Astitva International Journal of Commerce, Management and Social Sciences Lucknow IMPACT FACTOR (2012):.401 (Calculated by GIF, Australia) INDEXCOPERNICUS VALUE (2012): 4.94 (Calculated by Index Copernicus, Poland) INDEXED IN: INDEX COPERNICUS, OPEN J-GATE, DRJI 72
UTILIZATION OF TECHNOLOGY IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Priya Makhija HOD of Commerce, Baldwin Methodist College, Bangalore Priya.ane@gmail.com Dr Leena James Professor, Department of Management Studies, Christ University, Bangalore leena.james@christuniversity.in Kavita Nagpal Senior Teacher, Lilavatibai Podar, Santa Cruz, Mumbai kavitanagpal1609@yahoo.co.in ABSTRACT: One of the key implementation issues that must be addressed is how to overcome a corporate culture that is lacking or even negative toward risk management. By Edmund Conrow HRM can be defined as a process of procuring, developing and maintaining competent resources in the organization so that goals of an organization are achieved in an effective and efficient manner. In other words HRM is an art of managing people at work in such a manner that they give best to the organization. HRM knows how to manage the resources within the organization, sometime management likes and dislikes certain things and something make one happy while making others unhappy and if the HRM has to take decision very quickly that to whom they place for a task if they have a lot of talents in their organization or to know which employee has a good concept for that task. Information technology (IT) is transforming the world. A major shift in the way we live, learn and work has already begun with the arrival of the information society: students use computers at home and school to do homework; governments supply information and services on line; and businesses and consumers make transactions through the Internet. This phenomenon is evident not just in the advanced countries such as the United States of America but is rapidly spreading 73
across the globe. As of June 2000, the worldwide on-line population is estimated to be almost 333 million (Nua Research 2000). The construction of the information society, however, cannot be done without active governmental involvement in the creation of an information infrastructure and the reformation of the education system. In particular, human resources development (HRD) is seen throughout the world as crucial to the development of information-based economies and the achievement of global competitiveness. The current worldwide shortage of skilled IT workers only adds to the seriousness of HRD, especially in countries such as the United States of America and Germany where there is global competition to attract such workers. Purpose of research: 1. To examine the critical human resource information systems required for effective human resource management service delivery. 2. To determine impact of human resource information systems on human resource management service delivery 3. To examine the challenges of adopting human resource information systems. Methodology: The study developed exploratory research design, desk & text research based on the reviews of qualitative & quantitative information published either in records/reports or journals magazines. Key Words: Human resource, Human resource information system, challenges in adopting, HRD. INTRODUCTION: Shaping organization is essential and required task for any management to produce a qualitative and reliable product for their customers. So, today we can easily see a concept of Human Resource Management (HRM) in every organization for internal management and efficient utilization of resource to produce a better and new technological product for their customers. The importance of human resources to any organization need not be over-emphasized. Human resource is the wealth of a nation and an organization. Basically, every organization is directly depend on the HRM for good implementation of resource for the task design and planned by top level management. If an organization has good and responsible HRM then the output of that 74
company automatically would be excellent. HRM is generally the essence of being a manager who has to get things that done by others. It generally leads to the maximum utilization of human resources, reduces excessive labour turnover. HRM can be defined as a process of procuring, developing and maintaining competent resources in the organization so that goals of an organization are achieved in an effective and efficient manner. In other words HRM is an art of managing people at work in such a manner that they give best to the organization. HRM knows how to manage the resources within the organization, sometime management likes and dislikes certain things and something make one happy while making others unhappy and if the HRM has to take decision very quickly that to whom they place for a task if they have a lot of talents in their organization or to know which employee has a good concept for that task. Information technology (IT) is transforming the world. A major shift in the way we live, learn and work has already begun with the arrival of the information society: students use computers at home and school to do homework; governments supply information and services on line; and businesses and consumers make transactions through the Internet. This phenomenon is evident not just in the advanced countries such as the United States of America but is rapidly spreading across the globe. As of June 2000, the worldwide on-line population is estimated to be almost 333 million (Nua Research 2000). The construction of the information society, however, cannot be done without active governmental involvement in the creation of an information infrastructure and the reformation of the education system. In particular, human resources development (HRD) is seen throughout the world as crucial to the development of information-based economies and the achievement of global competitiveness. The current worldwide shortage of skilled IT workers only adds to the seriousness of HRD, especially in countries such as the United States of America and Germany where there is global competition to attract such workers. This poses a serious challenge for developing countries that want to keep pace with the forerunners without lagging too far behind in the race towards the knowledge-based economy. This is particularly so for many developing countries in the Asia-Pacific region, where the information society remains a distant vision. Now, here we are offering you a concept of Electronic Human Resource Management (e-hrm) as an Implementation Support System (ISS) for HRM. For understanding the better skills, 75
creative abilities and talents of human resources at a very quick time there must be a concept of e-hrm, generally e-hrm is an interface through which we can directly communicate or know about the right talent through traverse some list or records in our personal database without creating any issue. E-HRM is not a specific stage in the development of HRM, but a choice for an approach to HRM. If we have an appropriate record about our resources that are being used so HRM can do their work very easily. Electronic-HRM automatically reduces a stack of papers or a document type office. For relational HRM there is the choice between supporting recruitment and selection through a web based application or using a paper-based approach (through advertisements, paper-based application forms and letters etc.). Finally, in terms of transformational HRM, it is possible to create a change ready workforce through an integrated set of web-based tools that enables the workforce to develop in line with the company s strategic choices or to have paper-based materials. Generally for planning and designing the objective, top level management looking with Management Information System (MIS) which works as a Decision Support System (DSS) as like the same there must be an Implementation Support System (ISS) to do better management of human resource. Basically e-hrm is a concept of Implementation Support System (ISS) which helps to HRM for taking a decision to manage a resource for a given task. Implementation Support System (ISS) can have also the same phase as DSS as intelligence, design and choice. Intelligence helps to identify any problem or opportunity and gather data related to such problem. Design refers to formulating a problem or an opportunity developing solutions to solve the problem. Choice will make able to choose right talent to the particular opportunity. The advancement of technology over the past decades has changed the human resources (HR) role as well as the way the companies operate in the market. This debate has become of significant importance in the literature. Internet, e-commerce, and global thinking have opened up new opportunities for the function and responsibilities of the HR role. P. Sparrow et al. (2004, p. 1) emphasize that the increasing international flow of goods and foreign direct investment (i.e. internationalization) will speed up the pace of how the nature of human resource management (HRM) is changing. Consequently, the attention has focused on more strategic issues within the HR role. One of the frequently asked questions is whether HRM has become more strategic. Moreover, the convergence versus divergence debate has also been widely discussed in the literature over the 76
past decades. The theoretical assumption is that if technology is fully applied, HRM will be freed from its administrative tasks and can focus on more strategic issues (Hendrickson, 2003; Ruel et al., 2004). Another impact of technology will be the standardized HR practices which will converge in countries such as Slovakia and the UK. Leading management thinkers suggest that it is not technology, but the art of human and humane-management that is the continuing challenge for executives in the 21st century (Drucker, Dyson, Handy, Saffo, & Senge, 1997). Similarly, Smith and Kelly (1997) believe that future economic and strategic advantage will rest with the organizations that can most effectively attract, develop and retain a diverse group of the best and the brightest human talent in the market place (p. 200). In general, to maintain a competitive advantage in the marketplace, firms need to balance the resources available to the firm to achieve the desired results of profitability and survival. The resources that are available to the firm fall into three general categories: physical, organizational, and human. In discussing how to gain a competitive advantage in the global market, Porter (1990) noted that management of the human resources is the most critical of the three. The idea of treating human resources as a means of gaining a competitive advantage in both the domestic and the global marketplace has been echoed by other authors. As Greer (1995) states, In a growing number of organizations human resources are now viewed as a source of competitive advantage. There is greater recognition that distinctive competencies are obtained through highly developed employee skills, distinctive organizational cultures, management processes, and systems. This is in contrast to the traditional emphasis on transferable resources such as equipment.... Increasingly, it is being recognized that competitive advantage can be obtained with a high quality work force that enables organizations to compete on the basis of market responsiveness, product and service quality, differentiated products, and technological innovation. (p. 105) The effective management of human resources in a firm to gain a competitive advantage in the marketplace requires timely and accurate information on current employees and potential employees in the labor market. With the evolution of computer technology, meeting this information requirement has been greatly enhanced through the creation of HRIS. A basic assumption behind this book is that the management of employee information will be the critical 77
process that helps a firm maximize the use of its human resources and maintain competitiveness in its market. REVIEW OF LITERATURE: HR technology can be defined as any technology that is used to attract, hire, retain, and maintain human resources, support HR administration, and optimize HRM.2 This technology can used in different types of human resource information systems (HRIS) and by various stakeholders, such as managers, employees, and HR professionals. This technology can be accessed in different ways. There is no doubt that technology has made it easier and faster to gather, collate, and deliver information and communicate with employees. More importantly, it has the potential to reduce the administrative burden on the HR department so it is better able to focus on more meaningful HR activities, such as providing managers with the expertise they need to make more effective HR related decisions.3 Research has indicated that companies who effectively use technology to manage their HR functions will have a significant advantage over those that do not. However, not all companies have the latest and greatest technology, nor do all companies need the most advanced technology, but all companies do have HR-related information needs. Consider the information needs of a small company as opposed to a large organization of 3000 employees. A small company may use a simple Micros data, whereas a company with 3000 employees manages a greater volume of data. This activity can be daunting without a more sophisticated tool to store and retrieve data! We can reflect on the various levels of sophistication by examining the evolutionary aspects of HR technology. These aspects can be characterized into four stages of development: (1) paper-based systems, (2) early personal computer (PC) technology, (3) electronic databases, and (4) Web-based technology. Stages in the Evolution of HR Technology Stage 1: Paper-Based Systems Initially HR systems were paper-based. These systems operated independently and did not integrate with any other business-related functions. Features were added as needed. Data were typically stored on mainframe computers, the reporting was very rudimentary, and HR was the sole custodian of the data. It was common for managers during this period to send employees to HR to get their all their personnel questions answered. Stage 2: Early Personal Computer (PC) Technology 78
In the next stage, there was a migration of the information resident in these paper-based systems to PCs and local area network (LAN) systems. These HR databases were able to produce reports that simply listed tombstone data, meaning basic employee information. Advances in database technology included payroll and some very basic versions of employee tracking. The HR data were typically stored on a client server a network architecture in which each computer on the network is either a client or a server. Servers are powerful computers dedicated to managing disk drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic (network servers). Clients are PCs or other workstations on which users, such as HR professionals, run software applications. Clients rely on servers for resources, such as files; devices, such as printers; and even processing power. For example, when sourcing information from Wikipedia, the user s computer and Web browser would be the client, and the computers, databases, and applications that compose Wikipedia would be the server. When the user s Web browser requests a particular article from Wikipedia, the Wikipedia server finds all of the information required to display the article in the Wikipedia database, assembles it into a Web page, and sends it back to the Web browser for the user to look at.hr continued to be the only group who had access to the system and continued to be the owner of the data. Stage 3: Electronic Database Systems The next stage began with the emergence of relational database technology. A relational database means that a piece of data can be stored in more than one file, each one containing different types of data. The different files can be linked so that information from the separate files can be used together. A relational database allows databases to be established in several different locations and the information linked. This technology provided organizations with the ability to develop more complex reports that integrated several data elements. For example a report could be generated from different databases that included name, address, and salary and benefit information. With this move toward electronic databases, HR systems began to become integrated with other business-related systems. Leading HR organizations began to purchase enterprise-wide systems that included HR-related modules. An enterprise-wide system is defined as a system that supports enterprise-wide or cross-functional requirements, rather than a single department or group within the organization. A popular enterprise-wide system at the time was SAP. At this time, use of the Internet was increasing, and managers began to consider what it could offer to HR technology. HR continued to own the HR data, but HR began to evolve into a 79
more integral part of the business, as these databases became important in aiding HR with the generation of reports and empowering HR to provide managers with meaningful HR-related information. In addition, other functional areas could share information from these databases. For example, if the company decided it wanted to send out a mass mailing to employees to introduce a new product or organizational change, it would access the data from the HR system. At this point, HR entered fully into the digital world of electronic HR and the term e-hr began to appear. Stage 4: Web-Based Technology At the present time, many companies have started to embrace HR technology. The benefits of automation are becoming widely known to HR and other areas of the business. The focus has shifted to automating as many transactions as possible to achieve effectiveness and efficiencies. Call centers and interactive voice response systems are widely used by organizations. An interactive voice response (IVR) system is a telephone technology in which a touch-tone phone is used to interact with a database to acquire information from it or enter data into it. For example, employees can call in to report their attendance by entering a specific code. Webbased applications use a Web browser as a user interface (called the front-end ). Users can access the applications from any computer connected to the Internet via a secure, passwordprotected login page and from that point forward all the data are encrypted. For the most part, the HR department continues to be the owner and custodian of HR information but others have begun to recognize the value of this information to the business. The reports that HR is able to produce have become more sophisticated. At this point, the majority of systems are still not Web-based, but some leading-edge organizations have embraced this technology. Evolution of HR Technology 80
Source: Julie Bulmash, 2006. Level of access increases from HR staff having access through to all managers and employees having access The use of Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) has been advocated as an opportunity for human resource (HR) professionals to become strategic partners with top management. The idea has been that HRIS would allow for the HR function to become more efficient and to provide better information for decision-making. The question remains whether HRIS has fulfilled its promise. In its most basic form HRIS is a system used to acquire, store, manipulate, 81
analyze, retrieve and distribute pertinent information about an organization s human resources. It is often regarded as a service provided to an organization in the form of information (Awazu & Kevin, 2003). Lengnick-Hall and Moritz (2003) have postulated that HRIS will be implemented at three different levels: the publishing of information; the automation of transactions; and, finally, a change in the way human resource management is conducted in the organization by transforming HR into a strategic partner with the line business. In their view, the evolution of HR as promoted by HRIS evolves from information to automation and from automation to transformation. They note that while HRIS has been widely deployed, a transformation of human resource management has occurred in relatively few organizations. The evolution that Lengnick-Hall and Moritz propose, along with others (Walker, 2001), revolves around the perspective that HRIS will create informational efficiencies and cost savings such that HR departments can turn their attention to providing better analysis of current data and creative uses of the HRIS to provide better and more accurate data upon which to base strategic decisions. Ultimately the goal of both is to increase human resource service delivery. HRIS efficiency and administrative effectiveness can be described by studies of administrative HRIS, but the overall efficiency and effectiveness of an organization can only be reached through strategic deployment of the information provided by an HRIS. Administrative HRIS is used in day-to-day operations and it is usually in the form of records that hold employee information. Administrative HR is much more efficient when it is used with IT because HR professionals are better able to handle large amounts of information efficiently (Kirstie, 2001). For instance, Watson Wyatt s survey report (2002) concluded that it does not take a high progression of e-hr to reach high HRIS performance on the administrative side. The results showed that a properly integrated e-hr system is the key to the evolution of the system. The survey covered all organization sizes, and the measures used included productivity improvements within the HR organization, cost reductions, return on investment, and enhanced employee communications. They concluded that by properly implementing an e- HR system an organization should be able to reduce the amount of work for which the HR department is responsible which would then leave HR professionals free to concentrate on performing more strategic roles for the organization. Technological Advancement Era and Emergence of Strategic HRM (1990 to Present): 82
The economic landscape underwent radical changes throughout the 1990s with increasing globalization, technological breakthroughs (particularly Internet-enabled Web services), and hyper competition. Business process reengineering exercises became more common and frequent, with several initiatives, such as right sizing of employee numbers, reducing the layers of management, reducing the bureaucracy of organizational structures, autonomous work teams, and outsourcing. Firms today realize that innovative and creative employees who hold the key to organizational knowledge provide a sustainable competitive advantage because unlike other resources, intellectual capital is difficult to imitate by competitors. Accordingly, the people management function has become strategic in its importance and outlook and is geared to attract, retain, and engage talent. These developments have led to the creation of the HR or workforce scorecard (Becker, Huselid, & Ulrich, 2001; Huselid, Becker, & Beatty, 2005) as well as added emphasis on the return on investment (ROI) of the HR function and its programs (Cascio, 2000; Fitz-Enz, 2000, 2002). The increased use of technology and the changed focus of the HRM function as adding value to the organization s product or service led to the emergence of the HR department as a strategic partner. With the growing importance and recognition of people and people management in contemporary organizations, strategic HRM (SHRM) has become critically important in management thinking and practice. SHRM derives its theoretical significance from the resource-based view of the firm that treats human capital as a strategic asset and a competitive advantage in improving organizational performance (Becker & Huselid, 2006). Reflecting the systems view, Becker and Huselid (2006, p. 899) stress the importance of HR structure that is, the systems, practices, competencies, and employee performance behaviors that reflect the development and management of the firm s strategic human capital for organizational performance. Context is a crucial element in SHRM, and therefore, researchers increasingly emphasize the best-fit approach to SHRM as opposed to the bestpractice approach. The success of SHRM is contingent on several factors, such as national and organizational culture, size, industry type, occupational category, and business strategy. Accordingly, Becker and Huselid (2006) argued that it is the fit between the HR architecture and the strategic capabilities and business processes that implement strategy that is the basis of HR s contribution to competitive advantage (p. 899). A good example of the importance of HR and the information provided by an HRIS can be found in the human resources planning (HRP) function. HRP is primarily concerned with forecasting the need for additional employees in the 83
future and the availability of those employees either inside or external to the company. A good example is when a company is considering a strategic decision to expand by establishing a production facility in a new location. Using the information recorded and analyzed in the HRIS, HRP can provide estimates of whether or not there are enough people available in the external labor market of the new location to staff the new facility. Thus, the availability of potential employees in the labor market may be critical to the strategic decision to build the new facility, and this, of course, could involve millions or billions of dollars. Therefore, in determining the strategic fit between technology and HR, it is not the strategy per se that leads to competitive advantage but rather how well it is implemented, taking into account the environmental realities that can be unique to each organization and, indeed, between units and functions of the organization. CHALLENGES OF ADOPTING HUMAN RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEMS Resistance by Employers and Employees: Many employers resist HRIS as they think that it increases cost of manpower as trade unions demand for employee based plans, more facilities and benefits including training and development (Strohmeier, 2006). Trade unions and employees also resist HRIS as they view that it increases the work load of employees and prepares programme for securing the human resources mostly from outside. The other reason for their resistance is that HRIS aims at controlling the employee s thorough productivity maximization. Past practices: Perhaps the single greatest barrier to the effective acquisition and deployment of HRIS resources is the condition of current practices being wedded to past practices. The primary mechanism for moving to computerization has been to automate existing manual processes. Although these organizations are more alike than different, a multitude of unique manual processes have grown up at individual organizations over time. This approach to doing business in the past has represented a major barrier to acquiring standard software packages to support primary functions. Training: Lack of training in existing hardware/software and related technologies and inadequate education regarding new developments in MIS are critical barriers to success. Training needs to occur at two levels in these organizations: firstly is the training and development of MIS staff where they exist, and secondly training and education of user department personnel in appropriate technologies. 84
Funding: Funding is a problem in two areas in the organizations. The first is lack of funding to acquire, update, and maintain critical HRIS and new technologies; and the second is the specific funding opportunities that create uneven or inappropriate investment in particular technologies especially in donor funded organizations. Because most information technology is acquired through capital grant funding, which is often dictated by particular events and timing, projects in this area do not always conform to strategic need. It is not uncommon to see a significant investment in a particular exotic advanced technology in another wise impoverished organization. Uncertainties: Uncertainties are quite prominent in human resource practices due to absenteeism, seasonal employment, labor turnover, changing technologies, market conditions making HRIS less reliable. Inadequacies of Information System: Information system regarding human resources has not yet fully been developed due to industries giving low status to personnel department and less importance given to HRIS. ICT Infrastructure: It is expensive to build an infrastructure and to maintain the equipment update. Likewise, there is low connectivity in the third world countries where the communication bandwidth is slow and access to the internet, the job portal and downloading application forms is a problem. The overall Network connectivity continues to pose a challenge especially in the rural areas. Information security: The challenge is to keep information protected all the time from being accessed by unauthorized persons, system hackers, web spam and document viruses. There are inadequate technical and operational skills within the Public service and levels of computer literacy of users are very low. The levels of ICT expertise and understanding of potential applications of e-hrm among specialists is low. Literature on IT implementation has shown that participation and involvement of future users of IT in the design and implementation stages affect their latter adoption of the technology. Yet, the HR professionals have not been sufficiently ambitious in the use of IT. Most information about e-hrm originated from ICT specialists leading to problems of comprehension amongst HR specialists. HR has not been proactive in its use of internet technology to provide integrated services or to communicate more effectively with its customers to elicit and fulfill their changing expectations. 85
Resistance to change: There is general resistance and fear by both the members of staff and the applicants in embracing the new technology This is compounded by the fact that third world countries have an ageing civil service. FINDINGS & SUGGESTIONS: HR executives of the future they need to be proactive handlers of the global talent pool, knowledge experts on talent sources, coaches to the organization on linking business outcomes to human capabilities, managers of organizational partnerships (outsourcers), facilitators of organizational transparency to all stakeholders and teachers to incoming talent (which means that they are likely to themselves be highly educated individuals). The growing need for HR to be more versatile and qualified than their counterparts of a few decades ago is reflected in an increase in the number of HR-related degrees being offered by universities full-time, part-time, distance education and online courses in subjects such as MBA with concentration in Human Resources Management or in Organizational Behavior, M.S. in Industrial and Organizational Psychology, and M.S. in Human Resources Development/Management. Currently. At the same time, mere knowledge about HR processes and functions, although essential, is not enough. The application of this knowledge to increase productivity and tie employees capabilities to the performance of the organization is also not enough. What the HR executive now needs encompasses these competencies and moves beyond them to the crucial components for success a comprehensive understanding of the business processes of the organization (including the financial aspects), a grasp of emerging technologies that they can use to their advantage, a thorough knowledge of the stakeholders and investors needs, the ability to identify market trends that might affect the organization, the skills to make accurate predictions about future HR requirements (including the ability to assess the best fit for a job) and the ability to weed out or rechannel the competencies of poor performers. Added to all these factors now is the critical need to develop a global outlook as many organizations now span many countries and time zones, in addition to having an increasingly diverse workforce. Understanding what makes the latter tick and how to handle them is a crucial factor in the endeavor to extract the best possible performance from them. 86
The other challenge for HR practitioners is the perception that they need to pay more attention to metrics and these must be the right kind, not those tracked merely for the sake of measurement. Key metrics that have been suggested, in addition to those that traditionally measure performance and efficiency, are those based on employees assessments of how well an organization is doing in meeting their requirements, based on the premise that they will provide a foundation for measuring and managing an organization s human capital advantage. The next step is analyzing these metrics with a view to improvement where there is a perceived shortfall, and then actually implementing the improvements. several challenges which were pointed out among which included inadequate funds, inadequate knowledge, lack of applications/solutions for HR users, lack of expertise(s) in IT to operate the HRIS, insufficient financial support, problems with time management of the HRIS implementation process and the need to work with other departments. Likewise, lack of information technology (IT) support, unavailability of suitable HRIS or software, difficulty in changing the organization s culture, fear of changing the way staff do things, the HRIS not being perceived as an advantage, lack of commitment and involvement by all employees and lot of paper work that is difficult to computerize undermined the achievement of the full potential of HRIS. CONCLUSION: The role of HR management has changed significantly in the modern business context. What was better known as Industrial Relations/Personnel a few decades ago began to be called HR, and is today becoming better known as Human Capital Management (HCM). This, however, is not merely a change in euphemism for the department that manages employee-related issues it is representative of a significant metamorphosis, or evolution, of the HR function into an entity that is increasingly being considered a strategic part of organizational development and success. The previous HR focus on process and administration of the organization has now shifted to employee engagement and obtaining the most effective performance from employees. Thus, enhancing human capital is the future face of HCM. The most significant factor that has contributed to this change is the transformation of the nature of work itself. Over the span of just a few generations, society has moved from being largely agrarian to industrial to knowledge- 87
based. Thus, from a requirement for manual skills, we have moved to the need for knowledge (the sum total of a person s experience, education and expertise). According to the reviewed literature on human resource information systems and human resource management service delivery, human resource information systems are considered safety nets that are targeted to human resource management service delivery. More specifically, these human resource information systems are conditioned on providing accurate and timely information to decision makers. The typical requirement is to ensure that effective and efficient records management which will enhance decision making. REFERENCES: Awazu, Yukika & Desouza, Kevin C. (2003). Knowledge Management. HRMagazine. 48(11), 107. Ball, Kirstie S. (2001). The Use of Human Resource Information Systems: a Survey. Personnel Review. 30(6) Florkowski, G. and Olivas-Luja n, M.R. (2006), Diffusion of information technology innovations in human resource service delivery: a cross-country comparison, Personnel Review, Vol. 35 No. 6. Kovach, Kenneth A, Hughes, Allen A., Fagan, Paul, & Maggitti, Patick. (2002). Administrative and Strategic Advantages of HRIS. Employment Relations Today. 29( 2) Kovach, Kenneth A. & Cathcart, Jr., Charles E. (1999). Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS): Providing Business with Rapid Data Access, Information Exchange and Strategic Advantage. Public Personnel Management. 28( 2) Lengnick-Hall, M.L. and Moritz, S. (2003), The impact of e-hr on the human resource management function, Journal of Labor Research Walker, Alfred J. (2001). How the Web and Other Trends are Changing Human Resources. In Alfred J. Walker, ed., Web-Based Human Resources. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001. Achapaetayakom, J., 1995. Industrial structural changes and human resource development in Thailand, in Proceedings of the International Seminar on Industrial Structural Change and HRD in the Asia-Pascific Region. Adams, A., J. Middleton and A. Zidderman, 1992. Market-based manpower planning with labour market signals, International Labour Review. 88
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