic 63 (0) 72 (0) 90 (0) 133 110 101 (0) Denmark 117 (1) 152 (1) 185 (0) 230 (0) 224 (0) 194 (2) Norway 274 (3) 275 (1) 276 (1) 311 (1) 275 (0) 258 (1) Sweden 530 (4) 598 (9) 587 (8) 590 (5) 566 (12) 580 (11) South Africa 52 (0) 59 (0) 69 (0) 76 (0) 67 111 (1) Source: [11] New company strategy has been proceeding from 2011 and is based mainly on the wages level. 6. Conclusion ASSA ABLOY transformation is a long-term process assuring effective and efficient spending of financial resources in order to meet customers requirements. Business strategy of the company is based on the countries division according to operational costs (low-cost and high cost countries). Implementation of customer service indicators will follow after the process of company reengineering. It is predictible that trend of increasing customer service level would continue and company strategy will be oriented on the developing markets. Thanks to the production plants transfer to low-cost countries it was possible to built there modern production centers using the latest lessons-learned related to supply chain management operation. Management in low-cost countries companies will be than forced by the top management from mother country to implement production inovations 59

and other optimization approaches within related branches. New production methods will require well educated staff and above all increasing knowledge transfer from the core country to partners in low-cost countries. References [1] DVOŘÁČEK, J., TYLL, L. Outsourcing a offshoring podnikatelských činností. Praha: C. H. Beck 2010, ISBN 978-80-7400-010-2. [2] GROS I., GROSOVÁ, S. Dodavatelské systémy. Praha: JUTTY GROUP s.r.o 2012, ISBN 978-80-87-179-20-8. [3] GROS I., GROSOVÁ, S., Supply System Identification. Tudory and praxi, International conference Modern Approaches to the Corporate Management, Bratislava 2009. [4] LJUNG L.: System Identification. Tudory for users, Prentice Hall 2000. [5] METZER, J., T. Defining Supply Chain Management. Journal of Business [6] Logistics, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2001, pp.1-25. [7] PERNICA, P. a kol. Logistika pro 21. století. Praha: Radix 2008, ISBN 80-86031-59-4. [8] ASSA_ABLOY, Annual report 2006,[online]. [cit. 2013-02-15]. Accessible on: http://www.assaabloy.com [9] ASSA_ABLOY, Annual report 2007,[online]. [cit. 2013-02-15]. Accessible on: http://www.assaabloy.com [10] ASSA_ABLOY, Annual report 2008,[online]. [cit. 2013-02-15]. Accessible on: http://www.assaabloy.com [11] ASSA_ABLOY, Annual report 2009,[online]. [cit. 2013-02-15]. Accessible on: http://www.assaabloy.com [12] ASSA_ABLOY, Annual report 2010,[online]. [cit. 2013-02-15]. Accessible on: [13] http://www.assaabloy.com [14] ASSA_ABLOY, Annual report 2011,[online]. [cit. 2013-02-15]. Accessible on: http://www.assaabloy.com 60

ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS ON LOCAL ECONOMY (HOST NATION) Vítězslav Raszka and Miroslav Krč Abstract: Peacekeeping operations can do more economic good and less damage than is generally believed. Keywords: Peacekeeping operation, economic impact, local economy 1. Introduction The greatest contribution of peacekeeping operations to development lies in the restoration of peace and security, since this provides incentives for investment in the legal economy. But these operations also immediately jump-start the local economy (host nation economy) when help is most needed, early in the recovery process, providing employment and incomes that in turn support the restoration of peace and stability. Restoring basic security promotes an immediate upsurge in economic activity; some multinational force spending stimulates the local economy without generating widespread inflation. There is, however, room to increase positive local economic impact, especially in local procurement practice, in how missions go about hiring and paying local personnel and in reducing unintended negative impacts, particularly those associated with labour market distortions. This article is an essay about influences that peacekeeping missions may have on local economy. The essay specifically entertains the influence of money spent in the area of deployment in some sectors of local economy e.g. purchasing of goods and services accommodation, boarding, and real estate market. Presence of multinational forces can also affect local labour market. Security of individual countries is interrelated with the development of international security environment and each country, depending on its foreign-political interests, shares a part of the responsibility for peacekeeping and security on the regional as well as global level. Participation in safeguarding international security and stability should, therefore, be a matter of strategic security. In order to achieve that, military forces assets are deployed for peacekeeping operations in compliance with foreign-political priorities and political-military ambitions. Requirements for supporting peacekeeping operations have grown steadily and it is necessary to consider all their economic aspects. 2. Economic effectiveness of peacekeeping operations Peacekeeping operations necessarily bring about economic changes for the sending as well as for the host country. Especially in times of unfavourable economic development, the primary tasks of armed forces in democratic countries must be kept and it is necessary to 61

apply economic tools for achieving effective use of the limited resources when fulfilling the tasks. However, no cost-benefit analysis for evaluating and quantifying effectiveness of peacekeeping operations has been developed to date. The statistic data showing to what extent the presence of the military forces contributes to stabilization in the regions where deployments operate should be used as a basis for evaluating effectiveness of peacekeeping operations. This system is supposed to monitor whether the government and the judicial systems are able to provide for stabilization even without military presence, whether the military presence contributes to observance of human rights and economic stability, creates jobs and supports an overall growth in both the sending as well as host countries. From methodological point of view, all benefits and expenses related to peacekeeping operations can be divided into direct and indirect, material and immaterial. Assessment of how effectively the resources spent on peacekeeping operations are used must include the evaluation of direct and indirect benefits for the country s economic development. Enhancing the efficiency of peacekeeping operations requires harmonization of economic and defence policies. Direct costs are expenses directly related to peacekeeping operations. This category also includes contributions to supranational organisations, especially into their collective budgets. We can monitor immaterial costs, i.e. lost lives among the armed forces personnel as well as civilians. Indirect costs are a follow-up reflection and a side product of the conflict under preparation, ongoing or finished. Indirect costs related to peacekeeping operations can also include the growing security-related costs in the broader context, a possible decrease in Gross Domestic Product (GDP), decrease in personal incomes, growing budget deficit due to funding military operations, limited development of social programmes, post-war reconstruction and veteran care expenses etc. Other indirect costs result also from the price fluctuation of raw materials that are extracted on the territory of the ongoing military missions. A significant share of the indirect costs is taken by expenses related to war veterans, which have to be funded from defence budgets. Moreover, expenses reflecting the poorer quality of life, loss of jobs and long-term health problems of the veterans and their families have to be counted in. Immaterial costs of peacekeeping operations result from specialized training courses as well as permanent decrease in value of property with long service life, i.e. wear of equipment, military equipment and materiel used in peacekeeping operations becoming obsolescent or damaged. Some of the most substantial costs, however, difficult to quantify are expenses related to losses of human lives, which are unfortunately an inseparable part of armed conflicts. Nevertheless, it is hard to assess the economic value of fatalities and injuries and suffering of refugees and displaced persons. Labelling the price of human life is a highly controversial issue; it usually fluctuates between USD 5 and 10 million. One of the direct benefits is a higher security in the world that benefits the economy, too. Achieving a secure environment in a given country is a way towards economic development of the country itself as well as the neighbouring countries. Other benefits include ensuring national defence and protection of national interests, but those are difficult to quantify. The category of indirect benefits may also include company profits from direct investments abroad, which benefit the state in form of taxes. Development aid for the host country creates conditions for a more stable flow of the country s investments abroad, but also for their greater volume. 62

3. Economic impact of peacekeeping operations on local economy The essential product of peacekeeping operations is peace and security in the world. They are supposed to solve local conflicts and prevent them from escalating beyond the country s borders. The primary goal of multinational forces deployed in a given territory and the task of international operations is fulfilled by saving human lives, preventing material damages and eliminating the existing one, establishing a system of elementary human rights and freedoms, restoring a political system, restoring a territorial autonomy and sovereignty in the given territory and transferring the (country's) administration to local authorities. A secondary, hidden aim or contribution resulting from the peacekeeping forces operations is their impact on the local economy. This issue is not openly discussed, however, that does not mean it is less significant. Let us focus on the economic impact of the multinational forces restoring security. It shall only be a consideration of possible effects without hard statistical data. Whether, in the end, positive or negative economic impacts will prevail depends on many aspects: duration of the peacekeeping operation and its character, i.e. whether under UN, NATO or the EU and whether local authorities and the inhabitants trust these institutions. Other aspects are: state of the economy of the conflict-stricken country, i.e. its level of economic development, how serious the consequences of the conflict and its impact on the country's economy. Obviously, even a very little economic impels may by significant for a country with a low or negative GDP. Nevertheless, the willingness of local authorities and inhabitants to accept help is equally important. In this essay, let us not consider the above mentioned aspects and just try to contemplate, with a certain generalization, over possible economic impacts of selected activities of the peacekeeping missions on the host country's economy. Let us open with a question what does a conflict-stricken country, or country shortly after conflict need from the economic point of view? Certainly, it is an impulse, an economic kick-start. It is the stimulation of the economy that is crucial in the first period of the restoration. Another question to be asked is how can multinational forces help the economic stimulation? Again, we can simply answer by saying: money. Money as an impulse, a starter of the future economic processes. What are the ways the multinational forces can supply the economy with money? There are basically three of them and we will try to describe and asses their possible impacts on the economy: Finance flows into local economy in the following ways: 1. Private consumption of multinational forces personnel. 2. Local acquisitions in favour of the multinational forces. 3. Employment of local residents. However, for each of the aforesaid ways, it is not enough to suppose that the resulting effect of 1 (Czech) crown spent as described above has the same impact. The elementary principle of Keynesian multiplier is to be applied. 4. Private consumption of the personnel As stated earlier in the Introduction, for the sake of generalization and simplification, we shall disregard possible (sources of) income of the personnel, as well as whether they are civil employees or soldiers. The reason is that both groups do more or less spend their income in the place where deployed. 63

The significant factors in this case being: 1. The number of multinational personnel in the given area. 2. Amount of their remuneration. 3. Local price level. 4. Consumer preference. At the moment, it is necessary to mention two more important factors: 1. Significant difference between the reward system and remuneration amount for every mission type (UN, NATO and EU); 2. Different structure of expenditures (e.g. the personnel of UN observer missions pay for their accommodation and boarding themselves, etc.) 4.1. Impact of the personnel's private consumption on the local real-estate market As mentioned earlier, it is typical of the missions under UN that their personnel have to arrange for their accommodation themselves on the local real-estate markets. What may be the impact of this for a war-distorted, if at all existing market? The primary effect is positive, the money kick-starts this segment of the local economy. From an immediate, short-term perspective, however, it is obvious that from an economic point of view, a sudden excess of demand for rented accommodation and intense requirements for quality appear. The result is a jet-start increase in local prices of rented accommodation. To this may add the commonly known and expected fact that the personnel of multinational forces, if compared to the local average, are a high-above-average-income category. Further, the demand for material for housing renovation grows leading to a dramatic increase in prices on the market with these commodities. The higher prices of luxury housing may make prices in other segments of the housing market go up. From a social point of view, we can see a parallel with a situation we sometimes see in developed countries, too, that the current tenants are under pressure to leave their housing for the accommodation to be rented to more well-off clients. In a war-stricken country, it is hardly possible to claim one s right for a replacement flat. At times, the very owner and his family may be leaving their house with the prospect of profiting from the rent; then they have to find an alternative dwelling, which might not comply with minimum living standards. When reflecting on the intentions to use local premises and real property for the multinational forces it is necessary to consider using them as effectively as possible with respect to the country s development as a whole. For example, instead of renting real property for (multinational) forces to be placed, use the premises in a different, economically more profitable and effective way. 4.2. Impact of the personnel's private consumption on the catering services market This type of services is similar to the housing markets; the difference being that to give somebody to eat and drink is quicker than to provide housing for somebody. Furnishing a restaurant is easier than building a house. Again, we see an enormous growth in demand for catering services. These markets are vulnerable to the so called rise fall effect. Many restaurants open in order to satisfy the momentarily high demand. But it is a few that survive after the international forces have left. This is also how this segment can generate jobs and effective demand having an undisputable and positive impact on local economy. The survival restaurants may later change to providing services for tourism, if there is at least a slight chance. These activities may create the foundation of an infrastructure necessary for tourism. Another positive aspect is that many such businesses thanks to the effective demand by the international forces personnel may fund its risk investments related to setting up the business, and after the (international) forces have left, only deal with operational costs of the business generating profit. 64

5. Impact of local acquisitions (purchasing of goods and services) This part is focusing on possible economic impacts of acquisitions for the use of the very troops and units. We are not going to analyze private shopping by individual, as I see their impact on the local economy as tiny, the reason being for example the use of military shops (BX, PX, Commissary etc.) that are supplied with consumer goods from the country that has sent its contingents. The confidence in quality of local consumer goods may affect private shopping, too, and that rather negatively. Let us further omit the import of certain goods from abroad. An essential benefit of acquisitions for the use of multinational forces is that the grey economy is disrupted. International forces may apply, for example, the rule of purchasing only from registered suppliers, thus helping to legalize businesses of potential suppliers and herewith providing for taxing of their incomes and stabilization of the state budgets. It is important to consider that the needs of a mission vary ranging from purchasing material for construction of bases, their very construction and building of infrastructures, over outsourcing of local services like washing, cleaning, car-washing, transport services, communication service, shopping of small-sized office material and stationary to energy supplies (water, electricity, heating) or fuel supplies. Supplies of fresh local food are not exceptional. The scale and intensity of local acquisitions can depend on several factors: 1. Location of the forces. 2. Size and (level of) development of the local economy. 3. Duration of mission. 4. Return of displaced persons and refugees. In general, two essential positive impacts of local acquisitions by multinational forces on local economy can be observed. First, supply of money into the economy, and second, creating of jobs. Profit made by local suppliers is a basis for future investment. Jobs also have an economic impact, i.e. higher income of the local population and higher living standards. The labour productivity also rises. These impacts are associated with social impacts, i.e. employed-again local inhabitants return back to their working habits. Employment is thus run by legal means only, which in the end may help to re-creation of legal job market and also to statistical recording of employment. The positive impact of acquisitions may, however, spread across the borders of the country where the multinational forces are operating; especially when the local economy cannot satisfy the (international) forces demand, the requested goods may be imported from neighbouring countries helping to stabilize the whole region. Negative impact may result from inflation pressures in cases when the demand exceeds the offer of the relevant goods of services. 6. Impacts on the local job market Employing locals may be regarded the most effective way how to inject the badly needed financial resources into the local economy destructed by war. Giving jobs to locals has both a purely economic dimension, but it may also increase the credibility and justify the presence of multinational forces in their area of deployment. The portfolio of offered jobs will surely be limited and they will usually be less qualified. As mentioned, the positive aspect is that locals are able to renew their working habits and their living standards grow thanks to what they earn. It is also fair to assume that locals will prefer the products of domestic producers for their private consumption, which will secondarily help develop local economy. At the same time, employing local inhabitants may generate savings for international organisations sending multinational forces as wages and other personnel costs for international personnel are higher than those for local personnel. 65

The amount of salaries may however be a problem. It is fair to assume that multinational forces will give higher salaries to local employees than the local private or public sector is able to give to them. This may drain qualified employees from local business or public authorities into the service of multinational forces. Those institutions may then lack qualified employees in restoration of the local economy. The way how to prevent overbidding local employees is to determine the level of salaries by multinational forces adequately to the highest salaries paid in comparable positions by local private or public organisations (institutions). 7. Unwanted impacts Unintended, unwanted impacts on the economy can be divided into four groups: 1. Relationship of multinational forces with the local government in the sphere of taxes. 2. Expectations and maintaining the standard of a developing country. 3. Unpredictable decision of multinational forces with economic impacts. 4. Inflation. In terms of taxes, there is obviously a difference in the interests of multinational forces and those the government of the host country has. The multinational forces seek to enjoy as high tax reliefs as they possibly can. The aim of the host country is to minimize such reliefs. Both are however committed to foster economic development of the host country, which will definitely not be helped by any possible tax reliefs. Members of multinational forces may cause problems to local authorities with their required working environment standards. First, local workers may demand comparable working conditions, which may not be possible given the local economic situation, unless restrictions are made in other spheres of economy. The issue of maintenance may also come up when the mission terminates and all infrastructures built according to international standards are handed over to local authorities. Infrastructures built to international standards may claim much higher maintenance costs than the local authorities may be able to spend. Some decisions by the authorities of multinational forces taken for instance in the interest of security may have negative impact on the economy (e.g. energy supply free of charge into selected locations or groups of inhabitants disruption of revenues and competitive environment, closure of seaports or airports etc.). It is beyond doubt that the local markets that satisfy the demands of multinational forces produce inflation pressure. Inflation pressure will have rather local nature and will not pass on the national level. The capacity and ability of local suppliers to satisfy to demand of multinational forces will be crucial for eliminating the pressures. 8. Conclusion The primary goal of all peace operations may not be questioned: ending the conflict, separating of the warring parties, saving life and property, preventing additional damage, restoring and rebuilding of the state. From the perspective of economy, secondary goal of the multinational forces presence in the given location is to kick-start the country s economic development. Economic development of the host country is sadly not regarded as decisive from purely military or security point of view, but is very much in the long run. Economic development, higher living standards in the given location may contribute to the overall stability and security in the region. Each and every international peace operation should therefore carefully balance economic and other objectives. To an extent, meeting economic goals may also justify the presence of multinational forces in the region in the eyes of the local inhabitants. 66

References [1] ŠTANCL, L., NEDBAL, J. Harmonizace hospodářské a obranné politiky jako předpoklad posilování ekonomické bezpečnosti státu. In Ekonomika a management, 2009, ISSN 1802-3975. [2] SOSNOVÁ, M., ŠTANCL, L. Ekonomické aspekty zahraničních misí AČR. Sborník ze VII. Mezinárodní vědecké konference. Brno: Univerzita obrany, 2009, ISBN 978-80- 7231-691-5. [3] CARNAHAN, M. and GILMORE, S. and DURCH, W. New data on the Economic Impact of UN Peacekeeping; In International peacekeeping, Vol 14, No. 3, June 2007. [4] SLANÝ, A. and ŽÁK, M. Hospodářská politika, Praha 1999, ISBN 80 7179 237 3. [5] HITCH, J.CH. and KEAN, N. Mc. R. The economics of defence in the nuclear age, In The Rand corporation, March 1960, R-346. [6] HARTLEY, K. Economic Aspects of Disarmament as an Investment Process, United nations, New York, 1993. [7] RATI, R Defense expenditure and economic growth. [8] HARTLEY, K. and SANDLER, T. Handbook of Defense Economics, Vol. 1. [9] HARTLEY, K. and HOOPER, N. The economics of Defense Disarmament and Peace. [10] COULOMB, F. and FONTANEL, J. An Economic interpretation of French military expenditures, In Defence and Peace Economics 2005, vol. 16 (4), Aug., p. 297 315. [11] HARTLEY, K. and DONALD, P. Country survey XXI: In The UK, Defence and Peace Economics 2010, vol. 21 (1), Feb., p. 43 63. [12] MYLODINIS, N. Revisiting the nexus between military spending and growth in the EU, In Defence and Peace Economics 2008, vol. 19 (4), Aug., p. 265 272. [13] ERDOGDU, O. S. Political decisions, defense and growth, In Defence and Peace Economics 2008, vol. 19 (1), Feb., p. 27 35. [14] JÍLKOVÁ, E. Specifika hospodářské politiky v systému ekonomického zabezpečení obrany, Disertační práce, Brno 2007. [15] NEČEKALOVÁ, B. Analýza výdajů a nákladů na vojenské mise od roku 1990, Bakalářská práce, UO Brno FEM, 2009. 67

HEALTH PROTECTION OF FIREFIGHTERS AND OTHER PERSONS AGAINST HARMFUL SUBSTANCES FROM FIRES Veronika Sadovská and Josef Navrátil Abstract: Firefighters, as well as other persons in immediate vicinity of a fire, can be exposed to various toxic combustion products released during a fire. Thus, this paper deals with certain chemical constituents of smoke from burning common building materials, the toxicity of general hazardous substances, and potential health effects on firefighters and affected people from exposure to the harmful substances from fire. In addition, firefighter protective clothing can be soiled by such harmful substances at the emergency scene and it may cause further exposure. The purpose of this paper is to determine major factors that contribute to health damage of firefighters and other people in connection with consequent health protection management. Keywords: harmful substances, health protection, fire, exposure, firefighters 1. Introduction Primarily, the paper concentrates on the health protection of particular firefighters who act at the fire scene. Secondary, it is focused on health protection of other persons within the fire environment. This article is intended to present primary outcomes from a doctoral project, which is devoted to long-term monitoring of toxic combustion products generated during fires and their potential health effects on firefighters. One of the project objectives is to specify the spectrum of the most frequent combustion products deposited onto firefighter protective clothing and consequently consider whether the fire station interior is moreover contaminated and firefighters are additionally exposed to toxic combustion products. According to this goal, the project deals with the identification of harmful substances released from real and simulated fires where the protective clothing could become soiled. It is believed, that firefighters are potentially exposed to toxic substances captured on the clothing. After the identification, the following step is to consider chronic exposure in order to assess potential impact on the health of firefighters, and to recommend particular approach to the health protection of concrete individuals. To achieve proper outcomes, we cooperate with Training Center of Fire Protection in Brno-Líšeň. 2. Analysis of Current State With respect to health effects arising from fires, it could be said that most of casualties suffer from acute and chronic exposure to harmful substances more than from burns [1]. Thus, this part is concentrated mainly on the adverse health effects particularly on firefighters exposed to the harmful substances in fire smoke. Despite the conditions of burning will be different for each fire, several commonalities can be found. The combustion products formed during fire can vary depending upon the 68

material involved. However, general assumptions about the hazardous chemical constituents most likely present in fire effluent can be made if the material is known. The hazardous products formed during burning of major organic materials can be divided into two following basic categories in terms of their toxicity: asphyxiants and irritants. Additionally, there could be a third category of such products that have other toxic effects. The third category can typically include complex molecules with longer carbon chains or carbon rings [1]. The amount and chemical properties of hazardous substances generated during combustion depend on fuel type and other specific circumstances related to the dynamic nature of fire. Some commonalities about the most important hazardous products can be accepted on the basis of the material known. Firefighters health risks resulted from fires are mostly connected with specific materials used nowadays. Current consumption has resulted in widespread application of polymeric materials, rubber, wood, hazardous chemicals, oil and other specific materials especially in buildings (residential and commercial structures). The subsequent paragraphs deal with chosen chemical components of fire smoke formed during burning of specific materials. 2.1 Hazardous substances formed by materials involved Synthetic materials such as plastics, foams and resins have massive application, principally in frequent household items and building materials (carpets, insulation, paints, roofing etc.). Therefore, they may be subject of combustion and produce toxic products when burned under specific conditions. The combustion of polyurethane (PUR) yields the formation of CO under most combustion conditions. Very low oxygen concentrations can support generation of HCN [2]. The combustion of polyurethane foams generally applied in furnishing and other PUR products can form isocyanates and their derivates, aromatic compounds as benzene and toluene [1, 3]. The combustion of other polymers which also contain nitrogen such as nylons and polyacrylonitriles (PAN) produces considerable amounts of NO x and ammonia. In laboratory conditions, it was estimated that 1.5 up to 15 g of HCN may release from 1 kg of PAN [4]. The gaseous products from pyrolysis of polyethylene (PE) with very low oxygen concentrations can be methane, ethane and hydrogen. Under conditions of incomplete combustion with 38 % of carbon included, 13.4 % of CO, 42.6 % of volatile hydrocarbons (methane, ethylene, acetylene, toluene, benzene) and 5.3 % of PAHs were produced during PE pyrolysis [5]. Many polymeric materials used nowadays contain a significant amount of halogens and they are widely used in residents and buildings where many people can be exposed to the toxic products if these materials burn. The greatest hazardous combustion products of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are hydrogen chloride (HCl) and chlorine (Cl). The combustion of 1 kg of PVC liberates approximately 400 l of gaseous HCl [6]. In addition, some chlorinated plastics can also release phosgene (COCl 2 ), small quantities of PCDDs and PCDFs. Other halogen plastics burned may generate hydrogen florid (HF) and hydrogen bromide (HBr). Fluorine containing polymers, e.g. polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) upon combustion liberates perfluoroisobutene (PFIB), which is more toxic than phosgene and it is an extreme irritant. Rubber fires are nowadays represented by serious tire fires. During tire fires, significant amounts of many toxic products may be produced. Carbon oxides and soot particles are general combustion products from tire fires. Considerable concentrations of SO 2 and sulphur derivates are formed due to the sulphur content as a consequence of the 69

vulcanization process. In experiments, emissions from car tire fires were assessed. Inorganic gases, volatile organic compounds (VOC), PAHs, PCDD, PCDF, PM and some metals were measured in fire smoke [7]. Characteristic combustion products are represented by 1,3-butadiene, styrene, 4-vinylcyclohexene and limonene. The combustion of rubber which contains organophosphates is also likely to form phosphorous pentoxide (P 4 O 10 ) [1, 8]. Currently, there are possible fire hazards connected with usage and storage of different kinds of wood. Pollutants in emissions from uncontaminated and contaminated wood fires represent some of the toxic combustion products with adverse health effects. Burning of cellulose, such as in forest fires, leads to formation of organic irritants, such as acrolein, formaldehyde, simple and aromatic hydrocarbons [1]. Combustion of wood which contains natural essential oils and inorganic compounds, e.g. adhesives (PF or UF resins) and preservatives (heavy metals treatment), may yield liberation of PAHs, PM, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), PCDDs, PCDFs, and small amounts of heavy metals as oxides [9]. 2.2. Selected harmful substances and their toxicity Most common toxic combustion products formed during burning such materials mentioned above can be asphyxiant gases, e.g. carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), irritant gases, e.g. nitrogen oxides (NO x ), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), halogen acids, organic irritants such as acrolein and formaldehyde, other inorganic irritants, e.g. ammonia (NH 3 ), phosgene (COCl 2 ), and complex molecules such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), isocyanates and particulate matters (PM). The health hazard of generated toxic compounds is expected to be the greatest for such victims, particularly for firefighters, directly exposed to the smoke plume and outside the immediate vicinity of the fire source (e.g. incident commander). The emphasized combustion products in this paper are PAHs and PCBs. PAHs are recognized as complex molecules with a minimum of two fused benzene rings. There is very poor information including adverse health effects resulting from acute exposure to PAHs. On the contrary, there are many studies that provide evidence about potential carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. Benzo[a]pyrene, naphtalene, chrysene and benzo[b]fluoranthene are the most common representatives of this large group of organic compounds. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies benzo[a]pyrene as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), naphthalene, chrysene and benzo[b]fluoranthene are possibly carcinogenic to humans as (Group 2B) [10]. US EPA categorizes benzo[a]pyrene, chrysene and benzo[b]fluoranthene as Group B2 as probable human carcinogen [11]. PAHs are primarily generated during combustion and are present in particles in ambient air. In the urban areas, the concentration of benzo[a]pyrene has been detected at the level of 0.6 ng/m 3, whereas in rural areas it is 0.3 ng/m 3 [12]. On the contrary, occupational exposures to benzo[a]pyrene by inhalation can be as high as 100 μg/m 3 [13]. Only one study [14] has been conducted in order to report some respiratory effects from chronic exposure to benzo[a]pyrene in occupational settings. PCBs belong to group of chlorinated hydrocarbons. Due to their unique properties PCBs were used in industrial and commercial applications (e.g. as plasticizers paints, plastics, rubber products etc.) PCBs are able to cause cancer (Group 2A) as well as a variety of other adverse health effects on the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and endocrine system [15, 16]. 70

3. Applied Methods and Devices Based on compiled literature search, it can be believed that firefighters are exposed to many hazardous substances with toxic effects. It is presumed that these pollutants get stuck to firefighter protective clothing and it probably contaminates the indoor environment which can finally result in further exposure of firefighters. For that reason our goal is to examine pollutant emissions and assess health risks continuously to support this premise. Primary monitoring of combustion products released from soiled firefighters gear left in fire station interior after the actions has been initiated. The samples were collected with portable sampling device continual aerosol concentrator [17]. The concentrator operates on the basis of accumulation of gases, vapours and aerosols in generated polydisperse aerosol of a suitable liquid. 660 μl/min of n-heptane was used as absorption liquid. The airflow rate was 400 ml/min. The first step was to determine validity of the concentrator. The technique of collecting samples was verified using the denuder method. Detection limits of both used devices were identical. Samples were collected using the concentrator in the interior of the fire station after three various fires in a given period of time. The first fire took place in an unused warehouse of a printing office, the second one happened in a warehouse without hazardous materials, and the last fire was structural fire in Brno. Samples were collected at 10 monitored places, especially at the room for used firefighter gear, store of used firefighter equipment, decontamination room and fire truck interior. In this paper, outcomes from only one analysis are presented. The analysis of samples was conducted with method of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) under specific conditions. The volume of air samples injected to the 30 m long column was 4 μl, the temperature in injector was 260 C. The inner diameter of column was 0.32 mm with the stationary phase of 1 μm. The flow of carrier gas (helium) through the column was 4 ml/min. The analysis has run 54 min with 50 C/2 min program; the temperature was increased by 5 C/min up to 300 C. The detection was carried out by MS with m/z in range of 20 550. Simultaneously, passive samplers realized as 5 cm long tubes with 5 mm in inner diameter containing 0.2 g of TENAX were tested inside the simulator (closed shipping container 70 m 3 ), where 250 kg of used wood pallets were burned. The container is used for training firefighters and enables simulation of a backdraft an explosion of gaseous products generated during incomplete combustion in enclosed areas. The duration of fighting the fire was approximately 15 min. The extraction of collected substances was made by 3 ml of hexane-dichlormethan. The extract detection was carried out under similar conditions, except the volume of air injected to the column was 1 ml, the temperature gradient was 10 C/min and m/z was 20 650. For purpose of this paper, only one sample from passive sampler was determined. 4. Problem Solution The GC-MS analysis was particularly focused on PAHs, PCBs and dioxins due to their adverse health effects resulted from their toxicity. Repeated acute episodes may eventually lead to chronic health problems [10]. Thus, there is potential hazard for active firefighters. Although, presence of emphasized organic compounds in analyzed samples was not confirmed, the Sample 3 collected in interior of fire truck has been shown to contain 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol (first peak), which is added to foam extinguishers as detergent. 71

Absence of accented compounds can be explained by materials involved. Since the monitoring has been initiated, only three fires have occurred in selected locality, in which no significant amounts of hazardous substances were present. Figures above represent results from GC-MS analysis. First figure shows chromatogram of the Sample 3, which illustrates the identification of peaks and second one demonstrates mass spectrum. Figure 1: Continual aerosol concentrator peak identification (Sample 3 - chromatogram) Figure 2: Continual aerosol concentrator peak identification (mass spectrum) Outcomes from analysis of samples collected by passive samplers used in the simulator show, that not only common gases, such as CO, methane, aldehydes and ketones collected by mobile device DRÄGER, were detected. GC-MS analysis of extract from 5 passive samplers indicates similar spectrum of chemical substances for each sample. The figure 3 illustrates results from GC-MS analysis of the Sample 3. The first peak corresponds with 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol (58.2% probability), the second peak points to sulfur with 96.5% probability, the third peak was not identified, the peak no. 4 indicates diphenyl sulfone with 94.5% probability, the fifth peak is cyclic octaatomic sulfur with 98.7% probability, the peak no. 6 was identified as 2,6-diphenylphenol (29.7% probability) and finally the last peak was recognized 72

as diisooctyl phthalate with 38.8% probability. The accented PAHs and PCBs were not identified. Therefore, it can be assumed that the continual aerosol concentrator have to be applied during these simulation as well. Furthermore, some modifications of passive samplers are desired due to longer diffuse trajectory of harmful substances. The exposition duration has to be also extended. Figure 3: Passive samplers peak identification (Sample 3 chromatogram) 5. Conclusions Emissions of harmful substances from fires represent considerable health hazard, as well as environmental hazard. Firefighters are exposed to several toxic combustion products with potential adverse health effects. Hazardous combustion products properties result from specific combustion conditions, especially from the material involved. To accomplish tasks about how to correctly protect health of firefighters and other persons against toxic effects of harmful combustion products, it is necessary to identify the spectrum of common combustion products which may cause serious damage to the health of firefighters. The project is realized in two different ways. Primarily, we monitor the internal environment of the fire station and collect samples by the continual aerosol concentrator. On the other hand, passive samplers with adsorbent are used to monitor external and internal environment of the simulator to achieve cumulative results about exposition of other people who are in the vicinity of fire and do not wear the respirator. Although, presence of accented hazardous substances in primarily collected samples was not confirmed, it is necessary to monitor firefighter internal environment continuously. Therefore, the aim of subsequent efforts in this area will concentrate on the continual monitoring of the fire station interior, and health risks as a result of possible chronic exposure to toxic products released from repeatedly contaminated firefighter protective clothing. The analysis of extracts from passive samplers has not confirmed presence of emphasized hazardous products of combustion. However, the monitoring in the simulator used by firefighters will continue and passive samplers will be modified. 73

References [1] WAKEFIELD, J.C. A Toxicological Review of the Products of Combustion. Health Protection Agency, 2010. [2] LANDRY, T.D., PAULUHN, J., DAEMS, D. and REIMANN, K. A. Polyurethane Products in Fires: Acute Toxicity of Smoke and Fire Gases. Alliance for the Polyurethan e Industry, 2002. [3] BLOMQVIST, P., HERTZBERG, T., DALENE, M. and SKARPING, G., Isocyanates, Aminoisocyanates and Amines from Fires - A Screening of Commnon Materials Found in Buildings. In: Fire and Materials. 2003, 275-294. [4] SUMI, K. et al. Toxicity of Decomposition Products Polyacrylonitrile, Nylon 6 and ABS. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, 1976. [5] GARCIA, N.A. et al. Comparison between Product Yields in The Pyrolysis and Combustion of Different Refuse. In: Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. 68-69, 2003, 577-598. [6] CROMPTON, T.R. The Analysis of Plastics. Pergamon Press, 1984. [7] LÖNNERMARK, A. and BLOMQVIST, P. Emissions from Tyre Fires. SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute, 2005. [8] SIKORA, H. Toxikologie zplodin hoření pneumatik. In: Časopis 112. 10, 2007. [9] BHARGAVA, A. et al. Emission of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons, Polychlorinated Bipheniyls and Polychlorinated Dibeznzo-p-Dioxins and Furans from Fires of Wood Chips. In: Fire Safety Journal. 37, 2002, 659-672. [10] BOZEK, F., et al. Health Risk Assessment of Air Contamination Caused by Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Traffic. In: EED Recent Advances in Environment, Ecosystems and Development. 2009, 104-108. [11] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) on Polycyclic Organic Matter. Washington DC: National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, 1999. [12] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Polycyclic organic matter (POM). Technology Transfer Network Air Toxic Website [online]. [vid. 2. ledna 2013]. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/polycycl.html. [13] International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Some Non-heterocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures. In: IARC Monographs. 92, 2010, 754-773. [14] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). Atlanta GA.: Public Health Service, 1995. [15] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) on Polychlorinated Byphenyls. Washington DC.: National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, 1999. [16] International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenity. In: An Updating of IARC Monographs Volumes 1 to 42, Supplement no. 7. 1987, 322-326. [17] VEČEŘA, Z. et al. Wet Preconcentration Techniques for Real Time Determination of Gaseous Pollutants in Ambient Air. In: IEEEAM/NAUN International Conferences, Development, Energy, Environment, Economics. 2010, 224-22 74

MILITARY CONCEPTS A BACKGROUND FOR FUTURE CAPABILITIES DEVELOPMENT Ján Spišák Abstract: The article presents some key ideas on subject of military concepts. Generally, concepts articulate a high-order vision of how the future Armed Force will operate in changing operational environment and describe potential approach through which the Armed Force will defend and secure the nation s interests against a wide range of security challenges. Their purpose is to guide force development and future capability package development to counter emerging threats in concert with other allies, partners and other governmental and nongovernmental organizations. The article is divided into two parts; the first part offers the basic context of the subject, terminology, purpose, hierarchy and characteristics of concepts as a solid background for understanding of the subject. The second part (in the subsequent issue of the periodical) will highlight the fundamental parts of the concept s content and possible approaches, implications and recommendations to the concept development process. Keywords: concept, doctrine, military problem, capability development, armed forces A new idea is first condemned as ridiculous and then dismissed as trivial, until finally, it becomes what everybody knows. William James, 1879 1. Introduction Heading out of any organization to meet the selected strategic goals is largely limited its ability to mark out and implement critical procedures or principles of future steps. Military organizations, obviously represented by the Armed Forces (AF), are guided in their activities by the normative acts and development plans such as strategies, visions or concepts that give an idea of the future direction and development of the AF, particularly in relation to securing the nation s interests and responding to predicated threats. The relevance of the word "concept" within the military environment is so widespread that it s true meaning, purpose and content has loosed its original importance, or vice versa, in terms of frequency of word usage it leads to confusion in sense, terminology, and thus the content. Because in the Czech AF (CZ AF) these uncertainties and differences in understanding of the meaning and content of the concept persists, the aim of this article is to explain some general issues related to concepts and highlight their purpose, importance and content. The very meaning of the concept relates in the article particularly to the military environment, and hence to the context of the "military concept". 2. Purpose and importance of the concept Concept in general means a timeless idea or vision of the modus operandi, the way how the AF will operate in future operations. It describes the capabilities required to 75

conduct these operations in the anticipated operational environment and the way in which the commander, using knowledge of military art and science, will use these capabilities to achieve desired effects or objectives. The concept defines how the AF or their parts can operate, the time frame and the conditions in which they operate (operational environment), and also individual activities, which must be able to perform, depending on the required capabilities. The concept also describes the nature of the problem or series of problems that need to be addressed, the character of individual actors or participants involved in the problem s solution as well as their interactions. Concept should be applicable within the mid-term even the long-term horizon, depending on changes in policy, strategy, security and/or operational environment and technology. Concept cannot be limited/restrained neither current capabilities nor financial sources. The key ideas described in the concept should lead to development of required capabilities, which are then assessed through war games, studies, experiments and other ways. The concept is the starting point of the evaluation process, the building up, development and subsequent implementation of capabilities; they serve for identification of deficiencies (gaps) in the capabilities and for generation of subsequent solution to overcome them in particular areas of Doctrine, Organization, Training, Materiel, Leadership and Education, Personnel, Facilities and Infrastructure (DOTMLPFI). If the process has been set properly, there are created favorable conditions for development of military capabilities. Finally, concepts are important challenge for the science and technology development, setting of their priorities, funding and orientation of their further development. Description of capabilities for future military operations, in terms of their time application, is stated in concepts differently, but generally for the next 8-20 years. Since the AF operate in mission hand to hand with the international partners, the concept must take into consideration demands on the capabilities not only joint forces or individual types of forces within the framework of the national AF, but also requirements of coalition partners, when the joint actions in operations are assumed. It is therefore appropriate and necessary to participate in development and validation of concepts together and benefit from the experience previously processed or proven concepts of those individual partners. Concept should respond to the fact that future joint forces will have to adapt and combine a series of complex military and non-military activities such as transportation and deployment of forces, conduct of combat activities, stabilization and securing of environment, humanitarian aid, reconstruction tasks, etc., in accordance with the requirements of each operational situation. Therefore, the concept approaches for each situation accordingly to its specifics with regard to the unique political and strategic context, rather than trying to rape this situation to the precise template. The concept, however, should not be detailed instructions with prescribing methods of carrying out these activities and it also should not set up any authoritative doctrine. It ought to describe a set of operational problems expressed in "scenarios", through the main idea of operational solutions up to finding of institutional implications for the adoption of these solutions. The concept focuses on strategy of achieving military objectives with simultaneous contribution of other (military and non-military) organizations and multinational partners. It assumes potential areas where the AF and other instruments of state power could find common interests for the best integration of their efforts. Furthermore, the 76

concept is useful for these organizations and partners to evaluate requirements and opportunities for possible integration. 3. Concept and Doctrine In practice we meet different views on the meaning and content of concepts and their relationship to the military doctrines. Concepts, in some cases, are mistakenly considered to be doctrines and vice versa. The key to understand the meaning and difference between the concept and the doctrine is to identify their mutual relationship and distinguish the fundamental differences between both. Doctrine (military doctrine) contains and describes the fundamental principles based on which the AF conduct activities (operations) to achieve or support national and/or multinational objectives. It provides the basic theoretical background for the planning, conduct, command, control and support of operations and provides a framework for understanding the doctrinal approaches to operations. It also serves as background and source of information for education and study of the principles for planning and conduct of operations. It is authoritative but requires a judgment in its application - it is not dogma. Doctrine describes the characteristics of existing AF (or forces of near future), their current capabilities as well as ability to use these capabilities in concurrent military operations or operations in near future. Concept, however, describes the future (probable) operational environment and related future operational requirements that the AF will have to meet, to counter potential challenges in this environment. Shortly, the doctrine directs activities of the AF of present days, influenced by the current security and operational environment in the short or mid-term, while the concept is focused on the future and specifies requirements for development of today's forces toward possible operations in the future operational environment. 4. Historical, Present and Future concepts The concepts can be generally considered in terms of their validity in certain period of time. According to this they are labeled as historical, current and future concepts. Their general characteristics are stated in the Table 1. Tab. 1 Description of historical, current and future concepts Period of concept Characteristics Examples [1] Historical Concepts Describe their subject (topic) and methods of application in some historical context - They are often not expressed exactly in time, rather derived from historical records - At the time of their applicability they are not clearly codified (legalized) - Drawn from historical records (analysis) - Can be set up by regulations and continuously altered during the course of their realization - Schlieffen Plan - Blitzkrieg - Deep Operations - Operational maneuver group (OMG) - Follow-On Forces Attack (FOFA) - AirLand Battle (ALB) Current Concepts Describe their subject (topic) and - Can be clearly enacted in existing documents (doctrinal, tactical, - Joint Vision (1996) for 2010 - Army After Next (1997) for 77

own applicability in present days with current organization, methods and technologies Future Concepts Express an idea of how their subject (topic) will be used in future context technical, procedural) - May arise from current conditions (operational, technological, institutional) - Should form the basis for operational planning and for DOTMLPFI areas - Future concepts are initially untested, should be the subject of experimentation and discussion - Can be developed and legalized or invalidated - Are being developed from untested hypotheses to decisive conclusion - Only after the concept was experimentally verified and confirmed its accuracy and is legalized, then provides the basis for force planning, planning development and sustaining of military capabilities 2020 - Joint Vision (2000) for 2020 - Capstone Concept for Joint Operations (USA 2004) for 2012-2020 - The concepts of the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Australia AF and other countries (except the CZ AF concepts they are not processed) [2] 5. Hierarchy of concepts Concepts are systematically arranged within a family of concepts into the hierarchy. At the top of the hierarchy is the institutional concept that dominates all others subordinate concepts; operational (known also as operating), functional and enabling (known also as integrating) concepts. Institutional concept defines the content, role and its relationship to development and employment of the future AF. These ideas and solutions are further developed subordinated concepts. The concepts of a lower level must be compatible with the concepts of a higher order, which are subordinate to them. While the concepts of the higher level generally drive development of the subordinate concepts, it is obvious that this relationship works also in the opposite direction. Breakthrough concepts on the lower level can sometime result in necessity to revise principles of the higher level concepts. If these rules are met, the logical and conceptual stream of the concept development is secured; it conveys the strategic vision (directive) into the recommendation for development of the required capabilities and their employment in future operations. General characteristics of aforementioned concepts can be summarized in the Table 2 as follows: Tab. 2 - Characteristics of concepts Institutional Concepts Describe military institutions Operational Describe how military forces operate (operating) Concepts Describe effect or influence (performance, behavior) of Functional Concepts operational (joint) functions or sub-functions Enabling (integrating) Describe capabilities required for the effect or influence of 78

Concepts military functions or sub-functions and the way of their integration within the whole AF 5.1 Institutional concepts Institutional concepts describe the concept, direction and functioning of the military institution(s) in the long term horizon. They directly originate from the Security strategy, Defense strategy or Military strategy, provide content (context) and advice for all the other concepts. Future institutional concepts are often published (promulgated) as expression of a vision for a specific future time horizon. 5.2 Operational concepts Operational concepts describe how to employ the AF in future operations, depending on the interests or political-military ambitions. They discuss rather about the principles and fundamental ideas (topics) than about the details of execution. They deal with more general than specific operational situations. They include a wide range of military activities, not just one functional area and more broadly describe what and how it should be done militarily in a given situation how the military power will be used. 5.3 Functional concepts Functional concepts describe the context (functioning) of particular joint functions (Command and Control, Intelligence, Maneuver and Fire, Protection of troops and so on) in broader operational context. For example: "Achieving the required level of troop s protection requires the mutual and common employment of protective activities which may include: identify, assess, warn, defend, restore, etc. Activities include process of integrated military tasks, which can deter (discourage), prevent or mitigate adverse effects activities of enemy on activities of own troops. They serve to increase the protective function by defining the required protective capabilities. Concept then provides instructions describing how individual components of the AF should plan, integrate and provide protection of troops during their deployment, employment, sustainment and withdrawal across the spectrum of operations. 5.4 Enabling concepts Enabling concepts describe how a single task or procedure is performed by applying partial capability (within the context of broader functional areas, such as specific technologies, training/education program, organization, equipment, etc. E.g. the concept describing the Application of Technology for Battlespace Visualization may be enabling concept for the Command and Control functional concept. 6. Concept characteristics and requirements Processed concept should be specific in its content and should meet some common requirements: - Although the future concept is more speculation about the future, supplemented with information from the previous period, it has historical roots. The starting point for processing of the concept may be, for example existing doctrine, lessons learned from operations, the results from experimentation and different (scientific, academic) studies; - The basis of the concept is made up of a system of views on the character of operations and their successful conduct. The concept thus includes the theory of military operations; - The concept harmonizes the military art and science. It may emphasize the importance of one or the other area, their ratio may be different due to the purpose of the concept, but both must not be neglected; 79

- The concept is firmly rooted in given military-technological context. The concept should take in account an approach of nation (its citizens) about waging war and military operations as such, because they may constitute a general attitude to broad national values. The concept does not imply that application of technology is a solution, rather assumes that this solution makes possible. The concept exploits a new technology, or positively responds to dissemination of it. Technological application and assumptions are limited by what is fiscally and technologically feasible within the timeframe of the concept; - The concept must be subsequently verified. Initially no concept does enforce the presumption of validity, but recognizes that it is received with disbelief; its own justification must demonstrate through logic, experimentation and other relevant ways. The concept should simultaneously establish criteria for evaluating its feasibility and applicability; - The concept encourages discussion by describing the context in clear and understandable terms. This allows all interested parties to understand the fundamentals of the concept and avoid haggling over its purpose; - The concept should apply to different situations. It should meet the requirements of several possible scenarios within their defined parameters; - The concepts are concise and eliminate irrelevant context. The concept introduces ideas concisely and efficiently; its message can be quickly taken into account when implementing the concept. The aim is to provide the minimum necessary context, to hit the essence of the problem as quickly as possible and remove unnecessary content that does not develop the central idea of the concept; - The concept uses a simple language and a valid terminology; it avoids using phrases and creating of new abbreviations, as well as new terms for purpose of novelty. Clear terms should ensure clarity and consistency of language. Using abbreviations and "popular expression" leads concept s users to bigger confusion rather than understanding of the meaning. The concept must therefore be written clearly enough to be fully understood at first reading. 7. Conclusion The military concepts represent the foundation for future Armed Forces development and the base for subsequent developments of supporting concepts. They describe the broad capabilities the Armed Forces will require in the future and explain how they will apply available resources to overwhelm adaptive enemies to accomplish challenging missions in the complex future operational environments. All the necessary basic information regarding the content of the concept and the concept development process are to be continued. References [1] Individual examples of (military) concepts indicate how the AF were, are or will be employed in different time periods. Limited space does not permit a more detailed explanation of these examples, but they are available, e.g. on the Wikipedia.com pages. [2] U. S. concepts are available on: http://www.dtic.mil/futurejointwarfare/, U. K. concepts are available on: https://www.gov.uk/development-concepts-anddoctrine-centre#futures-concepts [3] Capstone Concept for Joint Operations. Version 3.0, 2009. DoD USA. 80

[4] Capstone Concept for Joint Operations Activity Concepts. 2010. DoD USA. 228 p. [5] GALATÍK, Vlastimil; PIKNER, Ivo; SPIŠÁK, Ján. Zásady tvorby operačních koncepcí. Univerzita obrany, BRNO. 2010. ISBN: 978-80-7231-755-4. 73 s. [6] Joint Operations Concepts Development Process. 2007. Washington D.C. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 76 p. [7] Joint Operations Concepts Development Process. Washington. 2007. 76 p. Available from: http://www.dtic.mil/futurejointwarfare [8] Major Combat Operations Joint Operating Concept. 2006. DoD USA. 114 p. [9] MATTIS, James N. Joint Concept Development Vision. 2009. DoD USJFCOM, Norfolk Available from: http://www.jfcom.mil/newslink/storyarchive/2009/jc_vision.pdf [10] OCHRANA, František. Vize, prognózy, koncepce, realizační plány a prováděcí metodiky jako nástroje řízení rezortu. In Vojenské rozhledy, 4/2008, s. 3-13. [11] SCHMITT, John F. A Practical Guide for Developing and Writing Military Concepts. Defense Adaptive Red Team: Working Paper #02-4 [online]. December 2002, Available from: http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/dod/dart_guide.pdf [12] The Future Land Operational Concept. 2008. The Development, Concepts and Doctrine Centre, Ministry of Defence, Shrivenham SWINDON, Wiltshire, [13] TRADOC Pamphlet 71-20-3. The U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command Concept Development Guide. 2011. Department of the Army TRADOC Headquarters, US Army Training and Doctrine Command Virginia, 48 p. Available from: http://www.tradoc.army.mil/tpubs/ [14] Zásady tvorby koncepcí v resortu Ministerstva obrany (pomůcka). 2009. Finální pracovní verze k 5.6.2009. MO SOPS, Praha. 56 s. 81

ENERGY SECURITY AN IMPORTANT ASPECT OF NATIONAL SECURITY 82 Marek Šolc Abstract: Energy security and energy policy is currently very actual issue. The importance of energy security is also growing because of fast shrinking world oil reserves and advancing climate changes, which create increasingly powerful pressure on the reorientation of energy from fossil fuels to other types of energy sources. Continuous growth of energy consumption raises the question of the use of renewable resources. Renewable resources in each country are higher than that of oil, coal, gas or uranium. Better use of renewables in the EU Commission proposed a legislative proposal in January 2008. The main objective is to make renewable energy sources accounted for 20% of overall EU energy consumption. Keywords: energy, security, policy, targets. 1. Introduction Growth in energy and raw material industries and increasing demands on people's quality of life, deepens dependence States on vital resources, including food and the likelihood of creation of raw materials and energy crises, could lead to armed conflict. Since most energy resources are finite, this dependence is even more highlighted. There is a high dependence on steady supplies of raw materials, non-renewable energy resources and their transportation. There may to occur a threat economic prosperity and stability, as well as national security. Imprudent and inefficient occupancy of natural resources can lead to exhaustion and irreversible damage to the environment. Security threats and challenges are dynamic, interconnected and subject to change depending on the internal, regional and global conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to perceive the issue of energy security in the Euro-Atlantic and trans-national context. 2. Energy security It should be noted that energy policy and energy security are particularly undoubtedly a very important topic for all states. The specifically, vulnerability countries of V4 is the fact, that these, countries are heavily dependent on energy supplies from a single source and lack sufficiently integrated energy market. The crisis in 2009, mainly in Slovakia proved that modernization and development projects in energy infrastructure requires less effort and money than the losses they cause interruption of energy supplies. Another very important energy challenge is the rising cost of greenhouse gas emissions, which can have very destabilizing effect on the economy based on the use of coal in electricity generation. Simply, we could define energy security as a state guarantee secure access to energy resources. Energy Security means reliable supply of energy and access to energy resources and fuel in the required quantity and quality at reasonable prices. Energy security depends on many variables. The global energy market is not only associated with domestic and international energy supplies, but also the reliability of business

partners. Because, there is a rapid loss of the world's oil reserves and rapidly progressing climate change, creating an increasingly powerful force for the reorientation of energy from fossil fuels to other types of energy resources, emphasizes the importance of energy security. Energy security can be seen as a separate aspect of the expanding security state, alongside the military, economic, and environmental safety, or as a complementary aspect of the subject. Perhaps the most noticeable difference in the perception of energy security between countries depends on their energetic and economic situation. [1,9,11] In the narrowest perception of energy security perspective aspect of military security is necessary to ensure that the military component of a crisis state to fulfill their responsibilities in the event of national emergency military attack or natural disaster. That means to allow sufficient fuel and energy so that it can operate the army, emergency services, hospitals, etc. In this case, it is mainly on technical assure of supply through the so-called protection. Critical infrastructure, and the establishment and maintenance of strategic reserves of raw materials (state material reserves). [1] In the case of wider perception we take into account in addition to the technical aspects of the security crisis also the economic, environmental and political aspects. In addition to these aspects of energy security, it also affects the economic interests and political groups across the length of the supply chain, by a customer, over transit to mining, using reminder and prioritization for promoting their own particular interests in the political arena. [1] Definitions of energy security for countries importing energy materials consist mostly of three aspects: - Access to an adequate amount of energy resources, - In an appropriate format, - For an adequate price. At first glance, it is clear that these three optimistic and embracing aspects are not very useful when we try their to use it for analysis. Adequate quantity and form can be analyzed according to historical data on consumption, but the adequate price is more or less misleading notion than economic or analytical term. Now we hear on the economic aspects and the application of the effort to logic security to market is a huge risk. As early as 1988 Giacomo Luciani [2] noted in relation to the primary issue of energy security security implications of dependence on external sources is merely rhetorical means to achieve a political goal, it would be better to talk about simple economic or commercial risk. We say about energy security, usually at the state level or the EU, especially in connection with the growth of costs for energy, stable energy supply and environmental protection. Slovakia is a country with high energy needs and is highly dependent on imported fossil fuels. Slovakia imports all coal, 98% oil, 98% natural gas and it's only significant domestic fossil source is lignite. Given the rapid decline of world oil reserves and rapidly progressing climate change there is increasing pressure for the reorientation of energy from fossil fuels to other forms of energy sources. This is called renewable energy, which is related to the importance of energy security. We conclude that energy security is a reliable supply of energy and access to energy resources and fuel in the required quantity, quality and reasonable prices. Energy security depends mainly on security of supply and the technical safety of energy facilities. Furthermore, depending on several variables, because the global energy market is not only associated with domestic and international energy supplies, but also the reliability of business partners.[3] 83

In a State that is dependent on imports of fossil fuels (SR), energy security depends mainly on external geopolitical aspects of storage options of energy sources and their replacement by other sources. These issues remain the responsibility of the governments of EU member states, but gradually switching energy markets in the EU in a strong block moves some of the issues of energy policy within the framework of the EU policy agenda. The EU estimates that in 2030, will be dependence on imports of fossil fuels as follows [3,12]: - 66 % coal consumption, - 90 % oil consumption, - 80 % gas consumption. These facts mean for the EU, particularly vulnerable and strategically disadvantageous future and forcing the Member States and seek to strengthen the tools to increase their own energy security. Such tools are particularly [3]: - Proper energy mix, - Reducing the energy intensity of the economy, - The use of indigenous and renewable energy sources, - Reducing the consumption of fossil fuels. The importance of energy security is increasing more and therefore it is necessary to emphasize that energy policy and energy security are very important and actual topics for all States. Uniform global energy policy does not exist because each state and the community of states to create their own energy policy, according to internal and external conditions. Today, there is a constant increase in electricity consumption. To minimize the loss of transmission power is appropriate to make close to where they will be consumed. The EU Commission has proposed a better use of renewable energy sources in the legislative proposal in January 2008. One of the goals is to make renewable energy sources accounted for up to 20% of total EU energy consumption. Renewable energy sources are much larger than most people think. The amount of usable energy from renewable sources in each country is higher than reserves of oil, coal, gas or uranium. Significant use of renewable sources, fuels, and natural gas expected to result from stricter emission limits of air pollutants will decrease coal consumption. 3. EU energy policy A renewed interest in the development of a new Energy Policy for Europe is supported by a number of factors including: continuing difficult situation on the oil and gas, growing dependence on imports and the resulting need to diversify, the growing importance of climate change, the need for increased transparency on energy markets and further integration of national energy markets. Under the influence of the increasing demand by the European Commission in March 2006 issued a "Green Paper on Secure, Competitive and Sustainable Energy for Europe", which laid the basis for a discussion on the future of European energy and It outlines the current and future challenges and possible solutions. Was intended three main objectives in the book [4,5]: - Increase security of supply, - Ensuring the competitiveness of European economies and the availability of affordable energy, - Promoting environmental sustainability and combating climate change. 84

To ensure the achievement of these goals has been defined six priority areas and their associated activities: - Energy as a source of jobs and growth in Europe: completion of the European internal market in electricity and gas (European grid, priority interconnection plan, investment in generation capacity, same conditions: the importance of separating of activity, raising the competitiveness of European industry); - Addressing competitiveness and security of supply: increasing the sustainability and diversity of the energy mix; - Solidarity between Member States: the path to the internal politics of the European energy supply (increasing security of supply in the internal market, rethinking access EU to the emergency oil and gas stocks and preventing disruptions); - Tackling climate change (More for less: Europe as the most energy efficient region, expanding the use of renewable energy sources, carbon capture and geological storage); - Encouraging innovation: European strategic energy technology plan; - Towards a coherent external energy policy (reducing import dependency especially in oil and gas, a clear policy of diversification of gas supplies, transforming energy dialogues on energy partnerships, effective response to emergencies, the creation of pan-european energy community, integrating energy into other external policies, energy to promote the development). 4. The concept of energy policy Energy Policy in the Slovak Republic is governed by a strategic document, approved by the Government of the Slovak Republic at it's meeting on 11 January 2006. Previous Energy Policy of 2000 was a social and economically overcome. In the Czech Republic is such a document National Energy Policy of the Czech Republic, which was approved by the Government of the Czech Republic on 10 March 2004. It has gone through several changes, the most recent addition of the Czech energy policy was made in 2010. We can not say that the legal form of the receipt of the documents in the two republics was happily chosen, because these concepts are accepted by governments and resolutions are not binding documents, such as government regulation or law. Both of these documents define the basic objectives and framework for the development of energy in the long term. Energy Policy of the Slovak Republic is a strategic and sufficiently flexible document which defines the basic objectives and the development of energy in the long term until 2030, in the Czech Republic until 2050. [6] 5. Slovakia and the Czech Republic as a transit country Slovakia and the Czech Republic as a transit country receive substantial funds of transport for natural gas and crude oil through their territories. Although the Slovak Republic has the means of transit of energy resources through its territory, this situation represents a source of risk. This situation is problematic for Slovakia significantly, mainly due to lack of diversification of energy suppliers and because of the economic benefits of the Slovak economy. The gas crisis in 2009 prompted the Russian Federation in the correctness of the construction plan as the Nord Stream gas pipeline to start full operation to transport 80 bill. m³ of natural gas from the Russian Federation, which is 10 bill. more, than the flow in the pipeline in Slovakia in 2010. Brotherhood pipeline has a capacity of up to 90 billion cubic meters of gas, but he never non-utilization so entirely. Europe imports 85

from Russia about 20% of the volume of gas, and of this amount 80% is flowing through Ukraine and Slovakia. We assume that part of the volume destined for Western Europe is moved to Nord Stream. This is not happy news for Slovakia or the Czech Republic. [6,10] Nord Stream is but the first priority for Russia - the way, to deal with a difficult partner Ukraine. Czech Republic after running into full operation Nord Stream can also be compromised position in the country of transit because you have some important contract customers to the gas pipeline (Germany, Denmark, United Kingdom). 6. What could be options and alternatives for solution the issue of energy security In the Slovak Republic will be necessary to ensure the production of electricity at the level before 2007. Energy Strategy of the Slovak Republic offers the realization of the main objective of energy policy, increasing the performance of existing production facilities and construction of new production facilities, especially completing 3 and 4 block nuclear power Plant Mochovce, hydropower, renewable energy plants e.g. biomass, solar power, wind power, and the like. The Czech Republic also significantly supports the generation of electricity, mainly from nuclear power plants. In the case of nuclear power, the question is to what extent it is possible to consider nuclear power as a safe (in terms of actual production, in terms of supply of nuclear fuel from Russia mainly, in terms of his future disposal). [6,7] Slovakia and the Czech Republic put great emphasis on the production of energy from renewable sources. On one side, forcing them to comply with international treaties and from the other side of the effort to secure domestic energy (hydropower, biofuels). However, this must be balanced with economic impacts on consumers and the electricity market. Other ways to ensure energy security include reducing energy consumption as one of the fundamental pillars of sustainable development and improving energy efficiency, construction and development of local energy sources, smart grids, as well as the management and transport systems. State energy policy is a document to its strategic nature, but it is not mandatory for producers, energy consumers. Therefore, the future direction is subject to a number of factors that in the short definition is not possible to predict exactly in terms of the specific possibilities of its application. How to stabilize by the operational and pragmatic solutions to its content approved by the longer term remains open and unanswered question. 7. Conclusion The importance of energy security continues to grow, so it should be stressed that energy security and energy policy are very important and timely topic now. Uniform global energy policy does not exist because each state and the community of states to shape the energy policy according to its own internal and external relationships. The energy security is usually considered by the State or the EU, mainly in connection with the growth of the cost of producing energy, stability of energy supply and environmental protection. The issue of "energy security" plays a key role. Prevalent belief that consumer capitalism and ecological sustainability are compatible and interdependent. Technological innovation, market management tools and perfectionism are regarded as the best strategy to achieve sustainability, although empirical experience suggests otherwise. In order to achieve the desired objectives and priorities within the framework of energy security, it is necessary to increase energy into account the impact on the environment, promote market development in parallel with 86

the reduction of energy import dependency and completes the transition to a competitive energy sector. References [1] Slovac Atlantic Commission. Energetická bezpečnosť čo to je, a čo s tým? [vid. 10. január 2013]. Available from: http://www.atasac.org/index.php?cmd=print&sid=123&aid=163. [2] Economic Foundetions of Democracy and Authoritarianism. The Arab world in comparative perspective. [vid. 15. február 2013]. Available from: http://www.princeton.edu/~gluciani/pdfs/asq%20volume%2010%20numbe R%204.pdf [3] Energoportál. Energetická bezpečnosť. [vid. 12. február 2013]. Available from: http://www.priateliazeme.sk/cepa/eportal/index.php?option=com_content&view= article&id=32&itemid=66 [4] GYÖRFII, M. Energetická politika. Európsky parlament. [vid. 18. február 2013]. Available from: http://circa.europa.eu/irc/opoce/fact_sheets/info/data/policies/energypol/article_73 39_sk.htm [5] DULEBA, A. Spoločná energetická politika EÚ a energetická bezpečnosť Slovenskej republiky. Slovenská spoločnosť pre pre zahraničnú politiku a Úrad vlády Slovenskej republiky. Bratislava 2011. ISBN 978-80-89356-37-9. [6] PACEK, M. Energetická bezpečnosť z pohľadu optimalného koncepčného riešenia. Energia- komplexne a vecne. PRO-ENERGY. [7] Stratégie a koncepcie. Energetická bezpečnosť krajín V4. [vid. 20. február 2013]. Available from: http://www.szn.sk/slovgas/casopis/2010/5/2010_5_03.pdf [8] MUSIL, P. Globální energetický problém a hospodářska politika. PRAHA: C.H BECK, 2009. ISBN 978 80 7400 112 3, 204 s. [9] ORAVEC, M. Energetická bezpečnosť malých podnikov. Bezpečnost a ochrana zdraví při práci. Ostrava VŠB TU 2009. ISBN 9788024820101, 203-207. s. [10] ORAVEC, M. Energetická bezpečnosť podniku. Bezpečnosť práce. Roč. 8, č. 12 2008, ISSN 1335-4078, 33-35 s. [11] SEŇOVÁ, A., ANTOŠOVÁ, M. Hodnotenie makro a mikro ekonomického prostredia energetickej efektívnosti podnikania s OZE na Slovensku. Acta Montanistica Slovaca. Roč. 15, mimoriad. č. 2/2010, ISSN 1335-1788, 146-152 s. [12] TEPLICKÁ, K., ČULOVÁ, K. Využitie energetického manažmentu pri znižovaní nákladov na energiu. Výrobné inžinierstvo. Roč. 7, č. 4/2008, ISSN 1335-7972, 82-85 s. 87

The Authors Bibliographies Štefan ANTOLÍK, Dipl. Eng., Datacomp, s.r.o., Košice, He deals with issues of information security. Email: Antolik.stefan@gmail.com. Alena BUMBOVÁ, Dipl. Eng., Ph.D., Civil Protection Department, University of Defence. She deals with issues of environmental security and risk assessment. Email: alena.bumbova@unob.cz, Phone : +420 973 443 155. Samuel Antwi DARKWAH, Dipl. Eng., Ph.D., Department of Territorial Studies, Mendel University in Brno. He deals with issues of crisis management, development problems in Africa, residential structures and economic geography in Africa and South America. Email: darkwah @mendelu.cz, Phone: +420 607 566 512. Monika DAVIDOVÁ, Dipl. Eng., Ph.D. Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic. She deals with the area of human resource management in Czech army forces. Email: monika.davidova@unob.cz, Phone: +420 973 442 507. Lucie DOUDOVÁ, Research Assistant, Mgr., Ph.D., Department of Econometrics, Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic. She deals with statistics applied in different sciences and econometrics. Email: lucie.doudova@unob.cz. Phone number: +420 973 442 647. Emilie FRANKOVÁ, PhDr., Ph.D., lecturer, Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Business and Management, Institute of Management. An expert on people management, especially creativity, self-knowledge, internal and external motivation, social communication, quality of life and prevention of the burnout syndrome. These fields are the topics of her seminars and trainings for managers and specialists in the practice. Email: frankova@fbm.vutbr.cz. Phone: +420 54114 6906. David HAMPEL, Research Assistant, Mgr., Ph.D., Department of Statistics and Operation Analysis FBE MENDELU. He deals with econometrics and statistics applied in different sciences and econometrics. Email: david.hampel.uso@mendelu.cz. Phone number: +420 545 132 419. Vendula HYNKOVÁ, Dipl. Eng., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management, Brno. She deals with issues of microeconomic and macroeconomic aspects in the area of defense. Email: vendula.hynkova@unob.cz, Phone: +420 973 443 609. Josef KELLNER, Assoc. Prof., Dipl. Eng., Ph.D. Civil Protection Department, University of Defence. He deals with issues of civil protection, natural disaster and industrial accidents. Email: josef.kellner@unob.cz, Phone : +420 973 443 665. 88

Zbyšek KORECKI, MS.c.,Ph.D., Department of Territorial Studies, Mendel University in Brno. He deals with issues of logistics support accomplishment and life cycle cost. Email: korecki@mendelu.cz, phone: +420 545 136 311. Miroslav KRČ, Prof., PhDr., CSc.; Head of Department of Economy, Faculty of Economics and Management. Email: miroslav.krc@unob.cz, phone +420 973 442 406. Alena LANGEROVÁ, PhDr. Language Training Center, University of Defence. She deals with linquistic terminology of civil protection. Email: alena.langerova@unob.cz, Phone: +420 973 443 982. Milan LAUBER, Dipl. Eng.,quaestor, University of Defence, Brno. He deals with issues of logistics support accomplishment and life cycle cost. Email: milan.lauber@unob.cz, phone: +420 724 605 194. Radka LOPOUROVÁ, Dipl. Eng., Ph.D., Department of logistics, University of Defence, Brno. She deals with issues of acquisition management and electronic tools operation within the CAF environment. Email: radka.lopourova@unob.cz, Phone: + 420 973 443 088. Pavel MIKUŠKA, RNDr., Ph.D. is with the Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Academy of Science of the Czech Republic, v. v. i. He deals with analytical chemistry and aerosol in the environment. Email: mikuska@uiach.cz. Josef NAVRÁTIL, Eng., Ph.D., Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno. Head of Civil Protection Department. Email: josef.navratil@unob.cz, Phone: +420 973 443 915. Vítězslav RASZKA, Dipl. Eng.; Head of budget department/ Deputy Director of Czech Armed Forces Financial Administration Office. Email: vitezslav.raszka@seznam.cz, phone +420 973 216 484. Veronika SADOVSKÁ, Eng., Population Protection Department, Universtiy of Defence. She deals with issues of health risks among fire fighters resulted from exposure to hazardous combustion products generated during fires. Email: veronika.sadovska@unob.cz, Phone: +420 973 442 097. Ján SPIŠÁK, Eng., Department of Lifelong Learning, Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno. He deals with issues of specialization in capabilities development, operational concept development, military strategy and operational art. Email: jan.spisak@unob.cz, Phone: +420 973 442 300. Marek ŠOLC, Ing., PhD., Faculty of Metallurgy, Technical University of Kosice, Department of Integrated Management. He deals with issues of integrated management systems and security of information technology. Email: Marek.Solc@tuke.sk. 89

Zbyněk VEČEŘA, Dipl. Eng., Ph.D. Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Academy of Science of the Czech Republic, v. v. i. He deals with analytical chemistry and determining pollutants in the environment. Email: vecera@uiach.cz. 90

The Reviewers Bibliographies Vladimír ADAMEC, Assoc. Prof., Dipl. Eng., Ph.D., Brno University of Technology. He deals with the issue of identification, analysis and reduction or eliminating risks in engineering fields. Email: vladimir.adamec@usi.vutbr.cz, Phone: +420 724 027 358. Marie BUDÍKOVÁ, RNDr., Dr., Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University. She teaches computational and applied statistics. She deals with the applications of statistics in climatology, hydrology, medicíně and psychology. Email: budikova@math.muni.cz, Phone: +420 549 493 335. Felix ČERNOCH, Assoc. Prof., PhDr., Ph.D., Head of Department of Public Relations and Communication, College of International and Public Relations Prague. Email: cernoch@vip-vs.cz, Phone: + 420 251 561 557. Marie JUROVÁ, Prof., Dipl. Eng., Ph.D., University of Technology, Faculty of Business. It deals with the issue of management of business entities and their functions with the use of new ICT products with ties to the economy - Industrial Engineering and Management. Email: jurova@fbm.vutbr.cz, Phone: +420 4114 2691. Zdeněk KOPECKÝ, Eng., Ph.D., University of Economics, Prague Insitute of Crisis Management. He deals with issues of crisis management in public administration and economic sphere, economic securityy, civil emergency planning, economic measures for emergencies. Email: kopecky@vse.cz, Phone: +420 224 094 223. Jiří KŘEMEN, Dipl. Eng., Economical department 21 st Tactical Air Force Base Caslav. He deals with issues of budgeting, financing of military units, financial audit of public contracts of small scale. Email: kremen.jiri@centrum.cz, Phone: +420 973 375 811. David KRÁL, Dipl. Eng., Ph.D., AKADEMIE STING, o.p.s. Brno. He deals with issues of information risk analysis and information security management systems. Email: kral@sting.cz, Phone: +420 603 846 497. Jiří MATĚJKA, Dipl. Eng., Ministry of Interior General Directorate of Fire and Rescue Service. He is focused on CBRN risks, detection, decontamination and protective equipment. Methodology, standard operation plans of Integrated Rescue System and fire fighters training and education belong to other objectives. Email: jiri.matejka@grh.izscr.cz, Phone: +420 950 819 802. Jiří NEDBAL, Assoc. Prof., RSDr., Ph.D., He deals with issues of microeconomic and macroeconomic aspects in the area of defense. Email: Jiri.Nedbal1@seznam.cz. 91

Jaromír NOVÁK, Assoc. Prof., Eng., Ph.D., Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacky University Olomouc. He deals with issues of management, crisis management and civil protection. Email: jarminov@seznam.cz, Phone +420 585 636 005. Bedřich RÝZNAR, Assoc. Prof., Eng., Ph.D.. He deals with research in the areas of military and crisis management with main focus on questions operational art and tactics, battlefield digitization (21st Century Soldier Systems, UGS, UGV, UAV) and the commanders, staffs and troops. Email: info@v21max.cz, Phone: +420 723 819 918. Josef SMOLÍK, PhDr., Ph.D., Department od Political Science, Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University. He deals with issues of security, extreme right and methodologies. Email: josef@mail.muni.cz, Phone: +420 549 49 73 50. Oldřich SOCHA, Eng., Doctrine Section, Training Command Military Academy in Vyskov. Email: sochao@army.cz, Phone: +420 973 450 906. Albert SRNÍK, Dipl. Eng., Communication and Information Systems Centre, University of Defence, Brno. He deals with the development of applications for the information systems and technology NET, SQL and Javascript. Email: albert.srnik@unob.cz, Phone: +420 973 442 665. Miroslav ŠKOLNÍK, Assoc. Prof., Eng., Ph.D.,Department of Management, Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Stefanik, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovakia. Email: mskolnik@centrum.sk., Phone: +421 960 423161. Jiří ŠPALEK, Assoc. Prof., Mgr., Ph.D., Masaryk University, Faculty of Economic and Administration, Brno. He deals with public economics, in particular the topics covering public choice, public goods and experimental economics. Email: spalek@econ.muni.cz, Phone: +420 549 497 985. 92

Economics and Management Ekonomika a Management Published by/vydává: University of Defence Univerzita obrany Address/Adresa: Kounicova 65, 662 10 Brno Czech Republic + 420 973 442 660 http://www.unob.cz Number/Číslo: 1/2013 Date of publication: 30 th May 2013 Datum vydání: 30.5.2013 Executive Editor/ Výkonný redaktor: Eng. Vítězslav JAROŠ, Ph.D. Printed by/tisk: University Press of University of Defence Vydavatelství Univerzity obrany Registration number/ Evidenční číslo: MK ČR E 17538 ISSN 1802-3975 University of Defence Univerzita obrany