Desk Review of Learning and Development Goals of Children During Early Childhood Years in Asia-Pacific

Desk Review of Learning and Development Goals of Children During Early Childhood Years in Asia-Pacific Hoa Phuong Tran, PhD October 2012

Published by Asia-Pacific Regional Network for Early Childhood (ARNEC) c/o SEED Institute 73 Bras Basah Road, NTUC Trade Union House #07-01, Singapore 189556 Tel: +65 6332 0652 Fax: +65 6336 0716 www.arnec.net This publication is a product of collaboration between ARNEC and UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, 920 Sukhumvit Road, Prakanong, Bangkok 10110, Thailand. ARNEC 2012 No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of ARNEC. While every effort is made to provide accurate information, ARNEC disclaims any liability for errors and omissions or for any damages accruing from the use of its contents. We welcome requests for permission to reproduce and translate this desk review in part or in full. Applications and enquiries should be addressed to the ARNEC Secretariat.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 Background 5 Methodology, Scope and Limitation of the Review 6 PART 1: OVERVIEW OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT GOALS OF YOUNG CHILDREN IN ASIA-PACIFIC 1. Key learning and development goals of young children in the pre-primary group 9 1.1. Key areas in which learning and development goals for young children are 9 expressed 1.2. Elements which are included in the learning goals for pre-primary 14 programmes 2. Key learning and development goals of young children in early primary grades 14 3. Similarities and differences of learning and development goals in the region 18 3.1. Common characteristics of learning and development goals across countries 18 3.2. Country-specific unique aspects on learning and development goals 19 4. The extent to which the learning goals are holistic 21 5. Non-curricular learning and development goals 22 PART 2: OVERVIEW OF INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN IN ASIA-PACIFIC RECOMMENDED IN THE NATIONAL DOCUMENTS 1. Overview of recommended instructional approaches for pre-primary groups 23 1.1. Holistic approaches to teaching 24 1.2. Interactive teaching and learning methods 25 1.3. Play as a key instructional method 26 1.4. Enabling children s learning 27 1.5. Making appropriate use of elements in the learning environment 29 1.6. Building and using home-school partnership as supportive teaching 30 mechanism 1.7. Using tailored strategies to facilitate children s transition 31 2. Effectiveness and relevance of recommended pedagogical approaches 32

PART 3: MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT MECHANISM 1. Overview of the recommended monitoring and assessment mechanism in Asia-Pacific 35 1.1. Purpose of assessment 35 1.2. Content of monitoring and assessment 36 1.3. Method and frequency of monitoring and assessment 37 2. Alignment of monitoring and assessment methods with pedagogical practices 40 in different programmes (preschools, kindergartens, playgroups, child care centres, home-based programmes) 3. Monitoring and assessment method for early primary grades 42 4. Alignment of recommended assessment approaches for early primary grades 43 with real life practices PART 4: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT GOALS 1. Challenges in the implementation of the learning and development goals 44 2. Opportunity for implementing learning and development goals 49 PART 5: IMPLICATION FOR FUTURE POLICY AND PRACTICE IN 51 ENHANCING PROVISION OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING EXPERIENCE FOR YOUNG CHILDREN REFERENCES 55 Annex 1 60 Annex 2 61 Annex 3 62

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY BACKGROUND In the Asia-Pacific region, there has been an inspiring movement in early childhood care and education. It involves actions to develop, revise and improve national early childhood policies. Some countries have taken steps to revise the curriculum and revamp teacher and caregiver training. Several others have developed early learning and development standards that are expected to have significant consequences for many aspects of early childhood care and education. The recent years have also witnessed a steadily improving access to pre-primary programmes across the region. Support is coming from the public as well as the private sector, and from nongovernmental organisations and community groups. Against this backdrop, the issue of quality of ECCE programmes is coming into a sharper focus. More attention is being paid to the goals of learning and development of children during the pre-primary and early primary years. A holistic perspective is critical for these goals. Without holistic learning and development goals, children s participation in ECCE programmes would have limited significance. The concern for ECCE quality is the rationale for the current initiative being taken by ARNEC in cooperation with the UNESCO regional office for Asia-Pacific. It aims to take stock of current policies and services with a focus on the learning and development goals of young children and the mechanism to help children achieve them. This paper reviews the learning and development goals of young children in countries of Asia- Pacific, as articulated in the national curricular frameworks and education policy documents, for pre-primary groups and for the early primary grades (grades 1 and 2). It also examines the instructional approaches and assessment methods that national documents recommend. Programme reports, mappings and relevant research papers provide insights on the implementation of the goals stated in the official documents. Due to the limited documents available, the review and analysis of the implementation gap can be followed up with more upto-date documents as they become available. I. OVERVIEW OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT GOALS OF YOUNG CHILDREN IN ASIA-PACIFIC 1. Key learning and development goals of young children in the pre-primary group There is a variation across countries in the expression of learning and development goals of young children in pre-primary group. Some countries provide both overall goals and learning objectives for each identified learning area. Other countries provide overall goals with either some indications of the learning objectives or with no indication of learning objectives or learning areas. The ways in which learning and development goals and objectives are expressed also vary. Some goals are input-based. Others are outcome-based. Some countries have also combined both approaches by basing their curricula on inputs on the one hand and children s outcomes on the other. Variation in the articulation of the goals aside, by and large the learning and development goals can be grouped in five broad areas: physical development and well-being, socio-emotional competences, intellectual development, creative and aesthetic development, and cultural and 1

spiritual development. National curricular frameworks and policy papers point out that the physical, cognitive, spiritual, social, cultural and emotional dimensions of the child s development are interwoven, and children grow and learn in a holistic way. The learning and development goals in most national curricula cover children aged 4-6 years in a formal setting, such as kindergartens or preschools. Only a few countries have a curricular framework for children age 0-6. 2. Key learning and development goals of young children in the region in early primary grades The learning and development goals for children in early primary grades are less clearly articulated. First, most national curricula define the learning goals for the primary education cycle as a whole. No particular distinction is attached to the early grades. Secondly, many goals mentioned in national policy documents are about the curriculum itself, rather than about learning goals. Thirdly, some curricular documents contain a mixture of curriculum and syllabus, yet without stating learning goals. The available documents provide non-uniform evidence of the continuity of the learning goals between pre-primary and primary education across the region. In some countries the linkage is expressed through suggestions on how young children skills and attitude attained in preprimary programmes can be reinforced in primary schools. Some other countries promote an integrated curriculum as an attempt to facilitate the linkage between the levels. Still in others, such linkage is missing. Where it is possible to ascertain, the learning and development goals during the first two years of primary schools are focused on such areas such as literacy, elements of mathematics, science, history and culture. An important part of the learning and development goals for early primary grade pupils is the attainment of knowledge and skills in their mother tongue and another language widely used in the national context. Some countries include life skills. However, despite a general reference to holistic development as a principle of the national curriculum, in most cases the focus is on academic achievement. 3. Similarities and differences of learning and development goals in the region Several common features can be found in a number of national curricula, for example: Express multi-dimensional aspects of young child s development Treat each child as an individual Emphasise the child s sense of self and of belonging Value national and local culture and traditions. Attach importance to religion and the learning of religious values Play-based curriculum At the same time, as expected, there are some aspects of learning and development goals that are unique to certain countries. Some aspects may be shared by a couple of countries rather than being exclusive to a single country. They include: ideology and morality, national identity, inclusion, disaster risk reduction and preparation for primary school. 2

4. The extent to which the learning goals are holistic Countries have clearly made efforts to reflect the principles of children s holistic development in the learning and development goals for the age group 0-6 years. The goals per se as stated in national documents can be said to be holistic. However, this is not the case with the learning and development goals of children in early primary grades (children aged 6-8 years). The main focus for early primary grades is on academic subjects in many countries. A review of programme reports and research paper shows that parents knowledge about child development and appropriate parenting skill is a goal that is not featured in the official curricular framework or early learning and development standards, although they are the key objective of many ECCE programmes. II. OVERVIEW OF INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN IN ASIA- PACIFIC AS RECOMMENDED IN THE NATIONAL DOCUMENTS All countries for which relevant documents are available promote constructivist approaches to teaching and learning. The instructional approaches recommended for young children include: Holistic approaches to teaching Interactive teaching and learning methods Play as a key instructional method Enabling children s learning Making appropriate use of elements in the learning environment Building and using home-school partnership as supportive teaching mechanism Using tailored strategies to facilitate children s transition However, reports on the teaching practices in many countries show that the recommended instructional approaches remain an aspiration, rather than a practice. Rote-learning is still widespread; inquiry skills and creativity are often ignored; limited activities for arts and music are conducted; free play seldom find place in the daily routine. Teachers are generally found to be using similar teaching methods for all students without considering their linguistic, ethnic, gender, socio-economic, and geographical differences. The emphasis is still on the transmission of knowledge to children, rather than enabling them to learn. Preparation for primary schooling in many cases takes precedence over the child s all-round development. III. MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT MECHANISM RECOMMENDED IN THE NATIONAL CURRICULA Countries recommend that the assessment practices are to meet the aspirations of the curriculum, which is expressed through the learning and development goals, learning objectives and competences. Across the region, the national curricula advocate for the same method of assessment for young children in early childhood: observation. This method is both development- and age- appropriate and is in line with the learning and development goals that countries have identified. Observation is deemed to be the only way to assess those attributes that are not easily measurable, such as respect, trust, curiosity, a sense of belonging, confidence, independence, responsibility. Observation is to be conducted regularly, in the course of teaching, during children s play and at home. It is accompanied by checklists, records, and portfolio, which are the main tools 3

recommended for measuring children s achievement of learning and development goals in the formal setting. Regular and continuous observation is also the appropriate assessment method of a child s progress in non-formal ECCE settings, such as playgroups, community-based centres, or homebased programmes. Given the informal character and the lack of qualified personnel of many of these programmes, the tools of assessment may need to be adapted. There is a clear indication in country curricular documents that testing should not be an assessment method at any time for young children in their early childhood (0-8 years). However, the application of these recommended assessment methods remains a challenge. Tests are often used in early primary grades, especially in developing countries of the region. In some places they are conducted even in preschools. IV. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT GOALS While the goals stated in national curricula and policy papers are holistic, they are not all implemented in many countries. The review identifies several major challenges in the implementation of the learning and development goals of young children. They include: i) lack of clear definition of goals and content; ii) disconnection between the learning and development goals and implementation; iii) inadequate human resources; iv) shortage of material resources, v) lack of monitoring and evaluation. These challenges are formidable, especially for low income countries. Yet there are also opportunities to enable countries to make improvements. Countries in the process of curriculum development or revision can learn from the experience of other countries in making sure their curriculum has clearly defined goals and learning objectives, accompanied by clear guidance for implementation and possibilities for contextualisation. The use of an integrated curriculum which is implemented by several countries is another promising option, and which can be promoted in both pre-primary and early primary years. Interesting opportunities exist in countries which have developed ELDS. The clearly defined development domains and standards in each domain should facilitate countries in defining the overall learning and development goals for their young children. V. IMPLICATION FOR FUTURE POLICY AND PRACTICE IN ENHANCING PROVISION OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING EXPERIENCE FOR YOUNG CHILDREN The review calls for a systematic and coherent approach to defining the learning and development goals for children from birth to age 8, to ensure the goals are holistic and aligned seamlessly through the child s different development stages. The engagement of actors from primary education, health and nutrition will be essential. For the learning goals to be fully implemented, the review puts forward recommendations related to the guidance for curriculum implementation, improving teacher capacity, ensuring a minimally acceptable human and material resources, and continuous monitoring and assessment. These are also the areas where sustained advocacy needs to be undertaken so that ECCE services can be enhanced to provide young children with meaningful learning experience. 4

Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire. (William Butler Yeats) BACKGROUND The ultimate aim of early childhood care and education (ECCE) is for all stakeholders to ensure that each and every young child achieves positive learning and developmental outcomes, which are based on his or her age and development stage. The attainment of such outcomes enables young children to develop holistically, be ready for and fare well at school, and realise their potential. Although increasingly recognised by policy makers, the symbiotic linkage of the child s early childhood development and education with her later success in school is not always reflected in appropriate social policies related to children s care and education. It is further removed from the actual provision of services. In the Asia-Pacific region, there has been an inspiring movement related to early childhood care and education. It involves actions to develop, revise and improve national early childhood policies. Many countries in the region have taken steps to revise the curriculum and revamp teacher/ caregiver training. Several countries have conducted the process to develop early learning and development standards that are expected to have significant consequences for many aspects of early childhood care and education. A meeting of the minds of advocates and professionals working in early childhood resulted in the establishment of the Asia Pacific Regional Network for Early Childhood (ARNEC), which has become a key channel for policy influencing and capacity building. Most importantly, these initiatives taken together are galvanising national policy makers to rethink about improving both policies and practice of early childhood care and education. In recent years, the access to pre-primary programmes has steadily improved across the region. The proliferation of child care centres, home-based programmes, children s play groups, community early childhood centres, etc. has been made possible through the support of nongovernmental organisations, community groups and the private sector. This is in addition to the opening of more preschools financed under numerous government funded programmes, often with an exclusive focus on preparation for primary schooling. They have been contributing to an expansion of early childhood care and development services, including in remote areas and for disadvantaged population. Against this backdrop, the issue of quality of ECCE programmes has come into a sharper focus. Countries are paying more attention to the main goals of learning and development of children during pre-primary and early primary years. A holistic perspective is critical for these goals. Without holistic learning and development goals, children s participation in ECCE programmes would have limited significance. When the learning and development goals of young children are holistic, and measures are put in place to make sure the goals are achieved, children get the kind of experiences that help them develop and thrive in all areas. This concern about children s learning and development goals, and how they are implemented, is the rationale of the current initiative taken by ARNEC in cooperation with UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. It aims to take stock of recent and current policies and service provision, of existing (and being applied) measuring tools, with a focus on the learning and development goals of young children and the mechanism to help children achieve them. The result of this stocktaking process serves to deepen the awareness and political commitment of policy makers, professionals working in child development and education and the public at 5

large in support of inclusive and holistic development and learning for children in their early childhood (0-8 years). METHODOLOGY, SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE REVIEW For the purpose of this review, learning and development goals are broadly framed as the outcomes of children s multi-dimensional development, as defined for a particular national and cultural context. More concretely, these goals are expressed in different ways by different countries to convey elements related to knowledge, skills, norms, values, cultural elements and beliefs. This desk review aims to provide a regional overview of the learning and development goals, instructional approaches and assessment methods for young children in pre-primary groups and early primary grades, as they are articulated in the national curricula and education policies. At the same time, the review also tries to ascertain whether the articulated goals and recommended teaching and assessing approaches are put into practice. Thus the two key questions that guide the review are: 1. what has been stated and recommended in the national curricula regarding goals, pedagogy and assessment? and 2. Are stated goals and recommendations being implemented in reality? Qualitative analysis has been conducted of two main types of secondary data. National curricular frameworks 1, education policy documents and ELDS 2 for pre-primary groups and for the early primary grades (grades 1 and 2) have been consulted to find answers to the first question. Answers to the second question are based on an analysis of programme reports, country programme mappings, country thematic reports and research papers relevant to the issues under discussion. Thematic framing is used as the main research method, with data sorted and reviewed according to the patterns and issues that emerge during the review of documents. Out of 47 countries in the Asia Pacific region, curricular materials on learning and development goals for both pre-primary groups and early primary grades are available from 13 countries (Table 1). These documents contain varying levels of details about the learning and development goals and specific objectives for different age sub-groups. Some contain guidance for implementation. Some curricular frameworks are in draft form. Table 1: COUNTRIES WITH CURRICULAR MATERIALS FOR BOTH PRE-PRIMARY AND PRIMARY EDUCATION Sub-region Countries Year Status of document East Asia Republic of Korea 2007 National Curriculum Pacific Japan Australia 2009 2008 for elementary education New Curriculum Guide for Elementary Education 1 All quotes... in this review, unless noted otherwise, are taken from the country s curricular documents which are listed in the References. 22 ELDS: Early Learning and Development Standards. 6

South Asia Southeast Asia Fiji (2007) New Zealand 2009 Tokelau 2007 (National Curriculum Policy Framework 2006 2010) General Bangladesh 2009 (Comprehensive Draft ECCD curriculum ECCD Curriculum) 2010 (National Education Policy) Bhutan 2011 Curriculum Framework for Science, Reading and Literature, and Mathematics for classes PP-XII India (2012 ECD Curriculum Draft Framework) Maldives 2012 Working Draft Nepal 2008 (ECCD curriculum framework) 2005 (National Curriculum Framework for Preprimary- grade 12) Brunei Darussalam (Undated) Brief Singapore 2008 For some countries, there are documents about either pre-primary level or primary education. Some of them are curricular frameworks and some are country strategic development plans (Table 2). For other countries in the region, there is either insufficient or no information available about learning goals. Sometimes the goals are mentioned in national education policy documents, yet they tend to be broad, providing only the vision or an outline of the strategy for the medium to longer term. Table 2: COUNTRIES WITH CURRICULAR MATERIALS EITHER FOR PRE-PRIMARY OR PRIMARY LEVEL Sub-region East Asia Countries with ECCE/ pre-primary curriculum framework Countries with primary curriculum framework Mongolia Status of document General Pacific Cook Islands (2007) Solomon Islands (2008) Cook Islands Education Master Plan 2008 2023 National Early Childhood Education 7

South Asia Southeast Asia Pakistan (2007) Cambodia (2010) Lao People's Democratic Republic (2009) Palau (2006) Papua New Guinea (revised/ reprinted 2005) Samoa (2006) Philippines (2008) Thailand (2008) Policy Statement General. Education Master Plan 2006-2016 Elementary syllabus National Curriculum Policy Framework. Final Draft General. National Policy of Early Childhood Care and Development Education Sector Development Framework Secretary s report In recent years, a number of countries in East Asia and Pacific 3 have developed early learning and development standards (ELDS) with the support of UNICEF. These standards have been developed for all domains of child development, as defined by the countries. They include competences that children are expected to acquire in each domain. Some countries have incorporated recommendations for the types of activities that can help children to reach the standards, as well as suggestions for caregivers and teachers in the conduct of activities. The standards are being applied as the basis for curriculum revision, for instructional improvement and teacher training, for programme evaluation, for parenting education, for public advocacy and for national alignment of standards (Miyahara and Meyers, 2008). Among those countries that have developed ELDS, Mongolia and the Philippines have addressed all age groups (0-6 years). Thailand has developed standards for 3-5 year olds, Vanuatu for 3-6 years, and Laos and Vietnam have standards only for 5-year olds. While this presents some limitation as ELDS are not available for all age sub-groups - nonetheless they provide an understanding of country-specific norms for children s development at a particular stage. Due to the fact that only limited relevant materials are available on both curricula and their implementation, this should be seen as a preliminary review of young children s learning and development goals for the region. It can be followed up and complemented by other additional information when it becomes available. There are very few country reports with information about the implementation of recommended instructional approaches and assessment methods. This review therefore has used relevant points contained in other documents including UNESCO regional EFA reports. Another limitation about documents is that for some countries no curricula documents are available or accessible, but there are reports with information about their curriculum implementation (e.g. Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia). On the other hand, in some countries although curricular frameworks are available, reports on curriculum 3 Cambodia, China, Fiji, Laos, Mongolia, Nepal, Philippines, Thailand, Vanuatu and Vietnam 8

implementation are not (e.g. Australia, Bangladesh, Cook Islands, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Solomon Islands). Information about curricula in Central Asian countries is not available altogether. PART 1: OVERVIEW OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT GOALS OF YOUNG CHILDREN IN ASIA-PACIFIC There is a notable variation among the countries in the ways learning and development goals are articulated. At one end of the spectrum, there are countries which have not explicitly defined learning and development goals. At the other end, there are countries which not only have clearly identified learning and development goals, but also provided guidelines on how the goals can be achieved across different age groups. Some countries have developed early childhood curricula for children from birth to primary school entry. Others have curriculum and learning goals only for children from age 3 or 4 to 6. Most countries under review only have the overall goals for all primary grades and do not have specific learning and development goals for children in the early primary grades (grade 1 and 2). 1. Key learning and development goals of young children in the pre-primary group The desk review of available documents related to learning and development goals of young children in Asia-Pacific reveals an interesting picture. By and large, it shows attempts by countries to reflect a multi-dimensional approach in their curricular frameworks. All curricular documents have incorporated the principles of early childhood development, with some containing well-articulated statements about the necessity to ensure children s holistic development. 1.1. Key areas in which learning and development goals for young children are expressed Across the region, there is variation in the ultimate goals of early childhood development. Singapore aims to nurture each child holistically, and nurture clear thinkers, good citizens, whereas Japan s vision for young children s development is lifelong character building. Cook Islands aim for their children to develop a sense of belonging to the culture and understanding of the language, values, beliefs, tradition and customs. Australia aims for its young children to become successful learners, confident and creative individuals, active and informed citizens. The goal of kindergarten education in Republic of Korea is to help young children develop harmonious minds and bodies. There are equally wide-ranging ways in which learning and development goals and objectives are expressed. Some are input-based, for example: To provide an opportunity to develop physical, emotional, social, mental, moral and creative aspects (Pre-primary curriculum of Nepal). To provide for the holistic development of the child, which include physical, social, emotional, cognitive and moral development. To equip the child with life-long learning skills (Early childhood development curriculum of Pakistan). To initiate a uniform and mandatory syllabus for some basic subjects to be taught in diverse types of schools delivering primary education; and to develop a curriculum and textbooks imbued with the national spirit with a view to cultivating humanistic values. (Education Policy of Bangladesh). 9

To enable young children to express their own thoughts and feelings in creative ways (Early Childhood Curriculum of the Republic of Korea). Other learning goals are based on children s outcomes: Children know what is right and what is wrong. Be willing to share and take turns with others. Be able to relate to others. Be curious and able to explore. Be able to listen and speak with understanding. Be comfortable and happy with themselves (Singapore curriculum framework). Children develop language skills for communication and proper language use (Early childhood curriculum of Republic of Korea). Imbibe values, social attitudes and manners important in his/her socio-cultural context and to become sensitive to rights and privileges of others (India). Children have a strong sense of well-being, strong sense of identity. Children are confident and involved learners (Australia) Have positive personal attitude, character and self-concept in order to be a patriotic Malaysian (Malaysia) Some countries have combined both approaches to basing their curricula on inputs on the one hand, and children s outcomes on the other. New Zealand s Te Whāriki framework covers the values and principles that form the basis of the framework, the expectations of staff in ECCE, while at the same time addressing expected child developmental outcomes. The Republic of Korea includes expected child outcomes in its framework, as well as the inputs that are expected from staff and the centre itself. By and large, the learning and development goals of countries in the region can be grouped in five broad areas 4 : physical development and well-being, socio-emotional competences, intellectual development, creative and aesthetic development, cultural and spiritual development. Within each of these areas there are considerable variations among countries in the articulation of the learning and development goals. The following paragraphs discuss these six areas in more details. Physical development and well-being: Goals in this area concern the development of gross and fine motor skills, acquisition of developed physical coordination and healthy habits, and abilities to independently maintain a healthy and safe life. New Zealand and Japan have identified specific competencies, as well as guidelines for the types of age-appropriate activities for development in this area. In countries that have recently developed ELDS, physical development features prominently therein. It is worth noting that nutrition is not specifically referred to in the learning and development goals in the national curriculum. However, healthy diet, knowledge of food groups and respect of food hygiene are specified in the ELDS of Cambodia, Mongolia, Nepal, Thailand, Vanuatu and Vietnam. 4 Different ways of grouping are possible. This review uses the areas of child development for grouping the learning and development goals, with the intention of bringing together differently-worded learning goals of countries in the region. 10

Some examples of the development goals in physical health To promote healthy development of the mind and body and acquire basic living habits (Republic of Korea). Children have developed physical co-ordination and healthy habits (Singapore). The health and well-being of the child are protected and nurtured (New Zealand). To fully move the body and to exercise willingly and to acquire the habits and attitudes necessary for a healthy and safe life (Japan). Children have a strong sense of well-being (Australia). Socio-emotional competencies: These competencies include the child s ability to play with others, to cooperate, create lasting relationships, develop self-awareness and self-confidence, and the ability to cope with feelings. These competencies are believed to influence positively children s transition to primary school and their survival skills in primary school and beyond. Furthermore, as a result of developed social and emotional competencies, children can develop respect for diversity, the sense of belonging and identity. This area of development also includes life skills which help children to face challenges of daily life successfully. They promote positive attitudes and values, help children to develop specific skills and behaviours, as well as to prevent or reduce risky behaviours. They include effective communication, interpersonal relationships, empathy, ability to control emotion and to cope with stress, critical thinking, decision making ability, and problem solving as the generic life skills that are necessary to develop in students. Some examples of socio-emotional development goals Children develop physically, emotionally and socially (Brunei Darussalam). Children are connected with and contribute to their world (Australia). Children are encouraged to learn with and alongside others. They are affirmed as individuals (Cook Islands). Having mature emotion and social skills (Malaysia) To act lively and freely and to experience a sense of fulfillment (Japan). To nurture tolerance and respect for diversity. To foster a sense of independence, self-reliance and a positive self-image (Pakistan). To inculcate in each individual qualities like self-esteem, self-discipline, religious tolerance, humanity, and civic consciousness. To develop social and civic responsibility to safeguard and promote the common good. To nurture and develop personalities and innate abilities of each individual for successful living (Nepal). Intellectual development: This refers to the ability of children to learn to make sense of the world around them. It encompasses children s memory capacity, concept formation, understanding of basic concepts in mathematics and social studies appropriate for their age level. It also includes cognitive processes of logic and reasoning, analytical thinking, and language development. All countries acknowledge the importance of creating a quality 11

environment in which children have the opportunities to acquire basic language skills (speech, vocabulary, basic writing skills, and acquaintance with literature). In addition, the ability to think and experiment as they learn new things, create ideas and find solutions is part of the intellectual development aimed at by the curricula. Acquaintance with science is seen as an important learning goal for pre-primary education in some countries. Their national curriculum for preschool education includes the fundamentals of natural sciences, for example acquaintance with the natural environment and ecology. Some examples of learning and development goals for intellectual development To develop language skills for communication and proper language use (Kindergarten curriculum, Republic of Korea). To have cognitive skills, thinking skills, and problem solving skills To develop basic knowledge in science, maths, environment, health, information technology. To develop basic knowledge and skills in at least two languages (Mother tongue, Nepali, and/or English) (Objective of primary education, Nepal, 2005). Display emergent literacy skills, mathematical skills and scientific temperament (India) Creative and aesthetic development: This concerns the development of children in areas such as music, art, writing, and reading. All countries consider creative and aesthetic development essential for young children and therefore develop distinct goals for this domain. Development in this area enables children to be confident in creative expression and become effective communicators. Some examples of learning and development goals for creative and aesthetic development To enable young children to express their own thoughts and feelings in creative ways (Kindergarten curriculum, Republic of Korea). To develop a deep sense of the beauty and other qualities of various things. To enjoy expressing feelings and thoughts in their own way. To enjoy various ways of self-expression throughout the day using rich imagery (Course of study for kindergarten, Japan). Children develop verbal communication skills for a range of purposes. They experience the stories and symbols of their own and other cultures. They discover different ways to be creative and expressive (Cook Islands). To enrich emotional experiences and cultivate aesthetic aptitude and taste (Preschool curriculum, China). Cultural and spiritual development: This aspect is both explicitly and implicitly expressed in the curricula, illustrating the importance countries attach to their cultural heritage and particularities. For Cook Islands, this is the underlying principles of their curriculum. The identity 12

of a young Cook Islander is defined by, and closely connected to, her cultural heritage. For all countries cultural and spiritual development has a special place in the educational process of young children. Cultural values are deemed so important for the young generation that they find reflection in all aspects of the curriculum, from learning and development goals to instructional approaches. Some examples of learning and development goals for cultural and spiritual development Children will learn about and appreciate heritage and culture of their own family, their peers and neighbours (Pakistan). To help in developing positive attitude towards social, natural and religious environments (Nepal). Children will develop a sense of belonging; they know they have a place, they feel comfortable with the routines, customs and regular events (Cook Islands). The child shows respect and love for the Creator (ELDS of the Philippines). In addition to these main five areas, the preparation for primary schooling in terms of the 3Rs is explicitly expressed in a number of countries. For example, in China, children aged 3-6 years are expected to learn Chinese and arithmetic and get ready for primary school. In Singapore, language, literacy and numeracy are featured among the six critical learning experiences for young children. In Bangladesh, expectations about literacy and numeracy competencies are detailed in the Operational Framework for pre-primary education (2008). In Nepal, to prepare for primary schooling is one of the five objectives identified in the national curriculum framework (2005). In other countries, the preparation for primary schooling is not made explicit. However, embedded in several outcome areas are the preparation for children to become active and involved learners and the approach to learning that will be useful for children s success in primary school. Social interactions, ability to learn alongside and with others, and participation in team work which are aimed at under socio-emotional development are also the competencies that enable children to get ready for primary schooling. In summary, it should be noted that while learning goals have been grouped under the above five areas, it is done so only for analysis and for bringing together differently structured curricular frameworks. Documents from countries stress how the physical, cognitive, spiritual, social, cultural and emotional dimensions of the child s development are interwoven, and that children grow and learn in a holistic way. As stated in the ECCE curriculum of Pakistan: Children s learning and development is not a linear process. Or in the curriculum for kindergarten of the Republic of Korea: The curriculum pursues whole-person development and happiness of young children. The Tokelau early childhood curriculum emphasises holistic development and the early childhood curriculum reflects the holistic way children learn and grow. And Singapore emphasises: Every aspect of children s learning and development, be it personal, social, emotional, physical or intellectual, is interrelated and interdependent and this should be reflected in all planning. 13

1.2 Elements which are included in the learning goals for pre-primary programmes The preceding section discusses the learning and development goals in the key areas. Within those areas, there are specific elements and learning outcomes (where explicitly stated). Some countries spell out in detail the learning outcomes or competencies, for example Australia, Cook Islands, Korea, New Zealand, Pakistan and Singapore. As expected, specific elements included in the learning and development goals are worded differently across countries. Despite the variations in the actual wording, the key elements in each goal can be categorised as: For physical development and well-being: Gross and fine motor skills development Physical control, coordination and manipulative skills Positive attitudes towards a healthy lifestyle Healthy living habits Physical fitness Personal care and hygiene Nutrition (from ELDS) For social emotional development: Self-concept and confidence Social awareness Moral and social values Human relationships and boundaries of acceptable behaviour Appreciation of diversity of people around them Recognition of others feelings Habits of sharing, playing and working with others (peers and adults) Appreciation of the ways in which children can make contributions to groups and to group well-being Ways to enjoy solitary play when they choose to be alone Sense of responsibility for self and others in class, home and neighbourhood For intellectual development: Knowledge of objects and their attributes (weight, texture, colours ), words, numbers, sequence, shapes Skills in non-verbal and verbal communication for a range of purposes Observation, learning and practice of oral, visual and cultural forms of language Analytical thinking Memory Concept formation Elements of pre-literacy Elements of pre-numeracy For creative and aesthetic development: Sense of curiosity about objects around them Aesthetics and creative expression Techniques for expressing themselves in and through arts, crafts and design Experience of music as an expression of mood, situation and culture Expressing ideas using a range of media 14

For cultural and spiritual development: Understanding of values and belief systems determining behaviour in society Sense of identity and place in the community Responsive relationships with people, places and things Positive family values and strong community ties Awareness of local customs and culture Awareness of local and national traditions and heritage Awareness of religion and religious values Environmental awareness 2. Key learning and development goals of young children in early primary grades National curricula in some countries consider the early primary grades (grades 1 and 2) as the foundation years, a period of transition from the pre-primary setting to the world of formal learning and beyond. What happens during these early years of primary school is critical for the child s subsequent success in higher education levels. It also influences her disposition to learning and her desire to continue education. Whether the outcome is positive or not depends on whether the child has the opportunities to build on what she has learned earlier, while at the same time acquiring new knowledge and skills. When a child is given the support to adjust to a new and more structured learning environment and to learn what is appropriate for his age and development level, he enjoys learning and retains what he learns. Many primary curricular documents mention the joy of learning as an important aspect of primary schooling. Yet, identifying learning and development goals for children in early primary grades is far from straightforward. Several reasons may explain this. First of all, some national curricula only have learning goals for the primary education cycle as a whole (e.g. Bangladesh, Cambodia, the Philippines). As primary education usually covers grades 1 to 6, and in Nepal it is from grade 1 to 8, the stated overall learning goals for children in primary education do not necessarily correspond to what is appropriate for children in the first grades. There are no specific learning goals for children in grades 1 and 2. Secondly, some goals articulated in national policy documents are about the curriculum itself, rather than about learning goals. For example, the aims and objectives of primary education in Bangladesh (2010) include the following: To develop a curricula and textbooks imbued with the national spirit with a view to cultivate the humanistic values. A congenial and joyful environment need to be created in the schools to promote healthy physical and mental development of the children; To initiate a uniform and mandatory syllabus for some basic subjects to be taught in diverse types of schools delivering primary education; Thirdly, some curricular documents contain a mixture of curriculum and syllabus, yet without stating learning goals. In the primary curriculum of Bhutan, for example, the Learning Objectives for Reading & Literature from Pre-primary up to Class XII contain a mixture of objectives, syllabus, learning standards and learning strategies. Yet, the document does not indicate what the overall learning and development goals are for children in different grades. The available literature provides non-uniform evidence of the continuity of the learning goals between pre-primary and primary education. In some countries the linkage between the two levels in terms of learning goals is clearly missing. This implies that children in early primary grades may not be getting the necessary attention and assistance they need in order to ensure 15

a successful transition from early childhood education to primary school and to make the best use of their exposure to an early childhood education. There are countries whose curricula indicate this linkage clearly. In New Zealand and Cook Islands, the early childhood curricula provide concrete suggestions on how young children skills and attitude can be reinforced in primary schools, and what primary school teachers can do to enable children to build on what they have learned during their time in a kindergarten or a preschool. In Papua New Guinea, the curriculum identifies learning outcomes for each strand, and for each of the grade Elementary Preparatory, Elementary 1 and Elementary 2. It shows progression of knowledge and expected competencies children should attain from one grade to the next. Brunei Darussalam s curriculum integrates 8 learning areas for preschool and lower primary level (Year 1 to Year 3). Subject areas are to be combined and teachers will be encouraged to teach using an integrated approach. At this level, learning will focus on laying the foundations of literacy and numeracy (3Rs), ICT and the acquisition of social and personal skills (Brunei 21 Century curriculum, 2008). Japan s learning goals for children in grades 1 and 2 reinforce goals that have in common with the goals of the pre-primary stage, including for example, understanding of self, relationships and support for others, moral education, healthy behaviour, attitude (Curriculum Guide 2008). Bhutan s curriculum framework mentions enjoy reading as a learning activity as a common outcome expected of children from both pre-primary and primary grades (and beyond primary level too). In recognition of the transition issues for children and the need to address them, the Early Childhood Curriculum of Pakistan states that steps will be taken to ensure there is an overlap of learning outcomes between early childhood education and grade 1 levels, so that children get opportunities for revision and reinforcement. Solomon Islands ECCE Policy Statement also mentions that ECCE must begin at birth and would include preschool, kindergarten and transition to classes 1 and 2 (2008). However, currently there is no information available about the operationalisation of these measures and policy statement. In some other countries, while their curricula do not spell out the continuity of learning and development goals, the integrated nature of the curricula supports the linkage between the levels. The key subject areas are combined and teachers are encouraged to teach across the areas. For example, in the process of learning to read, write and count, children also learn about arts or physical education. In Brunei, Indonesia, and Samoa, for example, the curriculum aims to allow students to link new knowledge with their prior knowledge and experience by using a theme where outcomes in several learning areas can be achieved through integrated activities. The physical, social and cultural development is to be achieved through the teaching of literacy and numeracy. This aims at enabling students to build on what they have learned in preschools, while acquiring new skills and widening their knowledge base. Malaysia advocates for an integrated curriculum throughout primary education years where integration of skills is to be achieved within a subject, across subjects. Integration of various values and contents within subjects and between knowledge and practice is also aimed at. In the same vein, and specifically related to the teaching of the key subjects, the Australian primary curriculum stresses the integration of learning within each subject. In year 1 and year 2 of primary school, children learn English, mathematics, science and history. Each subject consists of several strands, each with learning objectives. The curriculum emphasises the need to teach children in ways that integrate the learning across these strands. For example, the English curriculum for grades 1 and 2 is built around the three interrelated strands of language, literature and literacy. The teaching and learning programmes are to balance and integrate these three strands. Together, the strands focus on developing students knowledge, 16