"Purely Defensive Measures II

"Purely Defensive Measures II The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region, 1788-1945, ~. M:k XI 47~M<lf;Xll '0 p,j \1k IV '~:l M'''' f,.;'mk.vl! ;1 4' us N;J>/w FREMANTLE Jane Louise Ainsworth July 2005 Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Arts with Honours in Archaeology (Prehistoric and Historic) University of Sydney, 2005

Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my baby daughter Emma; a bright new spark of life 11

Acknowledgments Many people contributed their valuable time, kind assistance and wonderful advice to this thesis. Firstly, I would like to thank my academic supervisor Dr Sarah Colley and my external advisor Dr lain Stuart. Sarah and lain both provided me with unlimited time to throw around ideas, debate issues, review draft chapters and generally keep me on track. Their knowledge, support and assistance were invaluable and so greatly appreciated. I would also like to thank the two companies with whom I was employed whilst undertaking this thesis; The National Trust of Australia (NSW) and Godden Mackay Logan. Both companies offered me an immense amount of practical support, flexible work time, study leave, academic advice and use of technology. In particular, Jacqui Goddard, Richard Mackay and Lisa Newell all made the task of simultaneously working and studying a much smoother one. There were many people who assisted with my research and were always available for chats, coffee, chapter reviews and general 'how to stay sane advice', for which I am immensely grateful; Tony Brassil, Dennis Gojak, Dr John Schofield, Dr Roland Fletcher, Dr Peter White, Dr Martin Gibbs, Terry Kass, Noni Boyd, Scott Robertson, members of the National Trust (NSW) Industrial Heritage Committee and work colleagues. I would particularly like to thank the -Greenwell Bequest of Sydney University for their financial support and the staff of the National Australia Archives (Sydney and Canberra repositories), War Memorial Archives and National Library of Australia archives, whose assistance and knowledge of their collections was invaluable and made the primary research component of the thesis incredibly enjoyable. Finally; a huge thanks to my friends and family for their constant emotional support, belief in my abilities and unfailing patience and understanding. A final and special thankyou to my husband Mark; without whose limited patience this thesis would never be finished! 111

Table of Contents Chapter 1: 'Purely Defensive Measures' - Archaeological Networks of Defence 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Purpose of the Research 3 1.3 Scope of the Thesis 4 1.4 Data and Methods 5 1.5 Thesis Outline 6 1.5.1 Background 6 1.5.2 Data Collection and Results 7 1.5.3 Thematic Analysis and Conclusions 8 Chapter 2: 'Our Understanding has been Poor' - Recent approaches to Military Archaeology 10 2.1 Preamble 10 2.2 Site-Based Approaches 11 2.3 Network Approaches 15 2.4 Typological Studies 19 2.5 Historic Studies 22 2.6 Our Understanding Has Been Poor 23 Chapter 3: 'Each Generation Inscribes its Own Impressions'- Study Area and Historical Background 29 3.1 Palimpsests of Defence 29 3.2 Schemes of Defence 29 3.3 Historical Themes 31 3.3.1 Sub-Themes 33 3.3.2 Theme 1: Sheltering under British Rule (1788-1901) 34 3.3.4 Theme 2: Australia's Growing Independence (1876-1945) 36 3.3.5 Theme 3: Responding to Escalating Levels of Threat 38 3.3.6 Theme 4: The Advancing Technology of War 39 3.3.7 Theme 5: Responding to the Advent of Air War 41 3.4 Chronology of Major Events 42 3.5 The Study Area 45 3.5.1 Geography and Defence 46 3.6 Discussion - The Importance of Historical and Geographical Context 48 Chapter 4: 'Protect the Country from Aggression' - Evidence of Defensive Measures 51 4.1 Introduction 51 4.2 Types of Data 52 4.3 Sources of Data 52 4.4 Data Categorisation 54 4.5 'Fight the Possible Invader' 54 Chapter 5: The Conduct of War -Results of the Data Collection 60 5.1 Introduction 60 5.2 Site Typology 61 IV

5.3 5.4 5.5 5.2.1 Guns Only (GUO) 5.2.2 Earthen Redoubt (ERD) 5.2.3 Fort (FRT) 5.2.4 Battery - Casemate (BTC) 5.2.5 Battery - Light (BTL) 5.2.6 Battery-Medium (BTM) 5.2.7 Battery - Heavy (BTH) 5.2.8 Searchlight (SLT) 5.2.9 Submerged Mine (SBM) 5.2.10 Submerged Indicator Loop (SBI) 5.2.11 Submerged Boom Net (SBB) 5.2.12 Anti-Submarine Works - Other (ASN) 5.2.13 Observation Post (OBP) 5.2.14 Defensive Ditch (DFD) 5.2.16 Defensive Wall (DFW) 5.2.17 Aerodrome - Parent Operational (ADP) 5.2.18 Aerodrome - Satellite Operational (ADS) 5.2.20 Aerodrome - Operational (ADO) 5.2.22 Emergency Alighting Area (EAA) Defence Networks 5.3.1 Anti-Ship Defences 5.3.2 Anti-Invasion Defences 5.3.3 Seaward Defences 5.3.4 Anti-Aircraft Defences Discussion - Systems of Defence 5.4.1 Imperial Defence Stage I 5.4.2 Imperial Defence Stage 11 5.4.3 Imperial Defence Stage III 5.4.4 Post -Federation Defence 5.4.5 Inter War Expansion 5.4.6 Sydney Fortress World War II - Stage I 5.4.7 Sydney Fortress World War JL- Stage 11 Conclusion 61 62 62 63 64 65 67 68 71 72 74 75 75 76 78 79 80 82 83 84 86 87 87 88 89 89 90 90 91 91 92 92 93 Chapter 6.0: 'To Better Understand the History' - Material Evidence and Historic Themes 94 6.1 Introduction 94 6.2 Sheltering Under British Rule 94 6.3 Growing Independence 96 6.4 Responding to Escalating Levels of Threat 97 6.5 The Advancing Technology of War 103 6.6 Responding to the Advent of Airwar 105 6.7 Discussion - Themes for Heritage Analysis 106 Chapter 7.0: 'An Understanding of the Fabric - Discussions and Conclusions ~ 108 7.1 Introduction 108 7.2 Defence Sites 108 7.3 The Development of the Network 109 7.4 Defence Networks and Systems 110 7.5 Causes of Change 111 v

7.6 7.7 7.8 History and Material Evidence Further Areas of Research Discussion 112 113 114 Bibliography 116 vi

Table of Figures FIGURE FIGURE NAME NUMBER Figure 1.1 The extent of the study area, the Sydney Region Figure 2.1 An example of maps complied by recent archaeological investigations. This is a plan of the Defence sites limited to those around the Sydney Heads Figure 2.2 An example of a map compiled by the NSW Artillery Study for their study of World War II Fortifications. This is a plan of the Sydney area Fire Command; however it is limited sites located around the entrance to Sydney Harbour Figure 2.3 A map illustrating Australia and New Guinea's networks of medium and large anti-ship batteries in operation during World WarII Figure 2.4 A map illustrating Australia and New Guinea's networks of medium and large anti-ship batteries in operation during World WarII Figure 3.1 Sub-Themes Figure 3.2 Timeline of Major Historical Events Figure 3.3 The general topographic features of the Sydney Region Figure 4.1 Data Categorisation Figure 5.1 Image of Fort Macquarie, or East Fort at Bennalong Point Figure 5.2 Plan of Fort Macquarie, or East Fort, at Bennalong Point Figure 5.3 Georges Head Armoured Casemate in 1892 showing the breech loading (BL) 6 inch Mark V gun in the upper casemate. Note the armour plating to the ceiling and walls Figure 5.4 Plan of Sydney Harbour Bridge anti-aircraft light batteries comprising 40mm BQfors on the north and south pylons Figure 5.5 Aerial photograph of Brighton 5.25" inch anti-aircraft Gun Battery, Sydney. 21-01-1941 Figure 5.6 Aerial photograph of 3.7" anti-aircraft Gun Battery, probably Kensington Golf Links Figure 5.7 Drawing of a 6 inch gun at Middle Head, 1942, by Richard Ashton Figure 5.8 One of the two 9.2" anti-ship counter-bombardment gun at North Battery, North Head Figure 5.9 150cm AA Searchlight at Brookvale, 15-07-1943 Figure 5.10 150cm AA searchlight at Fullers Bridge in Lane Cove, 1944 Figure 5.11 Approximate location of the minefields laid across the harbour between Green Point (at the right of the picture) and Bradley's Head (to the left of the picture). ~ Figure 5.12 Minefields being blown up by the Royal Australian Engineers at Broken Bay, 1945 Figure 5.13 Plan of the Outer Indicator Loop system (indicated by the red arrow) located outside the entrance of Sydney Harbour, stretching from Curl Curl in the north to Dover Heights in the south. The inner indicator loop system is indicated by the blue vu

FIGURE FIGURE NAME NUMBER arrow Figure 5.14 Plan showing the location of the Broken Bay Indicator Loop system (indicated by the red arrow), between Barrenjoey Head and Box Head Figure 5.15 The Sydney Harbour Boom Net, c 1942 Figure 5.16 Plan of Hawkesbury River defences with location of boom nets highlighted Figure 5.17 The Observation Post at Banks Battery, Cape Banks, 09-07-1946 Figure 5.18 An observation post at South Head, just to the east of Homby Lighthouse Figure 5.19 Plan of anti-invasion defensive ditch at Bradleys Head Figure 5.20 Defensive anti-tank ditch in construction at Mona Vale Figure 5.21 Manly sea wall barbed wire, 27 December 1942 Figure 5.22 Plan of the concrete tetrahedrons and elevated anti-tank ditch at Pittwater Figure 5.23 Plan of Bradleys Head wall Figure 5.24 Image of Cape Banks, 5.9.1946. The former Banks Battery wall is indicated by the red arrow Figure 5.25 The landing strip at Fleurs Aerodrome, c 1945 Figure 5.26 Richmond aerodrome, 1936 Figure 5.27 Plan of Wallgrove aerodrome, with the landing strip running diagonally across the plan Figure 5.28 Plan of RAAF stations, operational bases and strate~ic air routes Figure 5.29 Camden Aerodrome, showing the air strips' primed surface on the west (left of the image) and the sealed surface on east (right of the image Figure 5.30 Hideout No 14 at Camden Aerodrome. Hideouts were strategically placed ~t aerodromes to conceal fighter planes and thus camouflage the aerodrome Figure 5.31 Fixed Defences Figure 6.1 Level of Threat and Defence ConstrUction Figure 7.1 Number of sites over time Figure 7.2 Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4 Number of site types over time Site Organisation Further Areas of Research V111

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region "... there is perhaps a tendency of the Dominions to dwell upon the importance of purely defensive measures such as the defence of ports, minesweeping, and the local. if d "~I protection 0 tra e. Chapter 1: 'Purely Defensive Measures' - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence 1.1 Background to the Thesis The past two decades have witnessed an ever-increasing interest in the material remains of eighteenth to twentieth century warfare, which has traditionally been limited to the investigative provinces of history and battlefield archaeology. Britain's colonies in Australia, including New South Wales, through their close relationship as part of the British Empire, were drawn into various disputes and tensions between other governing powers of Asia-Pacific colonies during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the twentieth century, Australia was once again linked to British political alliances through ~ her role as a Dominion of the British Empire and was involved in two major world wars. The material evidence of this military heritage has been the subject of several detailed investigations aimed at determining the cultural heritage significance of a particular site or at establishing the extent of material evidence for sites under a single owner (such as National Parks), by archaeologists, historians and architects. However, the long-held popular perception of the material remains of warfare in Australia has 1 Cab 21-187, The Standing Defence Sub-Committee, Summary of Admiralty Recommendations in Regard to Dominion Naval Policy, June 1921, p. 3. Quoted in McCarthy, John. 1976. Australia and Imperial Defence 1918-39: A study in land and sea power. St Lucia, University of Queensland Press, p.16.

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region been based primarily on large harbour and coastal defences; as these sites are visible, accessible and, as many are now located within National Parks lands, are generally fairly well looked after. Nonetheless, the defence heritage of Sydney comprised sites other than just coastal or harbour fortifications, such as inland aerodromes, fixed and moveable inland searchlights and gun stations, indicator loops and anti-aircraft (AA) defences. An investigation of the scope of Sydney's defence network and the changes it underwent through time and across space has not yet been undertaken. However, several recent archaeological and cultural heritage studies carried out overseas have investigated the remnants of the vast systems of defence which are a product of modem warfare. Particularly in the United Kingdom (the UK), investigations have tested various historical archaeological methodologies to establish a useful approach which integrates documentary and material evidence for the investigation of modem (post 1750s) networks of defence. The work in the UK has been prompted by the advent of heritage legislation and cultural heritage significance assessment processes, together with a popular interest in military history. It has resulted in the development of a standardised approach which recognises that modem defence sites did not exist in isolation from each other, but were part of an integrated network for the defence of geographically large areas. This methodology established that in order to be effective, investigations of modem defences need to consider each site as a component of an inter-connected defence system and furthermore, need to note that such systems operated within historical, technological and political contexts. The standardised approach for investigating modem defence systems has not yet been adapted to an Australian context, though material remains of over two centuries of 2

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region international warfare are located throughout the Australian landscape. 2 The abundant material and documentary evidence of defence networks in Australia provides the opportunity to study the development of the defence landscape since European colonisation through to the late twentieth century. However, as the network of defence has never been studied as a single system, the extent and causes of this development is unknown. 1.2 Purpose of the Research Material remains from Australia's involvement in two centuries of warfare form complex layers of multiple defence networks and systems in the landscape; networks which rapidly changed, developed and in the case of many, were subsequently abandoned. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the development of the networks and systems of defence within the Sydney Region from 1788 to 1945 and to discuss possible causes of this development by examining the site typologies, site locations, site functions and organisation of defence sites, and discussing the historical context of these changes. Numerous defence sites will be examined individually and subsequently analysed as networks and systems of defence. The broad research question for the thesis is: How do Sydney's networks and systems of defence develop and change from 1788-1945, and what factors may have influenced this change? In particular, the thesis will investigate how Australia's political relationships, advances made in military technology and fluctuating levels of threat caused Sydney's 2 This study is limited to international warfare, and as such excludes Aboriginal resistance to European arrival in Australia, inter-colonial disputes, convict uprisings and any form of civil dispute. 3

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region defence networks and systems to change and develop from 1788 to 1945, and will consider how the changes are reflected in the archaeological landscape. For this investigation, the term defence network refers to a group of sites designed to defend against a particular type of attack, such as a network of anti-ship defences, and defence system refers to a group of individual defence sites which were strategically designed to work together as a comprehensive system of integrated defence for a specific area. 1.3 Scope of the Thesis Several limitations have been applied to the above research questions in order to narrow the scope of the thesis. The limitations apply to the boundary of the study area, the type of sites examined, the amount of data collected for each site and the timeframe of the study period. The study area, called the 'Sydney Region', is bound on the north by Broken Bay and the Hawkesbury River, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the west by the Blue Mountains and on the south by the Royal National Park (Figure 1.1 outlines the geographical boundaries of the Sydney Region as defined for this thesis). In defence terms this area represents Sydney Fortress, a military term used from the late 1800s which referred to the integrated system of fortress defence that provided a layered system of protection for the key port of Sydney and her associated industrial areas. The geographical extent of Sydney Fortress is also the historical extent of Sydney's twentieth century defensive system. F or this study, 'defence sites' are defined as sites whose intended purpose was primarily defensive, such as fortifications and airfields, as opposed to sites that functioned as support for the Defence Forces, such as barracks, administration offices and supply depots. Support structures have been excluded from this study in order to 4

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region limit the scope to sites whose intended purpose was primarily for the defence of the Sydney Region. For the same reason, areas of land which were reserved for military purposes but never utilised as a defensive site, industrial sites which were used to produce items for the war effort, personnel units and naval warships are not included within the scope of this study. In order to further limit the scope, this study will examine sites that were part of Sydney's defence from 1788 to 1945 only. The dates within this time frame serve as useful historical cut-off points; the British colonisation of Australia in 1788 and the conclusion of World War II and commencement of the nuclear age in 1945. 1.4 Data and Methods This study utilises the historical archaeological approach of combining documentary and material evidence to investigate Sydney's defence network. An investigation of defence sites is particularly well suited to this approach as defence sites were constructed and operated by government agencies that created a large amount of documentary records, many of which are now contained within State and Commonwealth archives. The documentary research for this thesis entailed an examination of secondary documents (Heritage Listings, Heritage Consultant Reports, Published Books, Journal Articles and Theses) which were used primarily for already well investigated colonial defence sites. Primary documents (comprising military files and correspondence, maps and plans) held at archives, state libraries and national libraries were used in conjunction with field survey for collecting data for which secondary information was unavailable. The documentary evidence was only supplemented with field survey when data could not otherwise be located in primary or secondary documents and where site access was permissible. Further, because this study is concerned with the spatial 5

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region development of Sydney's defence networks and systems as single entities, rather than an in depth study of the development of particular sites, field survey was again limited to the collection of basic data, such as an exact location, extent of material remains, the type of defence structures contained at the site and, occasionally, an estimated date of construction. The data were categorised and entered into a database. A large number of data categories were developed in order to maximise the analytical potential of the data, in relation to the thesis research questions. That is, the data categories were designed for their potential to provide information which would illustrate how and why the network of defence developed and changed, and what factors may have influenced this change. This information was utilised to establish the population, typology and geographic distribution of Sydney's defence sites, together with information on the major physical, functional and technological changes that occurred over time across the study area. The results of the data were analysed within selected historical themes, in order to establish possible causes and extent of change and development within their historic contexts. The themes were used to link the material evidence with the historical processes that may have influenced the development Sydney's defences. The chosen themes relate to Australia's and New South Wales' relationship with the British Empire, Australia's growing independence, the level of threat faced by Australia at various points in time, technological advancement and the advent of airwar. 1.5 Thesis Outline 1.5.1 Background In the following chapter (Chapter 2), previous and current archaeological, cultural heritage and historical approaches to examining modern networks of defence will be examined in order to demonstrate the development of military archaeology, to identify 6

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region areas which require further research and to develop a rationale for the approach of this thesis. Specifically, the methodological and theoretical approaches that have been utilised will be examined. The strengths and weaknesses of these approaches, their major findings and the areas they considered important for future research efforts will be noted in order to develop the research design of this study. Chapter 3 provides a brief historical and geographical overview of the study area. The overview will introduce some key military terms that will regularly be used in the thesis and will provide historical and geographical frameworks and context for the construction and development of Sydney's defences. A time line of key Australian and international events, in relation to international warfare from 1788 to 1945, is also provided. 1.5.2 Data Collection and Results Chapter 4 provides a discussion of the methods of documentary and material data collection, a definition and justification of the data categorisation and a discussion on the structure of the database in relation of the research aims of this investigation. The results of the data collection are presented in Chapter 5_ This chapter defines each of the site types identified in this study, identifying their location, the date of construction or change in purpose, explanation of the site's defensive purpose and a description of the defence system that each site type operated within. Chapter 5 then discusses in greater detail the characteristics of each defence network and each defence system that provided protection for the Sydney Region and how these networks and systems changed over time. 7

"Purely Defensive Measures" Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region 1.5.3 Thematic Analysis and Conclusions In Chapter 6 the results of the data collection will be analysed within the context of the historical themes outlined in Chapter 2 in order to establish possible causes of change and development of Sydney's defences. In particular, the effectiveness of using the chosen historic themes to analyse the material evidence will be discussed. Chapter 7 will examine the implication of the material and historic analysis within the framework of how and why Sydney's networks and systems of defence developed and changed over time. The effectiveness of a network approach to the study of the material remains of modern warfare will be discussed and areas of further research will be outlined. 8

"j'lird.l f )('I('II... I\'t',\ku... /ires" - ArchaculoglGl.l Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region Figure 1.1: The extent of the study area, the Sydney Region. 9

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region "Despite their recent date, our understanding of the rates of survival and historical context of twentieth century military sites has been, until recently, surprisingly poor.,,1 Chapter 2: 'Our Understanding has been Poor' - Recent approaches to Military Archaeology 2.1 Preamble Over the last two decades archaeologists, cultural heritage specialists and historians have begun to examine the material remains of modem warfare (post 1760) and to explore the many ways in which this evidence can contribute to our understanding of modem history. The aims, approaches, methodologies and outcomes of these studies will be discussed in the following chapter to provide an overview of the current state of military archaeological research and to identify areas which require further study; this information will then be used to provide the ~asis for this investigations research context. Several approaches to investigating the material remains of defence sites have been utilised, which can be broadly categorised into three different approaches: site-based investigations, network or systems approaches and typological studies. Also relevant to military archaeology are the many investigations of Australia's military history undertaken by historians. In addition to the growth of investigations examining homefront defences (modem military sites the intended purpose of which was to defend the country they are sited within against foreign invasion or attack, such as castles and I Schofield, A. J. 2001. D-Day Sites in England: an assessment. Antiquity 75: 77-83. 10

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region gun batteries),2 there has also been a steady growth of battlefield archaeology, archaeological studies of the physical impact of war on areas within battle zones and the social impact of modern warfare. 3 Although these additional studies are not directly relevant to the scope of this thesis and subsequently will not be examined in depth, they demonstrate the growing interest in the archaeology of modern military history and illustrate the very large and variable research areas that the field encompasses. 2.2 Site-Based Approaches The initial studies of homefront defence sites, both overseas and in Australia, utilised a site-based approach. These studies, carried out by archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists from the early 1980s, examined individual defence sites in varying amounts of depth. The archaeological studies were generally aimed at establishing the sequence of development that a site had undergone throughout its history.4 These studies used either excavation or an intensive archaeological or cultural heritage survey of the built elements, generally in conjunction with an examination of primary historical documents to establish the historical development of the site and answer selected research questions. The site-based studies are limited in number and have generally been confined 2 The term 'homefront' is generally used when referring to the physical defences of countries involved in a war which is being fought on foreign land. That is, the defences of the homeland or front as opposed to those of the battlefront. The term is generally used in relation to defences of Western countries in the twentieth century. 3 For a general overview of recent investigations of all aspects of military archaeology, see Schofield, A. J., Johnson, W. G. and Beck, C. M. (eds). 2002. Materiel Culture: The archaeology of twentieth-century conflict. One World Archaeology. London, Routledge. 4 Such as Martin, E. J. 1980. HMA Naval Dockyard, Garden Island: A Building Conservation Study of the Historic Buildings. The Built Environment (Building Conservation). Sydney, The University of New South Wales, p.399. For further early archaeological and heritage studies, see the Australian Heritage Bibliography at http://deh.gov.aulwebpac-binlwgbroker?neru-access+top.herasearch (formerly the HERA database). 11

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region to examining the older or more 'historically important' sites, such as Dawes Point Battery in The Rocks, Sydney (see Figure 2.3).5 The site-based investigations, carried out by cultural heritage specialists as part of their process of assessing the site's cultural heritage significance and in light of this, providing recommendations for the future management of the site, have been aimed at gaining an understanding of the historical development of a site. 6 The cultural heritage site-based studies use accepted State and National heritage assessment procedures. For example, studies undertaken in New South Wales follow the NSW Heritage Manual guidelines (or those documents which preceded this manual), published by the NSW Heritage Office. 7 These guidelines were developed subsequent to state and national legislation which was enacted to provide protection for heritage places. Heritage legislation - both State and Commonwealth - and the procedures through which it operates (such as The Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance [also known as the Burra Charter] and significance assessment for the listing of places on a statutory heritage register), have methodologies which focuses on the individual site. Section 2 of the NSW Heritage Manual (Assessing Significance) for example, uses the term 'item' almost exclusively when setting out the procedure of significance assessment and very rarely discusses procedures for landscapes or networks of places. The focus on the individual place is starting to change and the significance of networks and landscapes is being recognised, through studies such as the NSW Heritage Office Cultural Landscape Charette. 8 5 Johnson, W. A. 2003. Showdown in the Pacific: A Remote Response to European Power Struggles in the Pacific, Dawes Point Battery, Sydney, 1791-1925. Historical Archaeology 37 (114). 6 There are vast amounts of published and unpublished site-based reports carried out by cultural heritage specialists; a good starting point for investigating such sources is the Australian Heritage Database and the NSW Heritage Office Library. However, many of these works remain grey literature. 7 NSW Heritage Office. The NSW Heritage Manual. The NSW Heritage Office, Parramatta. 8 Coleman, V. 2003. Cultural Landscape Charette Background Paper. Parramatta, NSW Heritage Office. 12

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region The advantage of the site-based archaeological and cultural heritage investigations is the provision of valuable insights into the development of individual defence sites. Importantly, these studies have required the owners of such sites to consider the value of conserving remnants of Australia's defence history. Further, they have prompted the protection of such places and thus ensured their survival. In addition, they have provided the impetus for a more in-depth analysis of multiple sites within specific geographical areas. 9 Notwithstanding, the site-based approach to investigating homefront defences is not appropriate as the sole investigative approach to the study of defence sites and should not be treated as such. The fundamental shortcoming of this approach is its inability to consider a site as a component of an integrated network of defence. Defence sites did not exist in isolation; rather, they were part of integrated systems designed for the defence of geographically large areas. Strategic planning and Schemes of Defence for countries, states and region prepared by the Great Britain, the Colony of NSW and the Commonwealth Department of Defence, often dictated the location, type and function of each site and its complementary role in rdation to the other sites it operated with. IQ Studies examining military strategies proliferate in literature relating to the history of modern defence; however until recently military archaeology has not engaged with this 9 Such studies include: Gojak, D. and R. H. E. Harvey. 1985. Sydney Harbour Fortifications Archival Study Final Report: Volume II. Sydney, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service; Gojak, D. 1985. Sydney Harbour Fortifications Study Stage 11 - Archaeological Survey Volume 1. Prepared for the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service. 10 For example, Hutton, E. T. H., Major-General C.B. 1894. Defence of New South Wales: mobilization of Port Jackson District: orders and memoranda. National Library of Australia; Hutton, E. T. H., Major General C.B. 1894. Defence Scheme of New South Wales. Sydney~ Colonial Office; Hutton, E. T. H., Major-General C.B. 1901. Defence Scheme for the State of New South Wales. Part 1. District Headquarters Defence Scheme. Sydney, Government Printer; Hutton, E. T. H., Major-General C.B. 1909. Defence Schemefor the State of New South Wales. Part III Newcastle Defences Defence Scheme. Sydney, National Library of Australia, Government Printer; Hutton, E. T. H., Major-General C.B. 1909. Defence Scheme for the State of New South Wales. Part II. Sydney Fortress Defence Scheme. Sydney, National Library of Australia, Government Printer. 13

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region approach, to the detriment of our understanding. 11 As such the site-based approach, due to its very nature, can hinder the examination of the site within its broader historical and strategic context. This in turn results in a poorer level of analysis of the sites' role and function within the Scheme of Defence and as a component of a network of sites. However, there are notable exceptions which have successfully integrated a detailed analysis of an individual site in addition to examining its broader context. 10hnson's archaeological investigation of Dawes Point Battery for example, provides an excellent and detailed analysis of the global colonial processes which, he argues, provided the impetus for the construction of defensive batteries in Sydney during the seventeenth and eighteenth century.12 Similarly, the NSW Public Works Department Conservation Plan for Bradley's Head undertakes a detailed analysis of the site which successfully demonstrates how the Bradley' s Head defences were integrated into Sydney's defence schemes and how key historical events influenced the development of the site. 13 As such, though generally limited in scope site-based studies fulfil an important function, especially within the realm of cultural heritage management. However, they provide limited contextual analysis and rarely analyse the defence site as a component of an integrated network of defence. 11 Examples of useful works include: McCarthy, 1. 1976. Australia and Imperial Defence 1918-39: A Study in Land and Sea Power. St Lucia, University of Queensland Press; Millar, T. B. 1991. Australia in Peace and War - External Relations Since 1788. Sydney, Australian National University Press. For a full overview of useful strategic studies of Australia's military history see Beaumont, 1. 2001. Australian Defence: Sources and Statistics. Melbourne, Oxford University Press, Part I, Chapter 1-2. 12 Johnson, op.cit. 13 Public Works Department NSW. 1990. Bradley's Head Conservation Plan. Sydney, The Public Works Department NSW. 14

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region 2.3 Network Approaches Investigations of the network of defence sites have been a natural by-product of the lack of context associated with site-based studies and network studies have monopolised recent investigations of homefront defence networks. Such studies have been carried out primarily in Great Britain, the United States, various Pacific Islands (i.e. The Marshall Islands), Japan and limited studies in Australia, by archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists. Examinations of modem networks of defence were initially focused on determining the historical and current number of sites, quantifying their geographical extent, establishing a site typology through the assessment of the structural character of the sites and the placement of sites in their historical context. 14 These studies were in essence scopeing studies; aimed at gaining an understanding of the extent of material and documentary evidence that existed for these sites in order to project the extent and scope of future investigations. The basis for such studies has been established very successfully by English Heritage, England's statutory heritage authority, who since the 1980s has undertaken an intensive investigation into' the twentieth-century defence landscape in England together with other agencies including the Fortress Study Group and The Council for British Archaeology. 15 The English Heritage investigations comprise the largest group of studies examining nineteenth and twentieth century defence systems and their established methodology and research approach is being increasingly utilised by other countries. 16 Importantly their approach, methodology and results have undergone regular internal review and have been widely published, allowing for open discourse 14 Schofield, A. J., Johnson, W. G. and Beck, C. M. (eds). 2002. Materiel Culture: The archaeology of twentieth-century conflict. One World Archaeology. London, Routledge. 15 English Heritage. 2000. MPP 2000: A Review of the Monuments Protection Programme, 1986-2000. London, English Heritage. 16 Ibid. 15

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region regarding the strengths and weaknesses of their approach and potentially allowing subsequent adjustments to their methodology and approach for future studies. 17 The English Heritage approach to investigating homefront defences (which is still in progress) integrates material and documentary evidence. Their first completed phase of research examined documentary evidence to establish the potential location of sites, followed by an intensive examination of aerial photographs to confirm these locations and to locate further potential sites. 18 The documentary research was then supplemented with an intensive phase of field survey to identify the exact location of the site, and record its physical description and condition. Once the geographic distribution of sites was determined, an evaluation of the networks of defence, the historical context for the construction of the sites and an analysis of how they relate to one another was undertaken. Eleven site categories were initially identified by English Heritage for investigation throughout the 1990s, which have subsequently been refined to six site categories (Coastal defence; Inland or 'defence in depth'; Airfields and airfield defence; Anti-aircraft defences; Naval and harbour defences; and Infrastructure) within which an extraordinarily large number of site types have been identified. 19 Crucially for future researchers in England as well as oversees, English Heritage have recently published a discussion document summarising the work that has been undertaken to date and identifying research priorities for future study and management of nineteenth and twentieth century defence sites in England?O 17 Schofield, A. J. 2004. Modern Military Matters - Studying and managing the twentieth-century defence heritage in Britain: a discussion document. York, Council for British f\rchaeology. 18 Military documents are not always reliable enough to be used exclusively to locate potential sites. For example sites constructed during emergency defence works were often constructed faster than the documents authorising them were created, or plans and schemes of defence were prepared for defensive sites which were never started or completed. 19 To view a comprehensive list of site types, see England's National Monuments Record Thesaurus, Class Listing - Military Defence and Fortification: www.english-heritage.org.uklthesaurus 20 Schofield, A. 1. op.cif. 2004. 16

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region The landscape or network approach applied very successfully by English Heritage is particularly well suited to studying the remains of homefront defences (modem sites designed for the defence of a country against foreign attack or invasion) and has been readily accepted and utilised by overseas archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists, notably in Scotland, Ireland, America, the Pacific Islands and by various European countries. A recent edition of the One World Archaeology series, 'Materiel Culture - the archaeology of twentieth-century conflict', highlighted the results of work that has recently been undertaken internationally on the archaeological study of modem military sites and networks. 21 As with other recent investigations, many of these studies have a cultural heritage background and focus, however one of the themes that emerged from this edition is that because defence sites were designed as part of an integrated system of defence, sites need to be investigated as a component of a network or system, in order to understand their context and to effectively evaluate their heritage significance. In Australia several studies examining the defence networks have been undertaken, however they have been limited to sites under the management of one owner, thus narrowing their focus and limiting the -potential of undertaking the system that the site's worked within. 22 By limiting the scope to sites under the management of, for example, the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (see Figure 2.1 and 2.2), the ability of the sites to be analysed as part of Fortress Sydney is limited, unless prior work investigating the extent and context of Fortress Sydney is available. As defence sites were rarely, if ever, built in isolation from other defence structures, studies with a network or systems approach, which is not restricted by client ownership parameters, 21 Schofield, op.cit. 2002. 22 Gojak, D. and R. H. E. Harvey. 1985. Sydney Harbour Fortifications Archival Study Final Report: Volume 11. Sydney, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service; Gojak, D. 1985. Sydney Harbour Fortifications Study Stage II - Archaeological Survey Volume I. Prepared for the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service. 17

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region should be aimed at understanding the larger system that the individual site was a component within, the system that produced the sites and the changes that occurred over time to the systems, thus providing context for an effective study of the individual sites. For example, network investigations have the potential to analyse the networks of defence in comparison to the 'Schemes of Defence' available in the documentary record. Schemes of Defence were documents prepared by governing authorities which defined the defence needs of a colonies or country, set out the probable means and sources of likely attack, and outlined the defence requirements (including fortification needs and manpower) for a specific geographic area, for example New South Wales or Port Jackson?3 Additionally, the comparison of such Schemes with material evidence allows an analysis of the correspondence of the material documentary records. The use of original Schemes of Defence as an effective analytical tool is demonstrated by Wyness in his 1965 architectural thesis 'Coastal Defences of New South Wales 1788-1900,?4 This thesis was one of the first formal examinations of Sydney's defence network and thoroughly integrated documentary and material evidence to provide a clear historical context for the development of pre-1900 coastal and harbour fortifications. Wyness' thesis demonstrates the effectiveness of a network approach to examining defence sites and clearly illustrates the importance of engaging with military history. However, the network approach does have its weaknesses. Due to the generally very large amount of defence sites in western home front systems of defence, the focus is on examining the network and not examining individual sites in depth. As such, network studies can run the risk of being superficial or presenting only fragmentary evidence. In addition, archaeological studies of defence networks are extremely time consuming, 23 For example, Hutton, E. T. H. op.cit. 1894~ Hutton, E. T. H. op.cit. 1894; Hutton, E. T. H. op.cit. 1901; Hutton, E. T. H, op.cit. 1909. 24 Wyness, I. B. F. 1965. Coastal Defences of New South Wales 1788-1900. Department of Architecture, Sydney, The University of New South Wales. 18

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region particularly if they integrate primary documentary research. As illustrated by the English Heritage investigations, the initial proposed scope of network investigations often need to be narrowed as the study progresses, and often further categorised for the examination of specific site types, in order to render the study more manageable. Nonetheless, the scope of landscape studies by their very nature remains incredibly large and such studies require enormous amounts of time, finance and organisation. Consequently, over the past two decades an effective archaeological and cultural heritage methodology for the investigation of modem defence networks has been established, with many countries adopting this approach. The advantage offered by a network approach is primarily the ability to examine the individual site as a component of the network of defence it was constructed within and allows the network to be analysed in regards to its historical contexts. Australia has recently begun to recognise the value of investigations into the landscape of modem defence, evidenced by the grants awarded in 2004 by the (former) Australian Heritage Commission (for an investigation of Australia's twentieth-century landscape of defence) and by the NSW Heritage Office (for an investigation into NSW's World War I and World War II defence network). 2.4 Typological Studies Although not directly related to the landscape approach, studies of particular forms of defence sites, for example Barracks, or sites with a particular function, such as Anti-ship defences, have begun to proliferate in the last ten years. Such studies have recently emerged following the availability of information on the population and distribution of different site types which has been identi!ied by the large-scale network studies. Typological studies have been used as a tool to investigate the form and fabric of defence sites, investigate regional or individual variations to the norm and develop a more detailed understanding of the function of a site and its role within the defence 19

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region network. For example a number of typological studies have resulted from English Heritage's recent investigations?5 These investigations include typological studies of particular forms of defence sites, such as barracks, D-Day sites, and coast artillery plus studies of defence sites with a particular function such as bombing decoys, airfield defences and defences related to specific campaigns, such as Operation Diver. 26 In Australia similar investigations have been undertaken, however without the advantage of a prior study of the network or systems of defence. In the mid-1990s the Australian Heritage Commission and the Australian Council of National Trusts commissioned the study 'Historic World War II sites: a methodology and pilot study to develop a type profile'. 27 Ideally, this study should have provided the basis for future studies or at the least led to discourse in the industry to refine its findings. Unfortunately this report has remained unpublished and appears to have undergone very little circulation. Consequently, its findings have been unavailable for researchers and I was unable to secure a copy for this investigation despite numerous attempts. 28 Australian typological studies, like those carried out overseas, have focused on typologies based on form and function." Notable of these studies is Fullford's investigation of Sydney's Anti-ship defences, which examines the network of fixed World War II coastal anti-ship defences in Sydney and is exemplary in its attention to 25 These are a small number of the typological studies carried out by English Heritage - see www.englishheritage.org.uk for a full bibliography. 26 Douet, 1. 1998. British Barracks 1600-1914 - Their Architecture and Role in Society. London, English Heritage; Schofield, A. 1. 2001. D-Day Sites in England: an assessment. Antiquity, 75: 77-83; Dobinson, C. S. 1995. Twentieth Century Fortifications in England, Vol III: Bombing Decoys of World War 11. London, Council for British Archaeology and English Heritage; Dobinson, C. S. 1998. Twentieth Century Fortifications in England, Vol X Airfield Defences in WWII. London, Council for British Archaeology and English Heritage; Dobinson, C. S. 1996. Twentieth Century Fortifications in England, Vot IV: Operation Diver. London, Council for British Archaeology and English Heritage. 27 Edmonds, L, Australian Council of National Trusts and the Australian Heritage Commission. 1998. Historic World War II sites: a methodology and pilot study to develop a type profile. Canberra, Australian Heritage Commission. 28 The only copy of the study I was able to locate is held at the National Library of Australia, however it is currently out of circulation for binding reasons and therefore was not available for this study. 20

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region detail and clear explanation of military processes?9 The study draws on both archival and material evidence, combined with Fullford's personal knowledge gained from many years serving in the Armed Forces. The study aimed to set out the system which the various defence sites operated within, the role of the sites and activities carried out while the sites were in operation. Other Australian typological studies unfortunately have not been carried out to the meticulous standard of Fullford. Three typological studies of World War II RAAF Radar, World War II Searchlights and World War II 'Letter' Batteries focused on the activities of Australian Units which were mainly based in Pacific or Northern NSW locations during World War II.3o A typological and thematic study was commissioned by the New South Wales Heritage Office in 2001 to document NSW's World War II aerodromes and investigate their survival. 31 This study was regrettably brief and although it presented an initial historical overview, it failed to analyse the sites in the context of their historical context. Further, it contained factual errors and the typology it developed contained unclear and undefined categories. However, a study defining the various types of nineteenth and twentieth century defence sites, their physical characterises and historical context required before further studies of specific site forms or site functions can be effectively undertaken. 29 Fullford, R. K. 1994. We Stood and Waited - Sydney's Anti-Ship Defences - 1939-1945. Sydney, Royal Australian Artillery Historical Society Inc. ~ 30 Fenton, M., Simmonds, E. and Smith, N (Eds). 1992. RAAF Radar in World War II. Forster, NSW, EW & E Simmonds; Hill, N. F. 1993. Expose! A History of Searchlights in World War 11. Brisbane, Boolarong Publications; Kidd, R. and Neal. R. 1998. The 'Letter' Batteries - The History of the 'Letter' Batteries in World War 11. Castlecrag, By the authors, care of R. E. Neal, 5 Tower Reserve, Castlecrag, NSW.2068. 31 Brew, A. 2001. Thematic Study: World War 11 Aerodromes and associated structures in New South Wales. Sydney, NSW Heritage Office and Deakin University. 21

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region 2.5 Historical Studies Studies of Australia's military history have produced a very large amount of literature, some of which is particularly useful to archaeological investigations of defence sites and networks. Nonetheless, Australian archaeologists have been criticised for their failure to engage with military history, despite the fact that they provide the context for why defence sites and networks were constructed and thus are a vital factor to be understood in order to meaningfully assess and analyse Australia's defence sites within their historical context. 32 By far the most influential works on Australia's military history to date are the Official Histories 33 of World War I and World n, the Oxford Companion to Australian Military History and the recent publication of Australia's Centenary of Defence series, in particular Volume V: Sources and Statistics. 34 These works all provide detailed overviews of the history of defence in Australia and the factors that influenced its development. Although they rarely concentrate on the construction of defence works, they provide a wealth of information on defence policy and strategy; two important factors in the placement of sites and their defensive function. Such information applied to the material study of homefront defences is likely to allow for a more detailed interpretation of their role and development. Various other historical works provide important contextual information for the study of defence sites. In particular, the Journal Sabertache (the Military Historical 32 Stuart, D. I. The Inter-War and the Archaeology of Australia's Defence. ASHA Conference.. 33 The 'Official Histories' are a series of histories commissioned by the Australian Government dealing with Australia's involvement in World War I and 11, the Korean War and the conflicts in Southeast Asia between 1948-1973. The government appointed an official historian to prepare these histories. The historian had access to military documents and files unavailable to general historians. The historians for these works proclaimed the Official Histories to be free from censorship and government interference. 34 Dennis, P. G. et al. 1999. The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History. Melbourne, Oxford University Press; Beaumont, 1. 2001. Australian Defence: Sources and Statistics. Melbourne, Oxford University Press. 22

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region Society of Australia journal) and Despatch (the New South Wales Military Historical Society journal) contain a wealth of articles relating to the history of Australia's defence policy and strategy, the development of the various departments within the Armed Forces and several historical examinations of pre-federation defence sites. These latter articles are very informative in relation to the development of early defences of New South Wales; however their referencing is poor, rendering their findings unverifiable. Historical studies contain a vast amount of contextual information which to date has generally not been effectively harnessed by archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists. The engagement with this literature should allow for a more effective analysis of the development of Sydney and Australia's defence networks and would also hopefully encourage greater discourse between the three specialists. 2.6 Our Understanding has been Poor The key result of the last two decades of growing interest and investigations into the archaeology of modem military history has been the establishment of clear aims, approaches and methodologies for studies which investigate modem homefront defence networks and systems. These investigations have begun to examine defence sites as components within a network and as a system of defence. However, in Australia there remains a clear need for an investigation focused on the networks and systems of defence, before further in-depth studies of particular sites and site types can be undertaken. Specifically, Australian archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists need to understand Australian defence sites in the context of the network that they were components of and within the historical events and pro({esses that created the need for such defences. As such, this thesis aims to undertake an investigation of one area of Australia's defences; Sydney's networks and systems of defence from 1788 to 1945. The approach 23

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region taken by English Heritage will be utilised by integrating documentary and material evidence, within the context of Australia's military history, to establish how and why Sydney's networks and systems of defence changed through time and across space. 24

'Purely' Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region FQ(tlfJCiltlOns built in Sydney.. pm-1611 A 1671-1900 1901 1920 1920-1960 PAC!f1C OCEAN Figure 2.1: An example of maps complied by recent archaeological investigations. This is a plan of the Defence sites limited to those around the Sydney Heads. 35 35 Gojak, D. 2002. 'So Suspicious of Enemies': Australia's late nineteenth-and twentieth-century coastal defences, their archaeology and interpretation. Materiel Culture: The Archaeology of Twentieth-Century Conflict. Schofield, A.J., Johnson, W.G. and Beck, C.M. London, Routledge, p.l61. 25

'1'lIre/\' ne/ellsm! Akusllres' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region Figure 2.2: An example of a map compiled by the NSW Artillery Study for their study of World War 11 Fortifications. This is a plan of the Sydney area Fire Command; however it is limited sites located around the entrance to Sydney Harbour. 36 36 Royal Australian Artillery Historical Society Incorporated. 1993. New South Wales World War Jl Fortification Study Final Report. Manly, Sydney, Prepared for National Parks and Wildlife Service. 26

'Pureiy f)e!enm'e Measures' - 111e Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region TORRES STRAIT <h'i!sllly!,'m, XI '''It'llQC 9tl 4 7' 1.4. XI! K1nll:><JC,~, '1.) P, Mk I'. 7'l1'1tJ) sty.;.?,!'j!l M:"fI EOOe(Ml10' f!1y.,. 1)"...,~ VII GERAI.DTON 2. 01'!J.S. N"MlI FREMANTLE.?.,. tt Mk ~~1~:! :>. 9.2'tJkX 2>92'MH li: ;'MkllA.:; fi'mkx).:g.ii~ M, Vii l (FM. ~.e; r tj~, Pi ~~" f'r h~ C4';' 2: P1 2: ijr tjk(i,> -2 t.k'i.i~ t,xy..,,.)r\ii:j'a.lf~ (kl'm rfr'hoait Figure 2.3:.A map illustrating Australia and New Guinea's networks of medium and large anti-ship batteries in operation during World War 11. 37 37 Homer, D. 1995. The Gunners: A History of Australian Artillery. Sydney, AlIen & Unwin, 27

'I'urely f)e/ells/ve Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region N A Hornsby --- --, '"'.!.!...ill "'-'''''' " " "- "- ",,,, \ -. Blue Fish Fortress -., A Observation Post " " \ \ \ \ \ Parramatta " "- Bankstown 0_ Are Command Post and Fortress Observatlon Post Maroubra Fortress Observation Post -----" / / / ",,, ',t ~ \\ \ / \ I \ I /~ / \ I I / I /, // I /' /' MAP 1 SYDNEY fire COMMAND Battery and fortress Observation Posts (Arcs of fire of counter bombardment batteries) Figure 2.4: A map illustrating Sydney's anti-ship medium and heavy batteries. The map also illustrates the extent of arcs of fire provided by the counter-bombardment batteries. 38 38 Fullford, op.cit., p.14. 28

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region "The landscape is a palimpsest on to which each generation inscribes its own impressions and removes some of the marks of earlier generations. Constructions of one age are often overlain, modified or erased by the work of another...,,] Chapter 3: 'Each Generation Inscribes its Own Impressions' - Study Area and Historical Background 3.1 Palim psests of Defence The landscape of the Sydney Region consists of a palimpsest of European cultural features which have evolved and changed since 1788. Within this palimpsest are various cultural layers which attest to the military activities of New South Wales as a colony and as a state of Australia. This chapter outlines the geographical features of the study area relevant to the defence of the region and provides a brief historical background for the military activity which produced Sydney's network of defence during the study period (1788-1945). This background will provide a geographical and historical context for the data collection and analysis undertaken for this investigation. 3.2 Schemes of Defence "Australia... are not in a position to defend themselves adequately on the sea for many years to come and their defence policy must therefore dovetail into the Imperial Defence Policy. " 2 Throughout nineteenth and twentieth centuries, various Schemes of Defence were prepared for the colony and state of New South Wales, as well as for strategic areas within New South Wales such as Port lackson and the Sydney Fortress area (the Sydney Fortress 1 Wandsnider, L. 1998. Unit Issues in Archaeology: Measuring Time, Space and Material. Salt Lake City, University of Utah Press, p.14. 2 Ibid. p.4. 29

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region area is roughly equivalent to the study area defined for this thesis - see section 3.4.1 for a full definition of the study area). Schemes of Defence were documents prepared by governing authorities which defined the defence needs of a colonies or country, set out the probable means and sources of likely attack, and outlined the defence requirements (including fortification needs and manpower) for a specific geographic area, for example New South Wales or Port Jackson? They were established by the imperial and commonwealth governments in order to provide systems of integrated defence for areas considered strategically important such as ports and naval stations, and important industrial sites such as Cockatoo Island Dockyards and the Neutral Bay Torpedo Depot. These Schemes of Defence represent the state of military strategies and tactics during the period they were developed in and outline factors which were influencing their development. For example the early Schemes of Defence, prepared by the British from the 1880s, were Imperial Schemes of Defence which considered the colony's defence in regards to the role the colony played in the defence of the Empire. 4 These schemes clearly reflect the English approach to defence in the eighteenth century and reflect the strategic needs of the Empire more than those of the colony, "We [the Australian Government] are confident that if any part of the Empire is attacked the attacker will have to reckon with the whole naval and military power of the British Empire." 5 Schemes of Defence prepared by the Commonwealth after 1901 illustrate both the extent of Australia's defence systems and the various assumptions that Australia held in regards to her defence. For example, well into World War 11 it was still assumed that Britain would provide the bulk of Australia's defence, "the following assumptions have been 3 For example, Hutton, E. T. H., Major-General C.B,. op.cit. 1894; Hutton, E. T. H., Major-General C.B,. op.cit.l901; Hutton, E. T. H., Major-General C.B,. op.cit. 1909. 4 Ibid. 5 "Statement of the government' policy regarding the defence of Australia" delivered at Sydney by the Minister of Defence (Senator the Rt Hon Sire George Pearce, KCVO), 25/9/1913, p.2. 30

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region adopted in assessing the Scales of Attack against which it is recommended that provision should be made at Australian... That the British Main Fleet will arrive at Singapore within 42 days of the outbreak of war.,,6 These Schemes illustrate that the plan for Australia's defence was not protection against prolonged attack or invasion, but protection from small scale attacks and raids aimed at disrupting production, military areas and vulnerable areas, "the local defences of British ports need not provide... complete protection against prolonged operations, but they should be sufficiently formidable to act as a powerful deterrent to attack by hostile warships. " 7 3.3 Historical Themes As discussed in Chapter 2, archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists have been criticised for failing to engage with military history. For this reason the following section provides a brief historical background to the military history of Australia, particularly that relevant to New South Wales. In order to be able to analyse the data within the context of military history and in regard to the research aim of the thesis, the historical background discusses the development of Australia's defence as a thematic history rather than a narrative or chronological history. Historical themes are commonly used by archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists as an analytical tool to link relevant historical contexts to the physical evidence of a site or area. This approach assists with the assessment of heritage significance as it provides an understanding of the processes and contexts which influenced the development of a place and allows the level to which the place demonstrates these 6 A WM; 54, 243/18/8 - "Committee of Imperial Defence. Joint Overseas and Home defence Committee. Sub Committee on Defence of British Ports Overseas - Strategical aspect of the Defence of Australian and New Zealand Ports, 16/3/1925, p.l. 7 AWM; 124,3/79, Committee of Imperial Defence, Oversea [sic] Defence Committee, "Coast Defence. Forms of Attack and Forms of Defence. Memorandum of the Joint Oversea [sic] and Home Defence Sub-Committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence. 2, Whitehall Gardens, S.W.1, March 8, 1923, p.3. 31

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region processes to be determined. s However, the national and state (NSW) themes that have been developed by the relevant statutory authorities for the investigation of defence sites are currently quite limited. 9 Within the Australian Historic Themes, the theme of 'Defending Australia' comes under the broad theme of 'Governing'. 'Defending Australia' is given three further sub-themes; 'Providing for the Common Defence', 'Preparing for Invasion' and 'Going to War.' 10 The relevant NSW Historic Theme is simply 'Defence', which is defined as 'Activities associated with defending places from hostile takeover and occupation.' 11 These themes are clearly very broad and fail to connect with the wide range of historical processes which may have caused or contributed to the development of Sydney and Australia's networks of defence. As such, although the concept of historic themes will be utilised, they will be developed beyond the scope of those currently provided by the national and state historic themes. The themes chosen represent major processes and events that are likely to have impacted on Australia's defence systems. Each theme is fairly broad in scope and could be broken down into further sub-themes for a more intensive analysis (see Figure 3.2 for possible sub-themes). As each theme is related to and dependent on many of the other themes, the analysis of a defence site or network will likely be linked to more than one relevant theme. The identified themes will be utilised in the historic analysis (Chapter 5) in order to investigate which factors may have caused change to Sydney's landscape of defence over time. 8 Pearson, M. and Sullivan, S. 1999. Looking After Heritage Places. Melbourne, Melbourne University Press, p.102; Australian Heritage Commission. 2001. Australian Historic Themes - A framework for use in heritage assessment and management. Canberra, Commonwealth of Australia. 9 The national (Commonwealth) statutory authority is the Australian Heritage Council and the state (NSW) statutory authority is the NSW Heritage Office. IO Australian Heritage Commission. op.cit.200l. 11 New South Wales Heritage Office. 2001. NSW Historical Themes. Parramatta, NSW Heritage Office. 32

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region In addition to the thematic history, a time line of key events from 1788 to 1945 is included to provide a chronological guide to the relevant events that occurred during the study period. 3.3.1 Sub-Themes The historical themes discussed in the following sections could be broken down into further sub-categories for detailed analysis. Although such analysis is beyond the scope of this thesis, the following table illustrates possible sub-categories. Figure 3.1: Sub-Themes THEME Sheltering Under British Rule Growing Independence Responding to Escalating Levels of Threat The Advancing Technology of War SUB-THEME British Colonial Expansion British Imperialism Global Colonial Tensions Establishment of the Colony of NSW Growth of the Colony of NSW Consolidation of the Colony of NSW NSWs growing independence - 1870s ff. Federation Establishment of Australia's Department of Defence Australia's role as a Dominion of Great Britain Australia's relations with the US Australia as part of SE AsialPacific Threat from Colonial attack Colonial war scares World War I Pre WWII tensions ~ World WarII The Japanese Thereat The Naval era 33

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region Responding to the Advent of Airwar Advancement of artillery The introduction of Radio Detection The growth of Seaward Defence The growth of Aviation The consolidation of Aviation 3.3.3 Theme 1: Sheltering under British Rule (1788-1901) "Upon the success of British arms in Sudan, the fate of India in all probability hinges. And if that success concerns India it also concerns the Australian colonies.,,]2 New South Wales's status as a colony of the British Empire is a key element of the defence history of New South Wales before 1901 and, indeed, the theme of Colonial Rule relates to and influences many of the other chosen historical themes.13 The significance of this relationship has long been recognised in Australian historical archaeology. For example, Birmingham argued in 1988 for the importance of Australian historical archaeology to investigate sites within their historical context, in particular their global colonisation contexts. 14 As a colony of Britain, New South Wales was almost entirely dependent on the Empire; economically, politically and certainly defensively. Economically, it was not until the mid 1800s, as a consequence of the gold rush and population growth, that a measure of economic independence was gained by the colony. Politically, New South Wales remained under British law until Federation in 1901. However, even with Federation, Australia's 12 Dibbs, G.R., Premier of NSW, New South Wales, Parliamentary Debates, 16:9, quoted in McCarthy, John. 0f-cit, p.2. I NB: "New South Wales" was geographically defmed pre 1901 very differently to its present defmition. From 1788-1825 New South Wales comprised all the Australian land east of 135 degrees longitude (that is, most of present QLD, NSW and Victoria). From approximately 1859 onwards New South Wales consisted roughly of the land it presently comprises. 14 Birmingham, 1., Bairstow, D. and Wilson, A. (Eds). 1988. Archaeology and Colonisation: Australia in the World Context. Sydney, The Australian Society for Historical Archaeology Incorporated, p.ll and p.21. 34

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region political structure was tied to that of Britain, remained a Dominion of the British Empire and had a British Head of State. IS Defensively, New South Wales relied on Britain's expertise, construction knowledge, arms technology and protection by Britain's Royal Navy. This theme is demonstrated by New South Wales's reliance on military arms provided by the British (which were often pieces of artillery which had been made obsolete in Britain by the introduction of more powerful weapons), British design for defensive constructions and the need for the Empire's approval for the construction of new defensive works. For example, many of New South Wales's forts and batteries were equipped with guns which were formerly used on British forts or ships, such as the eight 6-pounder guns mounted at Sydney's first defences on Dawes Point, which were from the Sirius. The British appointed Governor of New South Wales would determine the construction of defences, in addition to having these approved by the British Parliament before the works could commence. 16 In the late 1870s, following Britain's appraisal of New South Wales's defences as underdeveloped and Port lackson as 'defenceless', Britain appointed a Royal Engineer as the 'Engineer Officer for the Colony', in order to report on the defence requirements- of the harbour. 17 However it is of note that New South Wales relied on the defensive expertise and protection provided by British Royal Navy for the bulk of her defence. That is, Britain's command of New South Wales's defence was not viewed as interference by most of the colony; rather they expected this involvement as they largely viewed themselves not just as a British colony but as being British as well. IS 15 Millar, T. B. 1991. Australia in Peace and War - External Relations Since 1788. Sydney, Australian National University Press, p.25. 16 Historical Records of Australia, Volume XV, Series I, Mitchell Library, Sydney; in Wyness, I. B. F. 1965. Coastal Defences of New South Wales 1788-1900. Department of Architecture. Sydney, The University of New South Wales. 17 Wyness, I. B. F. Ibid, p.5. 18 Millar, T. B. op.cit.. 35

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region The colonial relation of New South Wales with Britain is a large theme which underlies the development of defence policies and construction in New South Wales. This theme could be broken down chronologically into further sub-themes or into further themes based on economic and political issues. 3.3.4 Theme 2: Australia's Growing Independence (1876-1945) "Without any inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom. " 19 Although still part of the British Empire, the colonies of the Australian continent began to assert their independence from early in their history. The growing independence of New South Wales becomes particularly apparent in the 1870s with Britain removing all her Imperial garrisons and troops from the Australian colonies, requiring the colonies (including New South Wales) to assume responsibility for their own defence. The defensive independence of New South Wales was short-lived and in 1877, Britain sent two military advisors and members of the Royal Engineers, Sir Major-General William Jervois and Lieutenant Colonel Peter Scratchley, to review the state of Australian colonies and develop a Scheme of Defence based on Imperial, not colonial, requirements?o However from the late 1800s as Federation of the Australian colonies became more likely, the advantages of selfadministration of defence and coordination of the Australian colonies resources became apparent. The growth of Australia's defensive independence is a complex issue, as Australia was aware that its resources for protection against all but sporadic attacks and raids were limited. Thus, whilst desiring control of their military forces and command of their defence 19 Curtin, John. 27 December 1941, in Norman Harper (ed.), 1971. Australia and the United States. Melbourne, Thomas Nelson, pp. 135-9. 20 Dennis, P. G. et.al. 1999.op. cit, p.325. 36

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region plans, Australia simultaneously understood the necessary importance that a close relationship with a strong power offered for their protection (actual and perceived)?l As such, although Australia asserted small levels of independence, she was unwilling to completely sever a close relationship with Britain, who at Federation commanded the world's most powerful navy which offered Australia much protection. The protection offered by the Royal Navy is evidenced by 'Australia Station', the naval command based on Australia waters from 1859 until 1913. 22 Although the role of the naval base was to provide Britain with a naval presence against her enemies in the western Pacific, it also provided Australia with a perceived level of protection. The defence independence of Australia gradually grew; witnessed by her growing relationships with other world powers, particularly the Unites States of America (the US) during World War n. In 1941, the Prime Minister John Curtin stated that Australia would look to the US for protection and defence (see quote at the beginning of Section 3.3.3). The extent to which America supported this statement is contested, although it appears that America's greatest interest in this matter was Australia's strategic position in the Pacific, which would afford a strategic naval and military base. 23 Nonetheless, for the first time in her history, Australia had openly started to look to nations other than Britain for her defence. What remains to be seen is if this growing independence is apparent in the material evidence of Sydney's network of defence. It is likely that it will be apparent for periods when Australia was clearly carrying out its own defence works, such as those during the 1870s and those during the latter half of World War n, when Britain was unable to supply goods 21 Millar, T. B. op.cit, p.24-25. 22 Dennis, et.al, op.cit., p.58. 23 Edwards, P. P. 200l. Curtin to Beazley: Labour leaders and the American Alliance. John Curtin University. 2004. 37

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region overseas and Australia had to import war materials from America, though to what extent this will be represented in the material evidence at other times is uncertain. 24 3.3.5 Theme 3: Responding to Escalating Levels of Threat "Much exaggeration of danger and many erroneous conceptions of what is really to be apprehended might have been avoided if the above facts [generally stating that invasion and even attack on NSW is very unlikely] were more widely realised. " 25 In the bulk of literature relating to the defence history of New South Wales and Australia, the potential level of threat faced by the colony or country is indicated as a major cause for the construction or development of defence sites?6 This assumption has been applied to the nineteenth and twentieth century defences and it is unlikely that defences would be built if there was never a threat; perceived or real. However, the level to which this theme was the major cause has not been determined. New South Wales was colonised in 1788, at the time when the world's major colonial powers (Britain, Spain, Holland and France) were vying for colonial land and trading rights in the 'unknown' world and when one of the prime areas for colonisation was the Asia- Pacific region. Australia's location in the Pacific region very firmly linked her colonies, including New South Wales, with the colonial relationships and tensions of the Britain Empire. Particularly during the second half of the nineteenth century, Britain was involved with many wars and tensions. The major wars included the Crime an War, Napoleon Ills threat to invade of England and the second Boer War, among others (see the Timeline in Section 3.3 for other relevant tensions and wars). Throughout these conflicts and tensions 24 Gojak, D. op.cit. 2002. 25 Dibbs, G.R., Premier of NSW, New South Wales, Parliamentary Debates, 16:9, quoted in McCarthy, John. op.cit., p.2. 26 For example Gojak, D. op.cit. 2002.; Gojak, D. 2004. Defending Sydney Harbour. Australian Coastal Fortifications Conference, Gap Bluff, Sydney; Johnson, W. A. op.cit.2003. 38

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region New South Wales feared an attack or raid by enemies of the British Empire. Though a large scale attack or invasion was exceedingly unlikely, an attack on strategic ports was feared by the colony and most colonial war scares coincided with the preparation of new Schemes of Defence and the construction or upgrade of defence works. During the first half of the twentieth century Australia, still closely linked with Britain's international activities, was involved in two major wars; World War I and World War n. Various Schemes of Defence and construction works were carried out during the twentieth century in response to growing world tensions. In addition, existing defence sites underwent large upgrades, especially to their technological capabilities. This is particularly apparent in World War n, due to the threat of attack against Australia by the Japanese, and the British and American use of Australia as a naval and military base. It is clear that the level of threat (both perceived and real) faced by New South Wales and Australia was a factor in the construction of defence sites. However, the level to which this theme was a key factor in the development of Sydney's network of defence has not been previously established and will be considered within the data analysis, through a comparison of the periods of war scares and tensions with the dates for major upgrade of defence capabilities. 3.3.6 Theme 4: The Advancing Technology of War "This has been the result of the advent of the submarine, the increased range of the gun and torpedo armaments of ships, and the necessity for providing against hostile mine-laying in the approaches to a port." 27 27 A WM; 124, 3/79, Committee of Imperial Defence, Oversea Defence Committee, "Coast Defence. Forms of Attack and Forms of Defence. Memorandum of the Joint Oversea and Home Defence Sub-Committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence. 2, Whitehall Gardens, S.W.l, March 8,1923, p.3. 39

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region The rapid and continuous scale of the technological advances of warfare during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would almost certainly have had an effect on the development of defence systems and on the location of defence sites within these systems. The effects of some of these advancements are well understood and studied, such as the advances made in artillery. For example, during the nineteenth and early twentieth century Sydney's defences were designed to defend against attack from the sea. Thus, during the early history of the colony when the range of guns on ships was small, ships had to come far in to the harbour to attack the settlement. The advances in artillery resulted in the defence sites moving from the inner harbour and by the mid-twentieth century, ships could sit up to 20,000 metres out to sea and still shell Sydney. As such, the defending batteries were sited on the coast where they could view attacking ships and gain the longest possible antibombardment range. Additionally, the size and configuration of the gun emplacements and surrounding batteries are likely to reflect this advancement. These processes are well understood and are generally taken into account when examining the material evidence of coastal defences. 28 However, the effect of other technological advancements in warfare, such as the introduction of rapid firing weapons, remote detection (Radio or Radar), harbour mines, submarines and battleships, which changed the face and conduct of warfare, are not as well understood or applied by archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists in Australia. The advances of technology, in the form of gun range, types of guns and type of detection, will be examined regarding their effect on Sydney's network of defence and to investigate how the changes are demonstrated by the material evidence. 28 Gojak, D. 2002. op.cit., p.160-161. 40

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region 3.3.7 Theme 5: Responding to the Advent of Air War "Our ability to defend our large and vital centres against air attack is a matter which must occupy the mind of all... Aircraft is one and anti-aircraft guns are the other form of defence agamst. t h' IS type 0 if attac k.,,29 The effect of aircraft on the conduct of war in the twentieth century cannot be underestimated and as such, the advent of airwar has been included as separate theme for this thesis. The first aerodrome in New South Wales was constructed at the present Sydney (Kingsford Smith) Airport at Mascot, in 1919 and the Royal Australian Air Force was formed in 1921. The advantages of airpower in warfare were rapidly recognised, as illustrated by the statement above which was made in 1913. This resulted in the formation of training aerodromes, operational aerodromes, airbases, safe air deployment routes, antiaircraft gun stations and anti-aircraft searchlight stations. Aircraft and airwar moved the focus of home front defence from anti-ship to antiaircraft defence systems, which resulted in major changes to Sydney's defence landscape. Aircraft by their very nature require larg~, flat, clear areas of land for their effective operations and in Sydney, the topography meant that the defence network for the first time expanded west onto the Cumberland Plain, which was flat and underdeveloped; perfectly suited to the construction of aerodromes and associated features. Nonetheless, the extent of this change on Sydney's network of defence has not been examined in detail, nor has the concurrent arrival of anti-aircraft defences on the coastal and in-land areas. This thesis will examine the development of airwar on the extent and location of Sydney's defence network through the examination of the location and type of operational aerodromes and anti-aircraft defences. 29 "Statement of the government' policy regarding the defence of Australia" delivered at Sydney by the Minister of Defence (Senator the Rt Hon Sir George Pearce, KCVO), 25/911913, p.7. 41

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region 3.4 Chronology of Major Events The following table outlines key events that occurred in Australian history that are likely to have influenced Australian military history. The events include those that occurred within Australia and overseas. The latter recognises that Australia, initially as a colony of Britain and later as part of the Commonwealth, would have been affected by international events that concerned the British Empire. The information presented in the following Table derives from The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History and The Australian Centenary History of Defence Volume VI - Australian Defence: Sources and Statistics. 3o Figure 3.2: Timeline of Major Historical Events DATE EVENT NOTES THEME 1788 Arrival of First Fleet Defence provided by a British Rule detachment of the Royal Marines and warships 1795 Napoleonic Wars commence Threat Level 1800 The first Australian mainland military unit is Growing raised in Sydney, The Loyal Associations, as Independence English volunteer units 1810 First British infantry regiment to serve in Regiment arrives with British Rule Australia, the 73 rd Highlanders, arrives in Governor Lachlan Sydney following the mutiny of the Rum Macquarie - the first non- Corp naval NSW Governor British Rule The Loyal Associations are made redundant 1815 Napoleonic Wars cease Threat Level 1851 Gold discovered in NSW Growing Independence First working Submarine cable laid across Technological the English Channel Advance 1853 Turkey declares war on Russia (Crimean 4th October, 1853 Threat Level War), and is supported by Britain and France throughout the war 1854 Great Britain and France ally with Turkey March,1854 Threat Level and declare war against Russia; News of the Crimean War reaches New May, 1854 30 Beaumont, J. op.cit. 2001; Dennis, P. G. et. al. op.cit. 1999. 42

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE EVENT NOTES THEME South Wales Threat Level 1855 Australia's first war vessel, the 60-ton Growing Spitfire, is built in Sydney Independence 1856 Crimean War ceases Threat Level 1859 Threat of French invasion of Britain under Threat Level Napoleon III Australia Station was delineated as a distinct Administrative term for British Rule Naval area - administrated by the British the Naval Command based on Australia n waters 1860 Royal Australian Engineers (RAE) Growing established Independence 1861 American Civil War begins Threat Level 1865 Colonial Naval Defence Act 1865 (An Act to Gave Colonial legislatures British Rule Make Better Provisionfor the Naval Defence the power to raise naval of the Colonies) passed forces for local defence, and to man ships (at no American Civil War ends cost to the British Empire) Threat Level 1870 Britain withdraws all Imperial Army The Colonies are required Growing Garrisons and Troops from Australian to assume responsibility Independence colonies for their own defence 1871 NSW Naval and Military Forces Act (1871) Growing is passed Independence The NSW Permanent Military Force is' Comprising one Battery of Growing established as part of the Act Artillery and two Independence Companies of Infantry 1877-78 Russo-Turkish War Threat Level 1877 Defence experts Colonel Sir William Jervois 4 year visit for defence British Rule and Lieutenant-Colonel Perter Scratchley advice and planning arrive in New South Wales 1885 Colonial Defence Committee (CDC) Concerned with the British Rule established in London defence of colonial ports and other vital colonial localities The New South Wales Sudan Contingent jrd March, 1885 - Joins Growing departs, without Imperial request, from the British Expeditionary Independence Sydney Force sent to the Sudan to avenge the death of General Charles Gordon 1894 Sino-Japanese War begins Threat Level 43

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE EVENT NOTES THEME 1899 Outbreak of the Second Boer War (or South Ceases in 1902 Threat Level African War) between Britain and the Boer Republics of Transvaal and Orange Free State 1900 First Australian contingent arrives in South A total of 6 Australian Threat Level Africa to join the British in the Boer War contingents c. 16,175 men) served in South Africa 1901 Federation of Australian colonies into the Growing 'Commonwealth of Australia' Independence Australian Department of Defence established State military establishments transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia Growing Independence 1904 Australian Commonwealth Defence Act 1903 Growing (An Act to provide for the Naval and Military Independence Defence and Protection of the Commonwealth and of the Several States) came into force 1911 Royal Australian Navy (RAN) formed Growing Independence; Technological Advance 1912 Lithgow Small Arms Factory and Cordite Technological Factory established Advance; Growing Independence 1913 The RAN assumes responsibility for the area Growing comprising Australia Station Independence 1914 Britain declares war on Germany (start of 4th August 1914 Threat Level World War I) Australia sides with Britain and declares war 5 th August 1914 British Rule on Germany Australia raises and trains the first Australian Infantry Force (AIF) to be deployed overseas 1915 Australia builds its first military aircraft at Technological Point Cooke, Victoria Advance 1919 Armistice - World War lover Threat Level ~ 1921 Royal Australian Airforce (RAAF) formed Growing Independence Australia gains mandate over the Territory of Growing New Guinea Independence Munitions Supply Board established Technological Advances 44

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE EVENT NOTES THEME 1927 Australia purchases its first tanks and the 4 Vickers Medium Mark Technological Australian Tank Corporation is formed IV tanks Advances The Fortress Singapore doctrine is adopted by the Commonwealth 1932 Japan invades Northern China Threat Level 1939 War declared (World War 11) Threat Level The second AIF is raised for deployment overseas Empire Air Training Scheme is initiated 1940 Australia's first Radar installation May 1940 Technological established at the Shore Defence Station, Advance Dover Heights, Sydney Allied collapse (Europe) June 1940 Threat Level 1941 Japan attacks Pearl Harbour 7_8 th December, 1941 Threat Level 1942 Singapore surrenders to the Japanese 15 th February, 1942 Threat Level First Japanese air raid on Darwin 19 th February, 1942 Threat Level Japanese midget submarines attack Sydney 3]'t May - ]'t June, 1942 Threat Level Harbour 1943 Prime Minister Curtin declares that Australia Growing looks to America for protection Independence 1945 VE-Day, end ofwwii in Europe 8 th May, 1945 Threat Level VJ-Day, end of Pacific Theatre ofwwii 15 th August, 1945 Threat Level 3.5 The Study Area The study area for this investigation is known as the Sydney Region, an area for which there is many definitions. However, for this thesis the Sydney Region is defined as the area extending from the Royal National Park in the south to Broken Bay and the Hawkesbury River in the north. The Blue Mountains form the western perimeter and the coastline the eastern perimeter. The Sydney Region under this definition covers an area of land 45

'Purely Defensive Afeasures ' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region approximately 350 kilometres long with an average 100 kilometres wide. The total onshore area of the Sydney Region is approximately 44,000 square kilometres with an offshore component of about 5,000 square kilometres which extends to the edge of the continental shelf in the Pacific Ocean. 31 Figure 1.1 outlines the boundaries of the Study Area. Topographically, the Sydney Region comprises the Cumberland Plain (with an average elevation ofless than 30m) in the central section of the Basin, the Hornsby plateau to the north and northeast (with an elevation of less than 300m) and the Blue Mountains plateau to the west, which rises abruptly from the Cumberland Plain to a height of 150 metres - 570 metres. 32 Figure 3.4 illustrates the general topographic features of the Sydney Region and outlines the major rivers, harbours and ports within the study area. 3.5.1 Geography and Defence The geography of the Sydney Region had several implications on the development of Sydney's defence network. The Sydney Region comprises a long, exposed coastline which includes many easily accessible beaches and several deep water harbours. These features made Sydney vulnerable to seaborne attack which was the primary method of warfare during the eighteenth, nineteenth and first half of the twentieth centuries. In addition, the easily accessible deep water harbours (such as Port lackson and Botany Bay, and to a lesser extent Broken Bay) became centres of trade and important industries - which in turn became vulnerable areas to attack or raids. Noteworthy is that these sites are not all defence sites; the bulk are directly related to industrial production, utilities supply or trade. The importance of such sites and their reliance on sea-borne trade is articulated by the Minister for Defence in 1933, who stated "If Australia's markets were closed and her exports and imports stopped by 31 Geological Survey of New South Wales. Geological Survey of New South Wales: Sydney Basin Stratigraphy. M. R. NSW. Mineral Resources NSW. Website accessed 2004. 32 Ibid. 46

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region enemy action she could be forced to sue for peace without a single enemy solider coming within sight of her shores" and that "the capacity of a country to continue fighting depends on its industrial organizations [sic] and their adaptability.,,33 Several lists of 'vulnerable points' in need of protection from attack are available in the documentary record, such as the following Australian War Memorial document which notes the following vulnerable naval sites in the Sydney Defended Area?4 Cockatoo Dock and Spectacle Island Poole and Steele Building Yard Morts Dock Store Depot - Darling Harbour Victualling Yard, Pyrmont Newington Magazine Cowper Road, lower end of McEhlone and Dowling Streets (Naval buildings included in this area are: Dalgety's building, SMH building, No 43 Cowper Rd) Oil Tanks, Georges Heights (above Chowder Bay tanks) Oil Tanks west side of Woolloomooloo Garden Island and Graving Dock Chowder Bay Balmoral Depot Rushcutters Bay Depot Homebush Magazine Neutral Bay Torpedo Depot Extended Defences, South Head Oil Tanks at head of Neutral Bay and oiling wharf at Kurraba Pt The document also notes the following further vulnerable points in the Sydney Defended Area: Roseville Bridge North Head Fort Chowder Bay anchorage C.O.R Berry Bay Shell Co., Iron Cove Bankstown Aerodrome Bantry Bay Spit Bridge Middle Head Fort Sydney Harbour Bridge Figtree Bridge _Moorebank Ammunition Depot Villawood (ammunition production) 33 Minister for Defence, Senator the Rt. Hon. Sir George Pearce, K.C.V.O. 1933. Statement of the Government's Policy regarding the Defence of Australia. Delivered at Sydney on 25.9.1933. Australian War Memorial; NLp 355.45 AUS. 34 Standing Orders (including enemy) - Artillery:] Anti-aircraft Defence, Sydney AA {Anti-aircraft] Group, by Lt-Col P L Moore, March 1943, A WM 54, 709/20/55, p.5l-52. 47

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region Cape Solander Hornby Battery Glebe Island Bridge Iron Cove Bridge Bunnerong Powerhouse Signal Hill Battery Rose Bay Air Bas White Bay Power Station ~ascotaerodrome Cape Banks Fort Pyrrnont Bridge Aircraft Production (Sydney 1" to 1 ~alabar Battery Chullora (aircraft production) mile: 066171) Woolloomooloo Docks The vulnerability of Sydney's harbour based industries necessitated her defences to cluster in the harbour and coastline areas. During World War II the plains west of the CBD likewise became vulnerable, when the dominance of airwar necessitated the building of aerodromes, airfields and landing grounds on the relatively flat and level Curnberland Plains in the western area of the Sydney Region. The advent of airwar thus witnessed the simultaneous expansion of Sydney's defence network inland beyond the harbour and coastal areas for the first time. Thus, Sydney's historic development as a port, her exposed coastline and the topographic features of the Sydney Region effected the basic siting of defences in the landscape. 3.6 Discussion - The Importance of Historical and Geographical Context This chapter has provided the historical and geographical contexts within which the thesis is based, in order to allow that data collected to engage with the history of the study period. The defence history of Australia is rich and detailed, and an understanding of this history is necessary in order to later analyse the extent to which the material evidence reflects this history. This chapter has outlined several aspects of Australia's history which explain the historical processes that influenced the development of Australia's military defences. The processes were described in themes in order to engage with current cultural heritage methods of analysis. Further, the use of themes allows for an analysis of history, rather than 48

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region simply the presentation of an historical analysis. As such, the chapter established that Schemes of Defence, Australia's political relationship with Britain, Australia's quest for political independence, the impact of technological advances and the arrival of airwar all played important roles in forming Australia's defence history. Accordingly, the data presented in the following two chapters will be analysed within these contexts. The geographical context of the study area was presented in order to explicate how the topography of the Sydney Region influenced the development of Sydney's defences; particularly in regard to their spatial patterns. The discussion illustrated how the vulnerability of Sydney's deep water harbour and long exposed coastline influenced the placement of defence sites. It also illustrated the link between the type of attack expected by Sydney and the geography of the Sydney Region. In order to establish how and why Sydney's defences developed from 1788 to 1945, the following chapters will present the data collected and then analyse this data within these important historical and geographical contexts. 49

Purely Delensi1'e.\Ieasllres - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region Figure 3.4: The general topographic features of the Sydney Region. 35 35 Geological Survey of New South Wales. 2004. Geological Sun!C}! of New South Wales: Sydney Basin Stratigraph,V. M. R. NSW. Mineral Resources NSW. 50

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region 'The defence policy of Australia is framed to protect the country from aggression... aggression signifies a direct attack upon the country. To protect the country from these threats they suggest that Australia should concentrate on shore batteries, aircraft, destroyers, submarines and mines, while maintaining the organization for a large land force to fight the possible invader on Australian soil.,,1 Chapter 4: 'Protect the Country from Aggression' - Defensive Measures Evidence of 4.1 Introduction The preceding two chapters outlined previous military archaeological research in Australia and the historical and geographical background of the study period. These chapters established that Australia, in particular Sydney, has a complex military history which has resulted in the construction and development of defence sites across the landscape. These sites are the result of over two hundred years of defence construction and their development is related to the geography of the Sydney Region and developing Australian and British defence schemes and policies. In order to investigate how Sydney's defence networks and systems developed, and the possible factors which caused physical changes in the defence landscape, various sources and types of data have been consulted. Utilising the approach employed by other landscape studies of defence networks, especially the approach used by English Heritage, this study relies on an integrated approach to the evidence; exammmg pnmary documents, secondary documents and the material record. I Senator the Rt. Hon. Sir George Pearce, KCVO. op.cit. 1933, p.3-4. 51

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region 4.2 Types of Data As previously stated, individual sites have not been examined in depth; rather this study is an overview study of the development of the network of defence sites in the Sydney Region and as such, utilised data which would assist in a network approach to examining Sydney's homefront defences. For each site under consideration, data were collected relating to the sites' major phases of development and growth (or decline). 'Major development' has been defined for this study as development which changed the primary defensive purpose of the site (for example a change from the site being an antiship site to an anti-aircraft site) or to the type of site (for example a site changing from a light battery to a medium battery). The development was recorded under the date it occurred; when various dates were available for the development of a site, the date indicated in primary documentary sources was used. Sites which had a range of dates available, for example 1870-1873, the earlier date (eg. 1870) was used and the date is indicated as 'circa'. Table 4.1 outlines the types of data collected, defines their scope and justifies their inclusion in regards to how they relate to the research questions outlined in Chapter 1.2. 4.3 Sources of Data The investigation utilised data collected from a number of primary and secondary written sources, in addition to limited site survey. The archival research entailed the examination of primary documentary sources (comprising archival military files, maps, plans and aerial photographs) from the National Australian Archives [NAA] (Sydney and Canberra repositories), the Australian War Memorial archives and the National Library of Australia archives. Only files accessible through the computer catalogues (approximately 10% of all files at these repositories have been placed on the computer catalogue) and 52

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region classed as 'open' were consulted. There are extraordinary amounts of such files relating to defence sites in these repositories and approximately three and half weeks was spent collecting data from these sources. There were many more files related to defence sites in Sydney which are classified as 'closed' or 'not yet examined',2 and a number of relevant files are held at the NAA Melbourne repository. Due to time constraints, these files were not viewed or considered for this investigation. Data were collected from secondary documents comprising published books and articles, archaeological studies, cultural heritage studies, heritage listings and theses. A complete survey of cultural heritage and archaeological reports was not undertaken; only reports easily accessible to the author through industry contacts were consulted. The Australian Heritage Bibliography (formerly known as HERA) was thoroughly searched in order to help determine the scope of work which has been carried out on defence sites to date. Additionally, a complete survey of relevant aerial photographs was not undertaken due to time constraints. Aerial photographs for sites were only researched when data from other sources was not available for a particular site. A thorough investigation of heritage listings for defence was undertaken utilising the Register of the National Estate, the NSW State Heritage Register, Local Government Local Environmental Plans, The National Trust of Australia (NSW) Register, The National Trust of Australia (NSW) Industrial Sites List Index and the Defence Department's Heritage Register. These registers generally provided recent (updated within the last ten years) information of the condition of the site and the extent of material remains. 2 Archival records in government repositories cannot by law be viewed until they are thirty years old. In addition, military files have to be examined by Defence and classed 'open' in order to be publicly available. Special requests can be made to have the class of 'closed' or 'not yet examined' files reviewed by Defence; however this process can be very lengthy and was not undertaken for this investigation. 53

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region Finally, data were collected from limited site survey. Once again, due to time constraints detailed site survey was not undertaken. The table in Appendix B outlines which sites were surveyed for this investigation. A thorough physical examination of defence sites was not undertaken for this investigation, however such an undertaking in the future would greatly compliment a network investigation as a second phase of research, particularly in regards to the extent of survival of the material remains. 4.4 Data Categorisation The data were sorted into categories and entered into a database (created using Microsoft Access 2000). A large number of data categories were developed in order to maximise the analytical potential of the data, in relation to the research questions developed in Chapter 1.2. That is, the data categories were designed for their potential to provide information which would illustrate how and why Sydney's defences developed and changed, and what factors may have influenced this change. Table 4.1 outlines each data category, the types of relevant data it encompasses, limitations associated with the category and how the inclusion of the category will assist with the data analysis. 4.5 'Fight the Possible Invader' There is a wealth of data available for the examination of modem homefront defence systems, comprising documentary and material evidence. The data selected for this investigation was chosen for its ability to assist with the analysis of how the networks and systems of defence in the Sydney Region changed over time and what factors may have influenced this change. The data was sorted into categories within the database to allow for a broad analysis of large scale spatial changes and the categories were chosen for their ability to answer the theses' research questions. 54

'Purely Defensive Measures' - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region The results derived from the combination of documentary and archaeological data will be presented in the next chapter, followed by an analysis of the findings and a discussion of the results. 55

Table 4.1: Data Categorisation DATA TYPE DEFINITION DATA CATEGORIES JUSTIFICATION Site Number Manually assigned; each site was assigned a N/A The unique Site Number allows each site unique number and each instance a unique sub- to be recognised as an individual defence number. For example, Bare Island was assigned installation. The sub-numbers allow the the number '21' and had 6 instances, therefore it development of the site to be tracked and contained the numbered entries 21-1; 21-2; 21-3; linked to possible causes of change. 21-4; 21-5 and 21-6. More complex sites which contained several distinct defence installations, such as Georges Head, had a unique number and sub-numbers were assigned to each separate installation. Site Name As referred to by the controlling organisation. N/A The Site Name allows each site to be recognised as an individual defence installation, generally as the name it is referred to in Military documents and files. Location Suburban Location. N/A Noting the Suburban Location in the database allows for greater mapping capability of sites as a Grid Reference Point was not able to be coordinated for each site. Grid Reference Easting and Northing; plus the relevant map N/A The Grid Reference Point allows for details, where available. accurate plotting of sites on maps. Date Dale of instance, indicated by a major phase of N/A The Date of each instance will allow for development which affected the defence capabilities of the site. the investigation of change over time that occurred at each site and to Sydney's defence landscape. 56

DATATVPE DEFINITION DATA CATEGORIES JUSTIFICATION Defence System These categories have been allocated according The Defence System category is a key to Defence Schemes and Plans of Defence attribute that relates to the investigations' Abbreviation prepared for NSW by the controlling Full Name / Details focus on examining the developing government / government department. I1H Imperial Inner Port lackson network of defence in the Sydney Additional categories have been added IOH Imperial Outer Port lackson Region. This attribute will assist the according to observations carried out during the IlL Imperial In-land examination of the growing complexity study. CIH Colonial Inner Port lackson of Sydney's defence systems and the COH Colonial Outer Port lackson types of attack the system was designed CIL Colonial In-Land to defend against, and will enable an CSD Colonial Seaward Defence investigation of change to the defence CBB Colonial Botany Bay Defence network over time. This category FDR Federation Rationalisation indicates the network of defence within SFI Sydney Fortress WWI the Sydney Region that each site formed SDI Seaward Defences WWI a component within. IWE Inter War Expansion SF2 Sydney Fortress WWII (Fixed Defences) AA2 Anti-Aircraft WWII SD2 Seaward Defences WWII Site Type Manually classified; this category is partially The category of Site Type will indicate based on established military terminology for Abbreviation Full Name / Details changes in the defence network over site types. Additional categories have been auo Guns only - no supporting buildings, works etc time. Specifically, it may assist with an added according to observations carried out ERD Earthen redoubt investigation of changes in technological during the study. FRT Fort advances, changing defence needs and BTC Battery - Casemate development of Schemes of Defence. BTL Battery - Light BTM Battery - Medium BTH Battery - Heavy GSL Gun Station - Light GSM Gun Station - Medium GSH Gun Station - Heavy MGS Machine Gun Station SLT Searchlight SBM Submerged Mine SBI Submerged Indicator Loop SBB Submerged Boom Net OBP Observation Post ASN Anti-Submarine works - non specific DFD Defensive Ditch 57

DATA TYPE DEFINITION DATA CATEGORIES JUSTIFICATION DFO Defensive Obstacle DFF Defensive Fence DFW Defensive Wall ADP Aerodrome - Parent Operational ADS Aerodrome - Satellite Operational ADO Aerodrome - Operational ELG Emergency Landing Ground - Operational ELA Emergency Landing Area - Operational EAA Emergency Alighting Area Site Function Manually Classified; the Function is defined as The category of Site Function may the primary intended purpose that the site was Abbreviation Full Name / Details indicate the changes to Schemes of designed for. ASI Anti-Ship Defence; Inner Harbour Defence for the Sydney Region. It is ASO Anti-Ship Defence; Outer Harbour related to the Defence System category, The Function categories are based on the type of ASC Anti-Ship Defence; Coastal however it is categorised according to the attack the site is designed to defend against and ASB Anti-Ship Defence Botany Bay type of attack it was designed to defend the area that the site is situated within. ASH Anti-Ship Defence Hawkesbury River against within a specific geographical ABH Anti-Submarine Defence; Sydney Harbour region. It may indicate the growing ABC Anti-Submarine Defence; Coastal complexity of warfare over the centuries, ABH Anti-Submarine Defence; Hawkesbury River technological advances and changing defence policies and schemes. AAC Anti-Aircraft Defence; Coastal AAH Anti-Aircraft Defence; Sydney Harbour AAV Anti-Aircraft Defence; Vulnerable Points AAA Anti-Aircraft Defence; Aerodromes AAO Anti-Aircraft Defence; Other AIC Anti-Invasion Defence; Coastal All Anti-Invasion Defence; Inland AIR Anti-Invasion Defence; Sydney Harbour NLD No Longer used for Defensive purposes 58

DATA TYPE DEFINITION DATA CATEGORIES JUSTIFICATION Gun Range; The mean horizontal range of the gun. The Gun Range has been included as it is horizontal Abbreviation Full Name I Details generally presumed that the range of guns NB: Calculated as the mean of the minimum and I Less Than 1,000m utilised in defence dictates the placement maximum range of the gun when firing a 2 1,000m - 1,999m of the site and as such, that advances in standard shell for the gun type. 3 2,000-2,999m technology impacted on the location of 4 3,000-4,999m sites. Thus, the inclusion of the gun 5 5,000-9,999m range category will allow this 6 10,000-14,999m presumption to be analysed for accuracy 7 of its effect on the landscape of defence. 15,000-19,999m 8 20,000-24,999m 9 25,000-30,000m Presence of Manually Assigned; the likely presence of The Presence of Material Remains is an Material Remains material remains at the site. Abbreviation Full Name I Details important basis for future studies and I Certain: investigations. Verified by site inspection. 2 Almost Certain: Verified by archaeological report, archaeological study, heritage report or heritage listing. 3 Probable: Not verified by site inspection or recent reports, however archival documents relating to the military disposal of former defence sites indicate that it is likely to contain archaeological remains (generally subterranean). 4 Uncertain - Not verified by site inspection, recent documents or archival documents. 5 Almost Certain: Not to retain any material evidence 6 Certain: Not to retain any material evidence 59

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region "The Port of Sydney is of paramount importance to the national economy and to the conduct of war.,,] Chapter 5.0: The Conduct of War -Results of the Data Collection 5.1 Introduction The defences constructed for Sydney in the period 1788 to 1945 comprised a large number of sites which operated together as distinct defence networks and defence systems for the protection of the Sydney region. This chapter initially categorises each site recorded in the study into a typology and provides a description of each site type. The typology also details the location and construction date of each site and notes the types' defensive function. 2 The value of a scopeing study which quantifies the number and location of defence sites that were constructed for modem homefront defence was noted in Chapter 2.3 and 2.4. A scopeing study can determine the geographical extent of defence construction and allow the establishment of a site typology based on form and function, which in turn provides the basis for a subsequent outline of defence networks and systems. Accordingly the typology presented in this chapter, which ascertains the form, function, date of construction and locations of Sydney's defences, provides the basis for the following evaluation of how the individual sites were incorporated into a defence network and how they operated as a defence system. I NAA; A816, 14/3011369. Ports of Sydney, Newcastle and Port Kembla. Outline Planfor the defence of 2 The Defence Forces did not have one single system of categorising their sites; with each Department of Defence referring to sites in different ways and through separate jurisdictions. Accordingly, an overall typology established by cultural heritage specialists will be of particular use if sites are to be categorised and rarity established. This is also the case in Great Britain (J Schofield [English Heritage] 2004, pers. comm., 2003. 60

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region For the period of 1788 to 1945, a total of one hundred and thirty-one individual sites in the Sydney Region were recorded for this study as purely defensive sites. These sites extend across the entire geographical region of the study area and include twentytwo site types. These individual sites operated within four broad defensive networks (a group of sites designed to defend against a particular type of attack); those networks being anti-ship defence, anti-invasion defence, seaward defence and anti-aircraft defence. Together, these four defence networks operated within the Sydney region at different times as one defence system (a group of individual defence sites which were strategically designed to work together as a comprehensive system of integrated defence for a specific area); however, only during World War II were all four networks of defence in operation for Sydney's defence, as part of a large system of defence known as Fortress Sydney. 5.2 Site Typology A total of twenty-two site types with purely defensive functions were identified and recorded for the Sydney Region between 1788 and 1945. These sites provided protection for anti-ship, anti-invasion, seaward defences and anti-aircraft attack. A definition of each site type, and the name, date of construction and location of each site recorded follows. 5.2.1 Guns Only (GUO) This site type comprises the placement of guns for defensive purposes with no additional defensive structure. Only one site was recorded for this category, a gun site at Windmill Hill in the Sydney CBD, which operated four six-pounder guns from 1801 to 1807 for anti-ship defence. 61

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region 5.2.2 Earthen Redoubt (ERD) A small, temporary fortification constructed of earth, used to protect guns and men from attack. Three sites were recorded as earthen redoubts: at Dawes Point, Fort Macquarie (Bennalong Point) and Garden Island. 3 All sites were constructed by 1800 as defence against ships and were later replaced by permanent fortifications. 5.2.3 Fort (FRT) A permanent fortification constructed of stone for defence against attack by seaborne vessels. The fort usually contained magazines, stores and barracks. A total of six sites were recorded as Forts, most constructed in the late 1700s and the first half of the nineteenth century, as follows: 4 DATE CONSTRUCTED NAME LOCATION 1789-1791 Dawes Point Battery or West Fort Dawes Point 1817-1820 Fort Macquarie or East Fort (see Bennalong Point Figure 5.1 and 5.2) 1804-1805 Fort Phillip Observatory Hill 1854-1856 Fort Denison Sydney Harbour 1880-1885 Henry Head Fort Botany Bay 1883-1886 Bare Island Fort Botany Bay 3 Johnson, W. A. 2003. Showdown in the Pacific: A Remote Response to European Power Struggles in the Pacific, Dawes Point Battery, Sydney, 1791-1925. Historical Archaeology 37 (114); and Watson, Captain J. H. 1916. The Early Fortifications of Port Jackson. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Australian Historical Society, Vo13, No. 8. p.385-402. 4 Watson, op.cit. 1916; and Austin, Colonel M. 1962. The Early Defences of Australia. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Australian Historical Society, Vol 49, Pt 3. p.l89-204; and Dick, R. 2002. Cultural and Heritage Assessment of Cape Banks. MA Thesis, Public History. Sydney, University of Technology Sydney. 62

"Purely De(cn,I'll'e,\feasures" - Archacological Networks and Systcms of Defence in the Sydney Region PLAN or SITE: Of fort MACQUARIE, Figure 5.1: Image of Fort Macquarie, or Figure 5.2: Plan of Fort Macquarie, or East East Fort at Bennalong Point. 5 Fort, at Bennalong Point. 5.2.4 Battery - Casemate (BTC) A covered battery or covered complex of gun emplacements within the walls of which casemates were places through which to fire guns. Two casemate batteries were recorded, both constructed at Georges Head (Armoured Casemate and Rock or Beehive Casemate 6 ) in the late 1870s and early 1880s for anti-ship defence (Figure 5.3). Figure 5.3: Georges Head Armoured Casemate in 1892 showing the breech loading (BL) 6 inch Mark V gun in the upper casemate. Note the armour plating to the ceiling and walls. 7 5 State LibraI)' of NSW SPF/121. ca, 1875. Fort Macquarie and the North Shore. 6 Gojak, D, 1985, c~ydney Harbour Fortifications Study Stage fi - Archaeological Survey Volume I. Prepared for the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service; Gojak, D. and R. H. E. Harvey, 1985. Sydney Harbour Fortifications Archival Study Final Report: Volume Il Sydney, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service. 7 A WM; P0099 1.032, 63

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region 5.2.5 Battery - Light (BTL) A structure designed to protect a gun emplacement. Batteries were classed as light, medium or heavy depending on the calibre and firing range of the guns it contained. A Light Battery consisted of Nordenfeldt machine guns for anti-ship defence or 40mm Bofors for anti-aircraft defence. Eleven Light Batteries were recorded m the Sydney region at the following locations: 8 DATE NAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTED 1892 Green Point Nordenfeldt Green Point Emplacements 1893 Georges Head Nordenfeldt Georges Head Emplacements 1939 Garden Island 40mm Bofors battery Garden Island 1940 Bradley's Head 40mm Bofors battery Bradley's Head 1941 Bunnerong Point 40mm Bofors Bunerong Point battery 1941 Cockatoo Island 40mm Bofors battery Cockatoo Island 1941 Sydney Harbour North and South Sydney Harbour Py Ions (Figure 5.4) 40mm Bofors battery 1941 Georges Head 40mm Bofors battery Georges Head 1942 Fort Denison 40mm Bofors battery Fort Denison 1942 Hawkesbury River Bridge 40mm Broken Bay Bofors battery 1942 Tumbledown Battery 40mm Bofors Croppy Point (Broken battery Bay) 8 Gojak, op.cit. 1985; A WM 54, 709/20/54. 1942. Standing Order~ Sydney Anti-Aircraft Group; A WM 54, 709120155. 1943. [Standing Orders (including enemy) - Artillery:] Anti-aircraft Defence, Sydney AA [Anti-aircraft] Group, by Lt-Col P L Moore, March 1943; AWM 193,363 Part IO (c.1040). 1939-1940. [Eastern Command "G" Branch records:} 2 District Base Defence Scheme; A WM 54, 709/20/65. 1945. [Standing Orders (including enemy) - Artillery:] Instructions and Standing Orders for co-operation of spotted aircraft RAAF with Coast Artillery Sydney Fire Command (Mar 1945); NAA; SP 1 04817, 51/4/683. 1938-1943. Policy - AA [Anti - Aircraft] Statement of AA Defences. 64

"Pl/re~}' Defensll'e.lfeasl/res ' - Archaeological Net\\ orks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region Figure 5.4: Plan of Sydney Harbour Bridge anti-aircraft light batteries comprising 40mm Bofors on the north and south py Ions 9 5.2.6 Battery - Medium (BTM) A structure designed to protect a gun or artillery emplacement. Batteries were classed as light, medium or heavy depending on the calibre and firing range of the guns it contained. A Medium Battery consisted of 3-inch, 3.7-inch or 4.5-inch guns which were used for anti-ship (close defence) and anti-aircraft defence. Twenty-seven Medium Batteries were recorded in the Sydney region at the following locations: 10 9 Sydney Harbour Bridge Strength of and duties of Guard. Diagram of Harbour Bridge showing Sentry Posts and Anti Aircraft Gun Emplacements, 1943. A WM; 54,4221718. 10 AWM 54, 709120/54. op,cit; AWM 54, 709/20/55. op,cit.; AWM 193,363 Part 10 (c.1040). opcit.; AWM 54, 709/20/65. op.cit.; NAA; SPI04817, 51/4/683. op.cit.; NAA SP553/1, 49. 9111/1941. Coast Artillery Sydney Fire Command and OCLSs Standing Orders; NAA; SP553/1, 56. 1942-1945. Survey Data Sydney Coast Artillery; NAA SP553/1, 78. 1940 1942. Standing Orders Provisional Coast & AA Defences - E Command. 65

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE NAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTED 1939 Homby Battery (anti-ship) South Head 1939 Signal Battery (anti-ship) Signal Hill 1939 West Head Battery (anti-ship) West Head, Broken Bay 1940 Glebe AA Gun Battery Glebe 1940 Hunters Hill AA Gun Battery Hunters Hill 1940 Moore Park AA Gun Battery Moore Park 1940 Rose Bay AA Gun Battery Rose Bay 1941 Banks Naval Gun Battery (anti-ship) Little Bay 1941 Blue Fish AA Gun Battery North Head 1941 Georges Heights AA Gun Battery Georges Heights 1941 Henry Head Battery (anti-ship) Botany Bay 1941 Juno Battery (anti-ship) Juno Point, Broken Bay 1941 Malabar AA Battery Long Bay 1941 Shelley AA Gun Battery Royal National Park 1941 Taronga AA Gun Battery Mosman 1942 Bronte AA Gun Battery, Bronte 1942 Brooklyn AA Gun Battery Brooklyn 1942 Callan Park AA Gun Battery Callan Park 1942 Chullora AA Gun Battery Chullora 1942 Clarendon AA Gun Battery Clarendon 1942 Dangar Island AA Gun Battery Dangar Island, Broken Bay 1942 Dee Why AA Gun Battery Dee Why 1942 Flat Rock AA Gun Battery Flat Rock Point, Broken Bay 1942 Kensington AA Gun Battery (Figure 5.6) Kensington 66

"Purely Defensil'e Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defcnce in the Sydney Region 1942 La Perouse AA Gun Battery La Perouse 1942 Prospect AA Gun Battery Prospect Dam 1942 Richmond Aerodrome AA Gun Battery Richmond Figure 5.5: Aerial photograph of Brighton 5.25 inch anti-aircraft Gun Battery, Sydney. 21-01-1 941. I I Figure 5.6: Aerial photograph of 3.7 inch anti-aircraft Gun Battery, probably Kensington Golf Links.12 5.2.7 Battery - Heavy (BTH) A structure designed to protect a gun or artillery emplacement. Batteries were classed as light, medium or heavy depending on the calibre and firing range of the guns it contained. A Heavy Battery consisted of 5.25 inch anti-aircraft, 6-pounder close defence anti-ship or 9.2 inch counter-bombardment anti-ship guns. Seventeen Heavy Batteries were recorded in the Sydney region at the following locations: \3 DATE NAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTED 1893 Signal Hill 9.2" Battery (anti-ship) Signal Hill 11 Australian War Memorial: CRE, AA DC, Camouflage - Home Security phofographs of Long Bay, Artarmon, North Head, Kensington, Brighton and Moore Park, AWM; 113, MH 1/161. 12 Ibid. 13 Gojak, 1985. op.cit.; Fullford, op.cit;. A WM 54, 709/20/54. op.cif; A WM 54, 709/20/55. op.cif.; AWM 193,363 Part 10 (c. 1040). op.cif.; AWM 54, 709/20/65. op.cif.; NAA; SPI04817, 51/41683. Op.Cif.: NAA SP55311, 49. Op.cif.; NAA; SP55311, 56. op.cif; NAA SP55311, 78. op.cif. 67

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE NAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTED 1938 Banks 9.2" Battery (anti-ship) Cape Banks 1939 1940 1941 1941 North Head 9.2" Battery (anti-ship) North Head (Figure 5.8) Outer Middle Head Battery (anti- Middle Head ship) Green Point 6-Pounder Battery (anti- Green Point ship) Long Bay AA Gun Station Long Bay 1941 1942 1942 1942 1942 1942 1942 1942 1942 1942 1944 Rose Bay AA Gun Station Bankstown AA Gun Station Brighton AA Gun Station (Figure 5.5) Concord AA Gun Station Freemans Reach AA Gun Station Georges Head 6-Pounder Battery (anti-ship) Gore Hill AA Gun Station Iron Cove AA Gun Station Milperra AA Gun Station North Ryde AA Gun Station Christison Park AA Gun Station (Figure 5.7) Rose Bay Golf Course Bankstown Brighton Golf Links Concord Freemans Reach Georges Head Gore Hill (Artarmon) Iron Cove Milperra North Ryde Vaucluse 68

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region Figure 5.7: Drawing of a 6 inch gun at Middle Head, 1942, by Richard Ashton. 14 Figure 5.8: One of the two 9.2 inch antiship counter-bombardment gun at North 1- Battery, North Head. ) 5.2.8 Searchlight (SL T) Searchlight emplacements comprised a light mounted on a platform or stand for locating enemies, observing their movements and plotting their location. They could operate independently or within a battery complex, for anti-ship and anti-aircraft defences. A total of thirty-one searchlights were recorded in the Sydney Basin, as follows: 16 DATE NAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTED 1899 Green Point anti-ship Searchlight No Green Point 4 1927 Outer Middle Head Battery anti-ship Middle Head Searchlight 1939 West Head Battery anti-ship Searchlights West Head 1941 Bare Island anti-ship Searchlight Botany Bay 14 AWM; ART23645. 15 Fullford, op.cit., p. 77. 16 Fullford, Ibid.; NAA; SP55311, 49. 1944. Coast Artillery - Sydney Fire Commander's and OCSL's Standing Orders; NAA SP553/1, 20. 1941. Particulars o(coast and Anti Aircraft Defence. 69

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE NAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTED 1941 Henry Head anti-ship Searchlight Henry Head 1941 North Head anti-ship Searchlight North Head 1942 Auburn AA Searchlight Auburn 1942 Brookvale AA Searchlights (Figure Brookvale 5.9) 1942 Castlecrag AA Searchlights Castlecrag 1942 Chester Hill AA Searchlights Chester Hill 1942 Cooks River AA Searchlights Cooks River 1942 Eastwood AA Searchlight Eastwood 1942 Epping AA Searchlights Epping 1942 Frenchs Forest AA Searchlights Frenchs Forest 1942 Fullers Bridge AA Searchlight Lane Cove (Figure 5.10) 1942 Georges Head Casemate AA Georges Head Searchlight 1942 Georges Head AA SL Georges Head 1942 Glade Bay AA Searchlights Glade Bay 1942 Gungah Bay AA Searchlights Oatley 1942 Leichhardt AA Searchlights Leichhardt (Ordnance Store) 1942 Miranda AA Searchlights Miranda 1942 North Bexley AA Searchlight North Bexley 1942 Pymble AA Searchlight Pymble 1942 Quarantine AA Searchlights Middle Head 1942 Quibray Bay AA Searchlights Kurnell 1942 Ramsgate AA Searchlights Ramsgate 1942 Steel Point AA Searchlights Neilsen Park, Vaucluse 1942 Strathfield AA Searchlight Strathfield 1942 The Spit AA Searchlight The Spit 70

"Purely DefensIve lvleasures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE NAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTED 1942 Turramurra AA Searchlights Turramurra 1945 Berry Island AA Searchlight Sydney Harbour Figure 5.9: 150cm AA Searchlight at Brookvale, 15 July 1943. 17 Figure 5.10: 150cm AA searchlight at Fullers Bridge in Lane Cove, 1944. 18 5.2.9 Submerged Mine (SBM) A group of mines placed on the floor of a harbour for anti-submarine (seaward) defences. The mines were controlled by Mine Watching Stations sited on land with views of the minefield area. Submerged Mines were placed in channels north and south of the Sow and Pig Reef in Sydney Harbour in the late 1800s and within Broken Bay during World War II (Figure 5.11).19 17 AWM; 053689. 1943-07-15. Brookvale, NSW.. Nx1l4006 Lieutenant N. K. Shaw (left) and n172174 Bombardier e..j. S. Russell of the 1st Australian anti-aircraft searchlight regiment training school, adjust a cooling fan on a 150cm searchlight. 18 A WM; p00202.002. 1944. Lane Cove, NSW, Sergeant dolly Meagher of the Australian women's army service (A WAS) standing on a 150 c. Radar controlled searchlight at Fullers Bridge. (lent by Mrs. L. E. Tonkin). 19 Plan of Port Jackson Showing Minefield area, Guns and Arcs of Fire, 1894, in Gojak, D. and R. H. E. Harvey. 1985. Sydney Harbour Fortifications Archival Study Final Report: Volume 11. Sydney, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service; A WM; 125436. 1945. Minefields being blown up by the Royal Australian Engineers at Broken Bay, 1945. 71

"Purely Dejimsive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE NAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTED 1878 Sydney Harbour Minefield (Figure Sydney Harbour; Between Green 5.l1) Point and Georges Head 1942 Hawkesbury River Minefield (Figure Hawkesbury River; between Juno 5.12) Point and Elanor Bluffs, and Juno Point and Hungry Beach Figure 5.11: Approximate location of the minefields laid across the harbour between Green Point (at the right of the picture) and Bradley's Head (to the left of the picture). Figure 5.12: Minefields being blown up by the Royal Australian Engineers at Broken Bay, 1945. 20 5.2.10 Submerged Indicator Loop (SBI) A series of submerged electric power cabling laid across a sea or harbour floor to provide protection to the entrance of a harbour. The Indicator Loops provided early warning of enemy vessels by detecting their movement over the loops and relaying this information to a Loop Station. 20 AWM; 125436. 1945. Minefields being blown up by the Royal Australian Engineers at Broken Bay. /9./5. 72

"Purely Defensive,I/easures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region In 1942, two series of indicator loops were constructed in Sydney Harbour, an Inner system within the harbour itself and an Outer loop system placed outside the harbour, stretching from Manly Beach in the north to Bondi in the South (Figure 5.13).21 An indictor Loop system was also installed in Broken Bay in 1942 (Figure 5.14).22 Figure 5.13: Plan of the Outer Indicator Loop system (indicated by the red arrow) located outside the entrance of Sydney Harbour, stretching from Curl Curl in the north to Dover Heights in the south. The inner indicator 100E system is indicated by the blue arrow. 3 Figure 5.14: Plan showing the location of the Broken Bay Indicator Loop system (indicated by the red arrow), between Barrenjoey Head and Box Head. 24 21 A WM; 246, 9/24. 1942. Sydney: Approaches to Port Jackson. Chart No 20512 Serial No 18, No 21 and unserialised HMAS AIS [Anti-Submarine} School dgec/ifi[oversi::.e item). 22 NAA; A816, 14/301/369. Ports of Sydney, Newcastle and Port Kembla. Outline P1anfor the defence of 23. A WM; 246, 9/24. 1942. Sydney: Approaches to Port Jackson. Chart No 20512 Serial No 18, No 21 and unserialised HMAS AIS [Anti-Submarine} School dgec/i/f [Oversize item). 24 NAA; A816, 14/3011369. Ports of Sydney, Newcastle and Port Kembla. Outline Planfor the defence of 73

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region 5.2.11 Submerged Boom Net (SBB) Booms were nets placed across harbours to block access to ships, vessels and submarines during World War 11. Booms were constructed of steel mesh connected to submerged concrete pylons or piles. One or two guarded gateways were placed in the net. In the Sydney region, boom nets were placed in Sydney Harbour between Green Point and Georges Head (Figure 5.15) and in Broken Bay (Hawkesbury River) two boom nets blocked the bay at Dangar Island; the first situated between Flat Rock Point and the south west point of Dangar Island, the second running south east from the east point of Dangar Island toward Croppy Point (Figure 5.16)?5 All three boom nets were constructed in 1942 and were used for anti-ship and anti-submarine defences. Figure 5.15: The Sydney Harbour Boom Net, c 1942?6 Figure 5.16: Plan of Hawkesbury River defences with location of boom nets highlighted. 27 25 WooIlahra History and Heritage Society. 1995. Sydney Harbour's World War If Anti-Torpedo and Midget Submarine Boom Net: Photographs. Double Bay, WooIlahra History and Heritage Society Inc; Macken,1. 2002. Pittwater's War. Sydney, lames 1. Macken. 26 A WM; P03338.005. 1942. The Sydney boom defences, looking fi'om George's Head towards Green Point. 27 NAA; SP104817, S 10111793. 1943. Defence Hawkesbury River and railway bridge. 74

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region 5.2.12 Anti-Submarine Works - Other (ASN) Other anti-submarine works recorded include dolphins (underwater stone or concrete blocks used as submarine blocks), Submarine Miners Observation Posts and Submarine Firing Stations. The Submarine Miners' Station housed facilities to maintain the electronically triggered minefield in Sydney Harbour as defence against enemy ships. The dolphins were constructed in the late 1800s between Green Point and Georges Head, and worked in conjunction with the Green Point Submarine Miners Firing Station, the Georges Head Submarine Miners Observation Station and the Georges Head Submarine Miners Observation Station 28. By 1903 all of these anti-submarine seaward defences were no longer in use. 5.2.13 Observation Post (OBP) Observation Posts were used for visual detection and observation of enemy movements. They generally comprised a stone or concrete tower, of no more than three levels. They operated as part of gun batteries for anti-ship and anti-aircraft defences or in conjunction with searchlight stations. There were no independent observation posts recorded for this study. Figure 5.17 and 5.18 illustrate observation posts which were part of gun batteries; South Head Battery and Banks Battery. 28 Gojak, op.cit. 1985; Royal Australia n Artillery History Society Inc, op.cit. 75

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region Figure 5.17: The Observation Post at Banks Battery. Cape Banks, 09-07- 1946?9 Figure 5.18: An observation post at South Head, just to the east of Hornby Lighthouse. 3o 5.2.14 Defensive Ditch (DFD) This site type comprised a ditch. usually temporary, constructed for defensive purposes (such as anti-tank ditches) or as additional protection for a defensive complex. A defensive ditch was constructed at Bradley's Head in 1871, presumably to provide added anti-invasion protection to the Bradley's Head fortifications. 31 Photographic evidence indicates that a number of anti-invasion ditches were constructed in the northern beaches area of Sydney during World War 11 for the protection of the Pirtwater peninsular (such as the defensive ditch at Mona Vale illustrated in Figure 5.19 below); however documentary or field research has not been undertaken to confirm the location of such ditches. 29 AWM; 130161. 1946. Sydney, NSW. /9-/6-07-09. The observation posf at the fixed defences camp, Cape Banks. La Perouse. 30 Image courtesy of Godden Mackay Logan. 31 Gojak, op.cif. 1985. 76

"Purely Dejensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region Figure 5.19: Plan of anti-invasion defensive ditch at Bradley' s Head. 32 Figure 5.20: Defensive anti-tank ditch in construction at Mona Vale. 33 5.2.15 Defensive Obstacle (DFO) An obstacle, usually temporary, constructed as an anti-invasion measures. Obstacles comprised lines of barbed wire or concrete dolphins protecting beaches from enemy landings, and rows of wooden or concrete tetrahedrons which acted as tank traps, "The provision of anti-tank defences at Sydney... was necessitated by the exigencies of the tactical situation then prevailing... 3-1 Defensive obstacles were recorded for this study at the following locations: 35 DATE CONSTRUCTED NAME 1942 Bayview to Pittwater Tank Traps (Figure 5.22) 1942 Bondi Beach Barbed Wire 1942 Manly Beach Barbed Wire (Figure 5.21) LOCATION Bayview to Pittwater Bondi Beach Manly 32 Royal Australian Artillery History Society Incorporated. 1993. New South Wales World War 11 Fortification Study Final Report. Manly, Sydney, Prepared for National Parks and Wildlife Service. D Macken, 1. 2002. Pittwater's War. Sydney, lames l. Macken, p.14. 34 NAA; A5954, 28617. 1944. War Cabinet Agendum No 10//44, "Construction of Anti Tank Defences in the Sydney, Newcastle and Port Kembla Areas. 35 NAA; SP857/6, PH13483. lih May 1951. Bayview-Pittwater (NSW) removal of tank trap piles (box 930); NAA; SP459/1, 5551112434. North Brighton Anti-Tank Obstacle; NAA; SP459/1, 540111505. Construction of Anti-Tank Block, Newport; NAA; SP459/1, 5551112497. 1944. Bondi Beach: Removal of barbed wire ect [Box 343]. 77

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE CONSTRUCTED NAME LOCA TION 1942 Newport Anti-Tank Block Newport 1942 North Brighton Tank Obstacles North Brighton 1942 Collaroy Beach Traps Collaroy Figure 5.21: Manly sea wall barbed wire, 27 December 1942. 36 Figure 5.22: Plan of the concrete tetrahedrons and elevated anti-tank ditch at Pittwater. 37 5.2.16 Defensive Wall (DFW) A wall constructed for anti-invasion purposes or as additional defensive for a defensive emplacement such as a battery. All defensive walls in Sydney were constructed from stone. The three walls were constructed at the following locations: 38 DATE CONSTRUCTED c. 1879 1939 NAME LOCATION Bradley's Head Defences Bradley' s Head (Figure 5.23) Banks Battery (Figure 5.24) Cape Banks 36 NAA; SP857/6, PHI1342 [11]. 1942. Manly Sea Wall [looking towards North Steyne Surf shed, view of barbed wire and tank trap, 27 November 1942, Job 2431, Negative number IIj. 37 NAA; SP857/6, PH13483. Bayview - Pittwater (NSW), removal of tank trap piles [Box 930j. 38 Gojak, op.cit. 1985. Fullford,op.cit. 78

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE CONSTRUCTED NAME 1939 North Battery LOCATION North Head Figure 5.23: Plan of Bradleys Head wal1. 39 Figure 5.24: Image of Cape Banks, 5 September 1946. The former Banks Battery wall is indicated by the red arrow. 40 5.2.17 Aerodrome - Parent Operational (ADP) The RAAF classified their aerodromes by their role within the system of aerodromes; each system consisted of a parent aerodrome supported by satellite aerodromes and occasionally operational aerodromes. Parent aerodromes were principal bases of major operations, supply or training and were part of anti-aircraft defence. In the Sydney Region, a total of four parent aerodromes were recorded at the following locations: 41 DATE NAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTED 1925 Richmond Aerodrome (Figure 5.26) Richmond 1940 Bankstown Aerodrome Bankstown 39 Gojak, 0 and Harvey, R. H. E. 1985. Sydney Harbour Fortifications Archival Study Final Report: Volume /1. Sydney, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service. 40 A WM; 129984. 1946. La Perouse, NSW. 1946-05-09. View from cliff tops at Cape Banks, where a battery of two 9.2" coastal artillery guns are stationed. A small skelelon staff of eastern command fixed defences will maintain the guns until the guns revert fo the permanent military forces. 41 NAA; A9716, 1541. 1943-1944. RAAF - Directorate of Works and Buildings NSW Airfield data Sheets, 1943-1944. Aerodromes and Landing Ground.s in Australia, Volume A, New South Wales. 79

"Purely Defensive,\feasures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region 1940 Mascot Aerodrome Mascot 1942 Fleurs Aerodrome (Figure 5.25) Bankstown Figure 5.25: The landing strip at Fleurs Aerodrome, c 1945. 42 Figure 5.26: Richmond aerodrome, 1936. 43 5.2.18 Aerodrome - Satellite Operational (ADS) The RAAF classified their aerodromes by their role within the system of aerodromes; each system consisted of a parent aerodrome supported by satellite aerodromes and occasionally operational aerodromes (Figure 5.28). Satellite aerodromes were satellites to a parent aerodrome and were used to relieve operations at the parent aerodrome. They were part of anti-aircraft defence. In the Sydney Region, a total of nine satellite aerodromes were recorded, at the following locations (their parent aerodrome is noted in a separate column):44 42.NAA; SP857/6, PH2554. 1942-1951. Land at Fleurs Aerodrome [Box No 865]. 43 Image courtesy of Godden Mackay Logan. 80

"Purely D~fensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region DATE NAME LOCATION PARENT CONSTRUCTED AERODROME 1942 Bringelley Aerodrome Bringelley Fleur 1942 Castlereagh Aerodrome Castlereagh Richmond 1942 Marsden Park Aerodrome Marsden Park Richmond 1942 Menangle Aerodrome Menangle Schofields 1942 Pitt Town Aerodrome Pitt Town Richmond 1942 Ravenswood Aerodrome Ravenswood Fleur 1942 The Oaks Aerodrome The Oaks Camden 1942 Wall grove Aerodrome Wallgrove Fleur (Figure 5.27) 1942 Hoxton Park Aerodrome Hoxton Park Bankstown Figure 5.27: Plan of Wallgrove aerodrome, with the landing strip running diagonally across the plan. 44 NAA; A9716, 1541. op.cif. 81

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region Figure 5.28: Plan of RAAF stations, operational bases and strategic air routes in Australia. 45 5.2.20 Aerodrome - Operational (ADO) The RAAF classified their aerodromes by their role within the system of aerodromes; each system consisted of a parent aerodrome supported by satellite aerodromes and occasionally operational aerodromes. Operational aerodromes were not attached to a parent aerodrome and were bases of air operations or by separate arms of the Air Force, such as the Central Flying Training or the Fleet Air Arm. They were part of anti-aircraft defence. In the Sydney Region, a total of three operational aerodromes were recorded, at the following locations: 46 45 NAA; A5954, 61817. Royal Australian Air Force. Air War Effort - Section I - Map ()( Australia showing routes of air [2cmj. 46NAA;A9716, 1541. op.cif. 82

"Purel)' [)ejef/s/ve,\leasures" - Archaeological Nctworks and Systems of Dcfence in the Sydney Region DATE NAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTED 1942 Bargo Aerodrome Bargo 1942 Camden Aerodrome (Figure 5.29 Camden and 5.30) - Central Flying Training 1942 Schofields Aerodrome - Fleet Air Schofields Arm Figure 5.29: Camden Aerodrome, showing the air strips' primed surface on the west (left of the image) and the sealed surface on east (right of the image).47 Figure 5.30: Hideout No 14 at Camden Aerodrome. Hideouts were strategically placed at aerodromes to conceal fighter planes and thus camouflage the aerodrome. 48 5.2.22 Emergency Alighting Area (EAA) In addition to aerodromes, the RAAF implemented a system of emergency landing grounds, landing areas and alighting areas. There were no emergency landing grounds or landing areas recorded in the Sydney Basin, and only one Emergency Alighting Area. The alighting area, which was in use from 1942, was located at Nepean Dam. 49 47 NSWSL; GPO 1-23743. 1943. Camden Aerodrome: primed surface westside, sealed surface on east. 48 NSWSL; GPO 1-23748. 1943. Camden Aerodrome: Hideout No. 1-1. 49NAA;A9716, 1541. op.cif. 83

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region 5.3 Defence Networks The typology presented above established the form, function, dates and locations of sites constructed in Sydney as purely defensive sites. This information is used to provide the basis for the following evaluation of how the individual sites were incorporated into defence networks (a group of sites designed to defend against a particular type of attack). Four types of defence networks were recorded during this study, detailed as follows. Figure 5.31 illustrates the site types that operated within each defence network. 84

Figure 5.31: Fixed Defences Seaward Defence Harbour Mine Harbour Mine Defensive Wal.l. Anti Submarine Works Harbour Boom Net Defensive Ditch Indicator Loops Defensive Obstacl.e Aerodrome; Parent Operational. Observation Post Aerodrome; Satel.l.ite Operational. Emergency Landing Area 85

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region 5.3.1 Anti-Ship Defence Anti-Ship defences were constructed for the defence of Sydney against an attack by sea-borne vessels. Ships, and later submarines, were the primary method of attack during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and throughout the twentieth century they continued to play an important role in warfare. A total of twenty-eight anti-ship defence sites were recorded during this study. Importantly, the development of the anti-ship defence network through time can be tracked from the location of the individual sites; Sydney's anti-ship defence system expanded from the initial inner harbour defences to then cluster in the outer harbour by the mid 1800s and the Sydney Harbour headlands in the late 1800s. In the twentieth century a large portion of sites were operating from Sydney's coastline. Simultaneously, an increase in the range of anti-ship artillery (guns) and a decrease in the number of guns per site occurred throughout the study period. As outlined in Chapter 3.5, the Sydney region has been vulnerable to seaborne attack as it is comprised of a long, heavily populated coastline with several deepwater harbours which contain vital industrial centres. The sites recorded in this study, which predominately cluster along the coastline and in the harbours, confirm the vulnerability afforded by Sydney's coastline. Further, the large percentage of sites constructed for anti-ship defence illustrates the pre-eminence of naval warfare. Only in the years immediately before and during World War 11 did other networks of defence rise to prominence, specifically anti-aircraft defence. 86

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region 5.3.2 Anti-Invasion Defence The anti-invasion 5o defence network was constructed for protection against attacks aimed at invasion. In the Sydney region these defences comprise walls, ditches, tank traps and tank obstacles. This category of defence represents the second smallest number of defences recorded for this study, with a total of only eleven sites. Anti-invasion defences were only built in the 1870s and in 1942 during World War II. The small number of sites would appear to confirm that invasion of Sydney was generally not expected; rather small scale raids and attacks formed the framework for Sydney's defence policy. However, the small number of recorded sites is also likely related to the poor paperwork work carried out during the public panic to defend the Sydney area after the midget submarine attack on Sydney Harbour in 1942. 5.3.3 Seaward Defence Seaward defences were constructed for further protection against attacking ships and particularly, submarines, entering Sydney's harbours. Unlike ships, submarines were generally undetectable from the land-based batteries and other defensive structures. Thus, seaward defences offered protection against submarines entering the harbour undetected and gaining access to dockyards, naval stations, industrial sites and other vulnerable sites. This category of defence represents the smallest number of defences recorded for this study, with a total of only nine sites. The network of seaward defences comprised anti-submarine nets, booms, mines and obstacles which before World War II were primarily sited within Sydney Harbour and during which they then extended outside the harbour, onto the Continental plate and into Broken Bay (the mouth of the Hawkesbury River). 50 Anti-invasion defences are also referred to at times in military literature as 'field defences'. 87

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region The seaward defence network offers further validation of the vulnerability of the Sydney region to sea-borne attack. The sites recorded in this study, which predominately cluster along the coastline and in the harbours, confirm the vulnerability afforded by Sydney's coastline. The World War II seaward defences also demonstrate the growing technology of warfare; submarines and anti-submarine defence. 5.3.4 Anti-Aircraft Defence Anti-aircraft (AA) defences were constructed as protection against air attack. They are the only category of defence recorded for the study whose construction was limited to the twentieth century only. Anti-aircraft defences represent the largest category of sites constructed within the Sydney region, represented by a total of eighty-three sites. The sites, which comprise aerodromes, AA gun batteries and AA searchlights were nearly all constructed during the years immediately before and during World War II. The network of AA defences illustrates the rapid growth of air war technology and its impact during the twentieth century and particularly, it's importance during World War II. The AA network, the largest of all Sydney's defence networks, illustrates the immense scale of warfare that World War II precipitated. The eighty-three AA sites recorded within the Sydney region demonstrate the geographical influence that AA defences had on Sydney's landscape of defence, with the defence network spreading inland for the first time and the size of airfields creating large changes to the defence landscape. 88

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region 5.4 Discussion - Systems of Defence The discussion presented above illustrates that throughout Sydney's history, both individual defence sites and networks of defence types have been in operation for the protection of Sydney from attack or invasion. However, in addition to networks of defence, individual sites have also operated together as coherent defence systems (a group of individual defence sites which were strategically designed to work together as a comprehensive system of integrated defence for a specific area). Chapter 2 established that modern defence sites did not exist in isolation from each other, but were part of an integrated network for the defence of geographically large areas and that in order to be effective, investigations of modern defences need to consider each site as a component of an inter-connected defence system. Accordingly, each group of sites which were designed to strategically operate together for the defence of Sydney are chronologically described below in order to expound how the individual sites operated as a cohesive system. The vast changes that Sydney's defence experienced through time and across space become evident when examined as such. 5.4.1 Imperial Defence Stage I This system comprised the group of defences constructed for the protection of the colony of New South Wales from 1788 to 1853. The system, constructed during the first stage of Sydney's Imperial defence, consisted of anti-ship defences only; gun sites, earthen redoubts and forts. The Imperial Defence Stage I system was designed to protect the port and city of Sydney, both of which were located deep within Port lackson in the inner harbour area. Due to the range of naval guns during this period, potential attackers or invaders would need to navigate very close to the city in order 89

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region for it to be within the range of their guns. As such, the defence sites (whose guns were of relatively short range during this period) were located within Sydney Cove. 5.4.2 Imperial Defence Stage 11 During the second stage of Imperial defence, from 1853 to 1877, Sydney's defence system geographically expanded into the middle section of the harbour and consisted of the defence sites built in the first stage of Imperial defence, which were now strengthened into permanent forts, and newly constructed guns batteries. The system comprised only anti-ship defences and was designed to protect the growing port and city of Sydney by drawing potential aggressors into the inner and middle harbour areas where they would be in range of guns, whose firing range and speed had begun to expand. 5.4.3 Imperial Defence Stage III The final stage of Sydney's Imperial defence comprised a rapidly expanding (geographically and numerically) defence system for the protection of Sydney from 1877 to 1901. This system was the first to provide for more than anti-ship defence; consisting of anti-ship, seaward and anti-invasion networks of defence (although the latter network comprised only two sites). Many of the earlier defence sites were made redundant although several of the sites in the middle area of the harbour were strengthened during this period with the addition of new armament or with new batteries built over the old site. In addition, many new defences were constructed in the outer harbour, along coastal areas just outside the harbour heads and within Botany Bay for anti-ship, seaward and anti-invasion defence. This enlarged system required a complex organisational structure in order to control the operation of the 90

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region various sites and networks as one system. This organisational structure was detailed in several Schemes of Defence which clearly outline the complexity of the system. 5.4.4 Post -Federation Defence The post-federation system of defence, operating from 1901 to 1918, illustrates the rationalisation and down-grading of Sydney's defence system that occurred as part of Federation in 1901, when the colony of New South Wales inventoried and transferred its defence and military properties to the Commonwealth of Australia. The newly formed Commonwealth rationalised Australia's defence assets in light of a lower perceived level of threat, economic rationalisation and a process of streamlining the various colonies individual defence systems into a system which could be operated for the defence of Australia as a whole. As such, the majority of the existing defence sites and networks were made redundant, with very few sites remaining active. The arrival of World War I did not expand the system of defence and very few defences were manned and active during the war years. The small system of defence which was operating allowed for anti-ship defences only. 5.4.5 Inter War Expansion During the twenty year period between the wars (1918-1939) Sydney's system of defence was greatly expanded, particularly from c 1930-1938 with threat of war in the Pacific intensifying and as the newly established RAAF consolidated its position as an independent arm of Australia's defence forces. This period comprised the build-up of large anti-ship defences along Sydney's vast coastline and the establishment of some aerodromes on the Cumberland Plain. In particular, this period is characterised by the strengthening of anti-ship armaments and inter-site communication systems, and the 91

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region development of complex organisational structures to control and effectively man the expanding system of defence. 5.4.6 Sydney Fortress World War 11 - Stage I This system, operating from the outbreak of war in 1939 until c 1942, was the largest of the defence systems that have protected Sydney; comprising both the largest amount of sites and covering the largest geographical area. Though it was only in operation for three years, it was the most complex of all Sydney's defence systems and included anti-ship, seaward, anti-aircraft and anti-invasion defence networks. In 1942, approximately one hundred and ten individual defence sites were in operation for this system. Many previously redundant defences were upgraded for this system and the largest number of new defence sites was constructed during this period. In addition to sites of a purely defensive nature, this system included the largest number of military organisational and operational sites, such as barracks, training camps, recruiting centres, command centres, stores, naval ships, communication network sites and radar stations (not recorded as part of this study). This system illustrates the vast amount of expenditure that Australia committed to the Allied defence at the height of World War II and the fear generated by a war seemingly on Australia's doorstep. The system witnessed the geographical spread of sites across the entire Sydney region, large scale long-range armament and many defence networks which were operating to protect Sydney. 5.4.7 Sydney Fortress World War 11 - Stage 11 From late 1942 to early 1943, Sydney's system of defence began to decline, corresponding with the retreat of Japan in the Pacific and the subsequent decrease of direct threat of attack on Australia. From 1943, and particularly from 1944 onwards, 92

"Purely Defensive Measures" - Archaeological Networks and Systems of Defence in the Sydney Region the role of many defence sites was downscaled, new works and works in progress were decommissioned and the system began shutting down many defence sites. By late 1944, very few of Sydney's defences were in active operation and the process of dismantling and decommissioning was well under way. 5.5 Conclusion This Chapter outlined each purely defence site recorded for this study and established a basic typology of defence sites which were operational fore Sydney's defence. The typology was then used as the basis for the following outline of the four defence networks (groups of sites designed to defend against a particular type of attack) which comprised Sydney's defence. Of particular importance was the discussion on Sydney's defence systems (a group of individual defence sites which were strategically designed to work together as a comprehensive system of integrated defence for a specific area), which considered the sites not as isolated individuals, but as vital elements of larger cohesive defence systems. With these systems and networks of defence established, the following chapter is able to discuss the material evidence presented in this chapter with the historical evidence presented in Chapter 3, in order to understand the data within the context of Australia's military history and to establish possible causes for the changes apparent in Sydney's defences from 1788 to 1945. 93

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region "Themes are webs we weave to better understand the history and storylines of a place. They are not rigid straitjackets into which we must place our heritage assessments.,,] Chapter 6.0: 'To Better Understand the History' - Material Evidence and Historic Themes 6.1 Introduction As discussed in Chapter 3, archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists have been criticised for failing to engage with military history when assessing and managing military sites. With the extent of Sydney's defences established in the previous chapter, this chapter analyses the networks and systems of defence in light of the historic themes presented in Chapter 3. The chapter aims to establish an understanding of the material data within the context of Australia's military history and to discuss possible causes for the changes apparent in Sydney's network of defence from 1788 to 1945. The material evidence is reviewed in the following discussion through the five historic themes chosen for this study to provide an understanding of the processes and contexts which influenced the development of Sydney's defences and to demonstrate the level to which the defences demonstrates Australia's military history. 6.2 Sheltering Under British Rule The history presented in Chapter 3 clearly established that the role of New South Wales as a colony of Britain and the role of Australia as a British dominion has greatly 1 Domicelji, Joan. 1991. In Australian Heritage Commission. 2001. Australian Historic Themes - A framework for use in heritage assessment and management. Canberra, Commonwealth of Australia. 94

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region influenced Australia's military history. The important consideration is the extent to which this influence is apparent in the material record of Sydney's defence network. The influence of British rule is clearly apparent in the design and location of Sydney's pre-190 1 defences. The design of these early defences reflects the classic British nineteenth century design of permanent forts built with skilled labour using traditional, long-lasting materials (stone masonry). Sydney's Fort Phillip, Dawes Point Fort, Fort Macquarie, Fort Denison, Henry Head Fort, Bare Island Fort, Georges Head Rock Casemate, Middle Head and Outer Middle Head defences, South Head defences, Bradley's Head defences and the Steel Point Battery are all classic examples of British fortification architecture. In addition, the location and strength of these pre-1901 sites illustrate New South Wales's primary defensive reliance on the British Royal Navy for her protection. 2 The location of the above sites and the small of number of them strategically indicate that they were designed for protection against small scale raids and bombardment; not against a large force or an invasion. That is, the sites were designed for local defence only, not for the protection of a geographically large area, as expressed in the documentary evidence of the period. The defences built in the late 1800s especially reflect the design philosophy of the British Royal Engineers Jervois and Scratchley of strong harbour fortifications for local defence. 3 It would have been virtually impossible for these sites to defend Sydney against a large invading naval force. Thus, the theme of New South Wales's reliance on the strength of the British Empire and its Navy is clearly evident in the design, number and location of the pre-190 1 defences of the Sydney Region. 2 Millar, T. B. op.cit. 1991. p.25. 3 Wyness, I. B. F. op.cit. 1965. 95

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region 6.3 Growing Independence The theme of New South Wales and Australia's growing independence is evident in the pre and post-1901 material record. New South Wales's growing independence is briefly evident in the defences built in the years following the withdrawal of British garrisons from the Australian colonies (1870 to 1877). These defences, though still constructed in the British style of masonry forts, were hastily built, often poorly conceived and generally not completed. 4 Although some showed evidence of new inventive design, such as the modular defences at Georges Heights,S the defences were still based on British strategy and did not veer from earlier policies of local harbour defence. In addition, this period of independence in defence construction was short-lived with the arrival of British military engineers Jervois and Scratchley in 1877, who replanned Sydney's defences in line with British imperial defence policies. 6 Like the pre-federation era, an analysis of the material evidence for growing independence in the post Federation era (1901 onwards) is well illustrated by this theme. Although the material evidence indicates that Sydney's defence network was based on British defence policy well into World War '11; that is, the small number and clustered locations of sites around the harbour and inner coastline indicate that it only allowed for local defence against minor attacks and raids, and still relied primarily on the protection of the British Royal Navy and Britains Singapore Strategy: 7 with the fall of Singapore in 1942, the subsequent collapse of the Singapore Strategy and the onset of the Pacific War, the very large number of sites and the expanding area in which they operated indicate that 4 Gojak, D. op.cif. 2002 5 Gojak, D. op.cif. 1985. 6 See Chapter 3.3.4 for further details on the work of Jervois and Scratchley. 7 The Singapore Strategy was the British defence policy based on the premise that the security of British interests in the Asia Pacific region rested on the construction of a massive British naval base in Singapore which would adequately repel any size attack from serious threat in the region (considered to be Japan). Although the strategy had its critics, Australia still relied primarily on the strategy as the basis of its defence policies in the first half of the twentieth century. 96

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region Australia was taking more control of its defences. This expansion was dominated by anti-aircraft gun batteries, aerodromes, anti-ship batteries, seaward defences and antiaircraft searchlights. Although these sites were still only constructed for local defence of vulnerable areas, as per the earlier defence policy based on imperial protection, the immense number of sites constructed and the geographical areas in which they operated indicate that Australia was taking more control of its defences. This control was likely linked to both Australia's growing independence and her greater fear of attack in the second half of World War H. However, in order to identify the extent of this independence in the material record, a survey intensively studying a sample of individual sites may be better suited than a network analysis. For example, an in-depth study of the use of Australian bases by the American forces or of standardised military designs for twentieth century defences may be beneficial. Standardisation, which became the norm for twentieth century defences, "The whole of the building program had to be designed, estimated and constructed in the shortest possible time. Standardisation therefore became essential,,8 may indicate whether Australia was following British or American defence design and would also allow for the investigation of local deviations from standardisation and hence, an indication of the extent of Australia's growing relationship with America over Britain. 6.4 Responding to Escalating Levels of Threat It is presumed in most secondary literature relating to Australia's defence, particularly in cultural studies of defence sites, that the fear of invasion by foreign forces was one of the main causes of for the development 'of Sydney's defence network. However, an examination of the primary literature does not support this conviction. In 8 NAA; A5954, 618/7. Royal Australian Air Force, Air War Effort - Section II, Empire Air Training Scheme, Chapter XX The Building Programme, 1'1 January 1941, p.72. 97

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region primary defence documents relating to New South Wales and Australia's defence policies consulted for this study for the period 1788 to 1945, a threat of invasion of New South Wales or Australia was not considered probable or likely. Rather, New South Wales and Australia were only ever seriously considered, by the government and imperial policy makers, as being at threat from minor raids and attacks designed to harass or cut-off supplies. For example, in 1909 the Defence Policy for New South Wales stated that "Much exaggeration of danger and many erroneous conceptions of what is really to be apprehended might have been avoided if the above facts [generally stating that invasion and even attack on NSW is very unlikely] were more widely realised.,,9 Further, a revised edition of this policy notes that "The invasion of Australia and the employment of [enemy] battleships in Australian waters are not contingencies which can reasonably be expected in the near future."1o Indeed this document goes on to say that defences are required "to create a sense of internal security which may prevent panic.,,]] In 1923 the Committee of Imperial Defence stated that "... the local defences of British [imperial] ports need not provide... complete protection against prolonged operations, but they should be sufficiently formidable to act as a powerful deterrent to attack by hostile warships.,,12 Additionally in 1940, a RAAF plan of defence noted that "There is little to suggest that Japan at this moment contemplates or would invade Australia" and that Sydney is only vulnerable to "attack in force... with the aim object of crippling the industry of the Commonwealth", "... attacks with the object of neutralising fleet bases to the Royal Navy", "Tip-and-run raids... only to harass or temporarily 9 Hutton, Major General E.T.H. 11911894. Defence Scheme of New South Wales, Aide-de-Camp to the Queen, Commanding New South Wales Military Forces, p.1. io Hutton, E. T. H., Major-General C.B,. op.cit. 1909, p.10. 11 Ibid., p.9. 12 AWM; 124,3/79. Committee ofimperial Defence, Oversea [sic] Defence Committee. March 8, 1923. Coast Defence. Forms of Attack and Forms of Defence. Memorandum of the Joint Oversea [sic] and Home Defence Sub-Committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence. 2, Whitehall Gardens, S.W.1, p.3. 98

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region destroy vital points" and "Naval blockade and attack of coastal trade.,,13 The threats outlined in such statements were certainly worth defending against, however the statements do need to be examined not simply as military strategies, but as political statements to bolster public sentiment. When viewed as such, they do not support the war scare and invasion causes cited so often in secondary documents. As such, in order to ascertain them whether the material evidence supported the claim of invasion prompting defence development, the phases of major defence construction in the Sydney Region have been correlated against periods of escalating possible threat to the security of New South Wales and Australia (see Figure 6.1 below). 13 NAA; A1196, 1515011167. 17 th June 1940. Eriefmemorandum on the immediate air defence of Central area, p.1-2. 99

Figure 6.1: Perceived Level of Threat and Defence Construction DATE PERCEIVED LEVEL OF MAJOR DEFENCE CONSTRUCTION OTHER SIGNIFICANT EVENTS CORRELATION THREAT 1785- Napoleonic Wars Dawes Point Battery constructed New South Wales colonised by the Possible 1815 East Battery constructed British "Georges Head" Battery constructed Sydney established as a town Fort Phillip constructed Fort Macquarie constructed (in place of East Battery) 1853 - Crimean War begins Middle Head defences constructed Probable 1856 South Head defences constructed Dawes Point: Strength of guns increased; Fort strengthened with outer stone walls 1854 Britain joins Crimean War Kirribilli Battery constructed Probable Work re-commences on Fort Denison 1859 Threat of French invasion of ~ Australia Station was delineated as a Unlikely Britain distinct Naval area - administrated by the British 1861 - American Civil War begins Fort Macquarie: Strength and number of guns Unlikely 1865 increased 1877 Russo-Turkish War begins Brad1ey's Head: 68-Pounder battery constructed; 1870: Britain withdraws all Imperial Possible Defensive wall and ditch constructed Steel Point battery constructed Outer Middle Head battery constructed Georges Head Rock Casemate constructed Georges Head Submarine Miners Depot Observation Post constructed Green Point Submarine miners Firing Station constructed Army Garrisons and Troops from Australian colonies - Colonies required to provide for their own defence 1877: Defence experts Colonel Sir William Jervois and Lieutenant- Colonel Perter Scratchley arrive in New South Wales for 4 year visit 100

DATE PERCEIVED LEVEL OF MAJOR DEFENCE CONSTRUCTION OTHER SIGNIFICANT EVENTS CORRELATION THREAT 1894 Sino-Japanese War Green Point Nordenfe1dt emplacements Probable constructed Georges Head Nordenfeldt emplacements constructed Signal Hill 9.2" Gun emplacement constructed Bare Island Fort strength of guns increased 1899 Second Boer War begins Green Point: Searchlight installed Unlikely 1914 World War I begins Unlikely 1932 Japan invades Northern China Unlikely 1939 World War II begins Banks Battery constructed Probable North Battery constructed Signal Battery constructed West Battery constructed Garden Island defences reinstated 1940 1940: 1940: Allied collapse in Europe Probable 5 AA Gun batteries constructed 2 aerodromes constructed 1 battery constructed 1941 - Singapore falls to Japan (February 1941-1942: Probable 1942 1942) 25 AA Gun batteries constructed Japan bombs Darwin (February 3 Anti-invasion defences constructed 1942) 14 aerodromes constructed Japanese midget submarines shell 3 tank traps constructed ~dney (May 1942) 101

DATE PERCEIVED LEVEL OF MAJOR DEFENCE CONSTRUCTION OTHER SIGNIFICANT EVENTS CORRELATION THREAT 9 gun batteries constructed 31 searchlights installed 7 seaward defences constructed 1942 Battle of Coral Sea (May 1942)- Late 1942-1943: effective end of Japanese ability to Defence construction halted invade Australia Defence sites decommissioned 102

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region The results of Table 6.1 indicate a probable link between increasing levels of threat and the construction of defences in only six out of thirteen cases. A further five cases indicate no discernable link between increasing levels of threat and the construction of defences, and the final two cases indicate that although there was possible correlations other factors were operating which also provided the possible cause of development. Therefore, it appears that although at times escalating threat levels were likely the main cause of development in Sydney's defence network, they are by no means the sole or main cause at all times of development from 1788 to 1945. As such, this historic theme should be used discerningly for particular sites only. 6.5 The Advancing Technology of War The development of Sydney's defences, especially their defence type and location, appear to clearly reflect the theme of The Advancing Technology of War. For example, changes in naval warfare, artillery range and the use of seaward defences all had an impact that is discernable in the material record of Sydney's defence network, "This has been the result of the advent of the submarine, the increased range of the gun and torpedo armaments of ships, and the necessity for providing against hostile mine-laying in the approaches to a port.,,14 The development of the Sydney's anti-ship defence sites is closely related to advances in naval warfare and artillery range. A clear movement of sites from the inner harbour (such as Dawes Point, Fort Macquarie and Fort Phillip) to the outer harbour (such as Georges Head, Steele Point and Bradley's Head) and then to the coast (such as North Head, South Head,and Banks Battery) represents the concurrent advances in design of naval 14 AWM; 124, 3/79. Committee of Imperial Defence, Oversea [sic] Defence Committee, Coast Defence. Forms of Attack and Forms of Defence. Memorandum of the Joint Oversea [sic] and Home Defence Sub Committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence. 2, Whitehall Gardens, S.W.l, March 8,1923, p.3. 103

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region warships (which gradually became stronger and were able to support larger and more powerful artillery) and the range and power of artillery (which increased from approximately 1,638 metres at Dawes Point in 1788, to 26,400 metres at Banks Battery in 1939).15 Over time therefore, warships were able to sit further away from Sydney and yet still bombard the city and its vulnerable points. As such, defences became sited further away from the city to provide maximum counter-bombardment defence. In particular, the 9.2" gun batteries at Cape Banks and North Head (with a range of approximately 26,400 metres) represent the massive increase in gun range and subsequent movement of sites to coastal positions to protect against ships that could be sited well over 20,000 metres (20 km) offshore and still the retain the ability to attack Sydney (Figure 2.4 illustrates the arcs of fire for the medium and heavy World War II anti-ship defences). Throughout the study period, the number of defence site types in Sydney increased from nine site types, consisting mainly of forts, batteries and searchlights for anti-ship defence, to over 20 site types for anti-ship, anti-aircraft, seaward and anti-invasion defences. The massive increase in site types in the material record also well represents the theme of The Advancing Technology of War. The complexity of defence systems, the introduction of sophisticated defence weapons and growing scale of warfare over the study period resulted in a larger range of defence capabilities, as science and industry began to dominate defence. Examples of advancing technology include the large expansion of seaward defences, primarily comprising indicator loops systems in Sydney Harbour and Broken Bay (see chapter 5.2.10), and the use of coordinated defence systems such as searchlight and radio stations which had telecommunicated links to enable the swift response to threats. A detailed examination of individual sites is likely to further highlight the link between this 15 Artillery ranges based on Dawes Point Iron 12-pounders and Banks Battery 9.2" gun. 104

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region historic theme and the material record, as the design of individual site types evolved to incorporate advancing technology. For example, many gun batteries evolved to include sophisticated systems of range finding and battery plotting rooms which could accurately plot the position of an enemy ship and quickly communicate this information to the gunners and an entire defence network, seaward defence, was controlled by a central command centre located at Dover Heights. 6.6 Responding to the Advent of Airwar The advent of airwar had one of the most dramatic effects on the development of Sydney's defence networks over the study period and the material record very clearly demonstrates this historic theme. The documentary record indicates that by 1923 the growing importance of airwar was being recognised "Our ability to defend our large and vital centres against air attack is a matter which must occupy the mind of all... Aircraft is one and anti-aircraft guns are the other form of defence against this type of attack,,16 and that by 1936 the need to base defence strategies on air war was clear, "... in the aircraft we have a weapon.. of such vast capacity for development that it must be of primary consideration in framing all future schemes of defence.,,17 1940 the importance of airwar had become vital "It appears obvious that Australia's first defence against any of the above threats, is by air attack.,,18 When formed in 1921, the RAAF operated only one aerodrome in the Sydney Region at Richmond. However, by 1940 there were three aerodromes in the region and by 1942 there were sixteen operating aerodromes in the Sydney Region alone. The aerodromes 16 "Statement of the government' policy regarding the defence of Australia" delivered at Sydney by the Minister of Defence (Senator the Rt Hon Sire George Pearce, KCVO), 25/911913, p.7. 17 NAA; A5954, 877/6. 1936. Air Force - Air Defence of Australia. Sir John Salmond's statement of the value of his scheme in the defence of Australia. 18 NAA; All96, 15/5011167. 17 th June 1940. Brief Memorandum on the Immediate Air Defence of Central Area, p.1. 105

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region covered large areas of land and comprised runways, air strips, hangers, hideout areas and depending on the size and role of the aerodrome, a number of support buildings. The aerial photograph in Figure 5.25 demonstrates the large area that major aerodromes grew to encompass. In addition, by the end of World War II a total of eighty-three sites were operating in the Sydney Region for anti-aircraft defence, representing the largest single class of defence sites ever constructed in the region. 19 This resulted in the formation of a network of training aerodromes, operational aerodromes, airbases, safe air deployment routes, antiaircraft gun stations and anti-aircraft searchlight stations. It was not the construction of aerodromes in Sydney's relatively flat western areas change the spatial distribution of Sydney's defences, but the construction of forty-two anti-aircraft batteries by 1942. These batteries were generally constructed to provide defence for strategically vulnerable points, such as bridges, factories, supply depots and aerodromes, and hence were not confined to coastal positions. When discussing the theme of airwar in relation to individual sites it is important to note that the anti-aircraft sites were part of a large network of anti-aircraft defence that operated across the entire Sydney Region and that no one site operated exclusively of all others. 6.7 Discussion - Themes for Heritage Analysis As noted in Chapter 3.3, the national and state (NSW) themes that have been developed by the relevant statutory authorities for the investigation of defence sites are currently quite limited; under the general theme of 'Defending Australia' in the 19 Radar sites and Radio Stations, which were not included as part of this research (see Chapter 1.3 for justification), would further increase this number by approximately nineteen Radar sites (Fenton, M., Simmonds, E. and Smith, N (eds). 1992. RAAF Radar in World War 11. Forster, NSW, EW & E Simmonds) and 48 Radfo Stations (NAA; A9716, 1541. 1943-1944. RAAF - Directorate o/works and Buildings -NSW Airfield data Sheets, 1943-1944. Aerodromes and Landing Grounds in Australia, Volume A, New South Wales) in New South Wales alone. 106

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region Commonwealth historic themes are three sub-themes: 'Providing for the Common Defence', 'Preparing for Invasion' and 'Going to War' and the NSW Historic Theme is 'Defence.' These extremely broad themes fail to offer the ability of material evidence to connect with the wide range of historical processes which this chapter demonstrated are closely related to the defence of New South Wales and Australia. ' Thus, unless a cultural heritage specialist was very knowledgeable in Australia's defence history, their historical analysis of a site under examination would not be aided by the themes offered from the Commonwealth or State heritage bodies. Indeed, the failure of archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists to effectively engage with Australia's military history would indicate that the current themes are inadequate. If historical themes are to be used by archaeologists and cultural heritage specialists the themes need to be far more specific in order more effectively act as the analytical tool which links relevant historical contexts to the physical evidence of a site or area. As such, they need to be able to sign-post a researcher to consider various historic processes which are often related to Australia's defence sites. The themes used in the above historic analysis represent major processes and events which the analysis indicated are likely to have impacted on Australia's defence sites, networks and systems. By utilising these specific themes, an analysis was able to be undertaken which considered the changing nature of Sydney's defences within their historic context and thus provided a clear explanation of how the material evidence and Australia's historical processes are linked. The use of themes clearly provide a tool to understand the data within the context of Australia's military history and to establish possible causes for the changes apparent in Sydney's network of defence from 1788 to 1945. 107

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region "... an understanding of the fabric is only being produced: we know where the sites were, when they were there and why; and we know what they looked like and (in some cases) what survives... A firm foundation exists therefore from which to build.,,] Chapter 7.0: 'An Understanding of the Fabric - Discussions and Conclusions 7.1 Introduction This concluding chapter presents the major findings established in the thesis, which utilised documentary and material evidence to investigate the development and cause of development of Sydney's defence networks and systems from 1788 to 1945. The chapter reviews the findings relating to individual defence sites, the development of defence networks and how the defence networks and systems operated for the protection of Sydney. Importantly, the chapter summarises the causes of change apparent in the development of Sydney's defence and highlights areas in need of further research. 7.2 Defence Sites Importantly, the thesis has produced a record of the extent of the Sydney's defence network; including the location of defence sites, identifiable site types, dates of operation and site functions. This information has to date not been readily available for the Sydney Region, and has thus hindered our understanding of Sydney's defence sites, particularly in terms of cultural heritage studies and heritage significance assessments. Although further I Schofield, John. 1998. Concluding Remarks. In English Heritage, (eds). 1998. Monuments a/war: The evaluation, recording and management a/twentieth-century military sites. London, English Heritage. 108

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region studies examining site types in more explicit detail will be needed, a firm foundation from which to work has been created. 7.3 The Development of the Network Sydney's defence network developed substantially from 1788 to 1945. Throughout the period there were definite phases of development, between which the network remained relatively stable. Geographically the network developed from an initial cluster of sites around the inner harbour, to a cluster of sites around the outer harbour and then to the inner coastal areas. This was followed by a rapid expansion of sites to the rest of Sydney's coastline, and to finally include a small network in Broken Bay and large number of sites around the inland areas of the Sydney Region and the Cumberland Plain. Numerically, the network only very gradually expanded until 1942, when it increased by over eleven hundred percent (see Figure 7.1). By the conclusion of war in 1945 the network had once again decreased to more modest numbers. Figure 7.1: Number of sites over time 1788 1800 1854 1878 1894 1914 1939 1942 1945 Over the study period the number of site types also gradually increased, once again peaking in 1942 (see Figure 7.2). 109

'Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region Figure 7.2: Number of site types over time 1788 1800 1854 1878 1894 1914 1939 1942 1945 7.4 Defence Networks and Systems The thesis established that each individual defence site operated within a defence network, and that each network was part of a large defence system which operated for the protection of Sydney (see Figure 7.3 below). Figure 7.3: Site Organisation SYSTEM: Sydney Fortress World War II - Stage I NETWORK: Anti-Aircraft Defence SITE: Rose Bay Anti-Aircraft Gun Battery The defence systems operated at various times for the integrated defence of the Sydney region as a whole, and generally comprised more than one defence network. For example, the 'Sydney Fortress World War 11 - Stage I' system of defence contained four 110

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region networks of defence (anti-ship, anti-aircraft, anti-invasion and seaward defence) and over one hundred individual sites. The four distinct networks for Sydney's defence, the antiship defence network, the seaward defence network, the anti-invasion defence network and the anti-aircraft'defence network, were, based on defensive functions of the sites that operated within them. Each of these Jletwor.!<s was in operation at various time periods. In particular, the importance of the individual as part of a larger network and system was revealed.. For example, the batteries at Middle Head, designed for anti-ship protection,. operated in conjunction with the anti-ship batteries at South Head and the Seaward aefences (minefields) across the harbour for the defence against ships seeking to gain entry to Sydney Harbour. Thus, the full importance of individual sites is not apparent until the, netwqrk' and system that they operated within is understood. This is a particularly imperative point for cultural heritage significance assessments, which in the case of defe~e sites need to understand the significance of more than just the individual site they are assessmg. 7.5 Causes of Change The thesis undertook to analyse possible causes for the development of Sydney's network over time, in particular examining how New South Wales and Australia's relationship with Britain, Australia's growing independence, fluctuating levels of threat, advancing military teclmology and the advent of airwar affected the network. The examination of the documentary history revealed that all of the above factors are very likely to have had an effect on the development of Sydney's network; each factor has been a large consideration in the history of the study period and such large historic themes are important to consider when examining the context of Sydney's defences. The interesting question which was considered in Chapter 6 was to what extent did these factors affect the 111

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region development and whether the effects were discernable in the material record. Without a doubt, Australia's role as a colony of Britain (1788 to 1901), advances in technology and the advent of airwar each had a large and vital effect on the development of Sydney's defences and these effects are abundantly clear in the material record of both the defence networks and systems, and on the individual site. Interestingly, fluctuating levels of threat did not have the same level of effect. Although at times a rise in threat resulted in a large phase of defence construction which is obvious in the material record, there were other times when there was an equal rise in threat and no concurrent development of the defences, and times when there were other factors that may have been affecting the change. The study showed that this factor should be used carefully and discernibly when examining the context of Sydney's defences, rather than being used for all sites and networks. New South Wales and Australia's growing independence was a factor that was hard to trace in the material record when using a large-scale study such as this. Although this historic theme underpins much of Australia's history and undoubtedly had an influence on the development of Sydney's defence, the extent to which they affected change and the evidence of this change on the material record was not distinguishable through this investigation, particularly in the post 1901 period. 7.6 History and Material Evidence The study utilised the strength of historical archaeology (its ability to integrate a rich documentary and material record) and the strength of cultural heritage studies (historic themes as a tool to understand the contextual history of a site) to provide a clear history of Sydney's defences and to reveal the extent to which this history is apparent in the material record. The thesis illustrated that historic themes clearly provide a tool to understand the material data within the context of Australia's military history. Importantly, the thesis 112

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region demonstrated how engaging with themes specific to Australia's military history produced more detailed results than engaging with the very broad and unspecific themes issued by State and Commonwealth heritage agencies. 7.7 Further Areas of Research The quote at the beginning of this chapter is very appropriate to the outcomes of this study. A firm foundation of understanding has now been established regarding the history and development of Sydney's defences. This however is only the first step. As with the many other countries which are currently investigating modem military sites, the scope of the topic is massive and concise research programs are hence being developed? Figure 7.4 summarises potential areas of further research relevant to the outcomes of this thesis. Figure 7.4: Further Areas of Research BROAD AREA OF SPECIFIC AREA OF ADVANTAGE OF RESEARCH RESEARCH RESEARCH Individual Sites Standardisation Evidence of Australia's Local variants on standardisation Defence Networks and NSW Defences Systems Australia's Defences growing independence Develop understanding of the defence of a continent Investigate similarities and differences in the defences of Australian capital cities and other important areas Twentieth Century Cold War Defences Understand how the unique Defences Air war conditions of global warfare, 2 Schofield, A. J. 2004. Modern Military Matters - Studying and managing the twentieth-century defence heritage in Britain: a discussion document. York, Council for British Archaeology. 113

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region BROAD AREA OF SPECIFIC AREA OF ADV ANT AGE OF RESEARCH RESEARCH RESEARCH Chemical warfare technology and industrialisation has on the material record of defence Support sites and Industrial production Sites designed for purely infrastructure Radio (radar) stations defensive purposes are only Support networks Training networks Administrative networks a small aspect of the defence landscape. An understanding of support sites and infrastructure is vital to the understanding of the effect the military has had on Australia's landscape History Basis of invasion myth Understand where the myth of invasion as a real threat to Australia originally came from; ego popular culture, media, propaganda. History and Material Historic themes in historical Larger research issues such Evidence archaeology as these assist with the Non-correspondence between documentary and material evidence development of historical archaeology as a field of research Material Evidence Rates of site and network Rates of survival will assist survival cultural heritage assessments, especially in terms of establishing the rarity of a site 114

"Purely Defensive Measures" - The Archaeological Network of Defence in the Sydney Region 7.8 Discussion This thesis has tracked the massive development of Sydney's defence network from 1788 to 1945. In particular it has shown that studies of modem military sites are especially well suited to a network analysis which investigates individual sites as part of the network and system in which they operated. Such analysis allows for an understanding of the complex histories which underpin the development of defence sites. The study has shown that several clear factors, apparent in the material and historical record, affected the development of Sydney's defence network and that the networks and systems were complex entities which continually evolved for the protection of Sydney. 115

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