Journal of Sport Behavior Sept 1999 v22 i3 p399(1) Page 1

Journal of Sport Behavior Sept 1999 v22 i3 p399(1) Page 1 by Michael C. Meyers, Anthony E. Bourgeois, Arnold LeUnes and Nancy G. Murray Unlike most traditional sports, where both mental and physical abilities are dependent solely upon human decision and response, equestrian sports are dependent to a large degree on human:equine interaction and mutual collaboration to successfully complete a sport task. Although it is generally accepted that a competitive mindset is advantageous to successfully compete in sports, no published research has been directed toward defining the competitive mindset of the equestrian at any level of competition. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to quantify mood and psychological skills of elite and sub-elite equestrian athletes. Following written informed consent, 54 equestrian men and women (mean age 33.6 [+ or -] 11.9 yrs; age range 15-64 yrs) completed a battery of psychometric inventories, consisting of the Profile of Mood States (POMS; McNair, Lorr & Droppleman, 1971), and the Psychological Skills Inventory for Sport (PSIS; Mahoney, Gabriel & Perkins, 1987) during the Olympic Trials, or during various equestrian competitions throughout the country. Data were grouped for analyses by rank (elite, sub-elite), event (dressage, show jumping), and descriptively by gender. MANOVAs and subsequent Wilks s [Lambda] criterion indicated a significant main effect, F(12,51) = 5.25; p =.0001, across rank. Elite competitors exhibited significantly higher anxiety management (76.4 [+ or -] 3.2% vs. 62.8 [+ or -] 1.8%, p[less than].0005), and concentration (81.0 [+ or -] 3.2 vs. 69.1 [+ or -] 1.9%, p[less than].002) than sub-elite athletes. No significant main effects, F(20,104) = 1.56; p =.0768) or trends existed by event, in regards to gender, males tended to exhibit higher vigor (21.3 [+ or -] 2.5 vs. 17.1 [+ or -] 0.7), but less tension (6.8 [+ or -] 3.0 vs. 11.4 [+ or -] 0.8), depression (6.3 [+ or -] 5.0 vs. 9.6 [+ or -] 1.3), fatigue (3.8 [+ or -] 3.6 vs. 9.0 [+ or -] 0.9), confusion (5.5 [+ or -] 2.3 vs. 7.6 [+ or -] 0.6), and total mood disturbance (9.0 [+ or -] 15.2 vs. 28.7 [+ or -] 3.9) than females. Male athletes also scored higher in anxiety management (75.5 [+ or -] 7.0 vs. 65.6 [+ or -] 1.8%) and confidence (72.2 [+ or -] 8.2 vs. 64.3 [+ or -] 2.1%), but lower in motivation (67.9 [+ or -] 6.6 vs. 70.5 [+ or -] 1.7%) than female competitors. In conclusion, limited differences exist between equestrian athletes across rank, event, and gender These athletes also exhibit distinctly different mood and psychological skill profiles than observed in other traditional sports. COPYRIGHT 1999 University of South Alabama It is generally accepted that a competitive mindset is advantageous to successfully compete in sports (Gould & Udry, 1994; Morgan, 1984; Orlick & Partington, 1988). Particular areas of investigation have ranged from extensive work in mood states (Morgan, 1980, 1984; Morgan, O Connor, Ellickson & Bradley, 1988; Morgan & Pollock, 1977) to more recent attention toward psychological skills relevant to competition (Mahoney, 1989; Meyers, Sterling, Bourgeois, Treadwell & LeUnes, 1994; Pursley, Arredondo, Barzdukas & Troup, 1990). While a review of these findings are beyond the scope of this paper, most of these studies have incorporated various psychometric inventories in an attempt to differentiate between successful and unsuccessful competitors, to distinguish between skill position, event, or gender, to ascertain the effects of training, or to develop a model of the psychological profile deemed necessary for optimal performance. The majority of work, however, has focused on traditional sports. Unlike most traditional sports, where both mental and physical abilities are dependent solely upon human decision and response, equestrian sports are dependent to a large degree on human:equine interaction and mutual collaboration to successfully complete a sport task. At the elite level, dressage, show jumping, and three-day eventing comprise the Olympic events, originally adopted from the rigorous demands of military cavalry training. Precision, stamina, versatility, and obedience were required to overcome often insurmountable odds in battle. Equestrian sports were initiated in Stockholm in 1912, with the present competitive format established at the Paris Olympics in 1924 (Littauer, 1962). Competition was limited, however, to commissioned officers up until 1956, with females allowed to compete in 1964. Interestingly, over 80% of equestrian competitors today are female, with a substantial number competing into advanced age (Bixby-Hammett, 1987; Meyers, Ward & Skelly, 1997b); Nelson, Rivara, Condie & Smith, 1994). Limited research efforts on equestrian sports have primarily concentrated on program interventions (Neumann, Gordon & Gorely, 1995). No published research has been directed toward defining the competitive mindset of the equestrian at any level of competition. Exploring the unique nature of equestrian sports may elicit a distinct mood state response, or reveal a level of psychological skills not reported in traditional athletics. Efforts would also add to the limited body of knowledge

Journal of Sport Behavior Sept 1999 v22 i3 p399(1) Page 2 presently available on both elite and female sports. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to quantify mood and psychological skills of elite and sub-elite equestrian athletes. Methods Subjects and Procedures Following written informed consent and clearance from the university human subjects committee, 54 equestrian men and women (mean age 33.6 [+ or -] 11.9 yrs; age range 15-64 yrs) were randomly contacted in person and agreed to participate in this study. Elite athletes were considered United States Equestrian Team (USET) members that had officially qualified to compete at the Olympic Trials. Sub-elite status was given to equestrians that competed but did not qualify for postseason selection in their respective event. A battery of psychometric inventories were subsequently administered to each subject during the Olympic Trials in Gladstone, NJ, or during various equestrian competitions throughout the country. Each battery consisted of the Profile of Mood States (POMS; McNair, Lorr & Droppleman, 1971), and the Psychological Skills Inventory for Sport (PSIS; Mahoney, Gabriel & Perkins, 1987). Instrumentation Profile of Mood States. The POMS is a 65-item inventory which assesses six dimensions of mood state: tension-anxiety (TEN), depression-dejection (DEP), anger-hostility (ANG), vigor-activity (VIG), fatigue-inertia (FAT), confusion-bewilderment (CON), and a composite score, i.e., total mood disturbance [TMD = (TEN + DEP + ANG + FAT + CON) -VIG] (McNair et al., 1971). Answers range from strongly agree to strongly disagree. All POMS inventory questions were standardized using procedures of Albrecht and Ewing (1989). Successful athletes have typically exhibited the "iceberg profile", a phrase coined by Morgan (1980) indicating a satisfactory mood state that is high in vigor while low in the other performance-compromising states. Psychological Skills Inventory for Sport. The PSIS is a 45-item sport-specific instrument which measures six psychological skills relevant to competition: anxiety management (AX), concentration (CC), self-confidence (CF), motivation (MV), mental preparation (MP), and team emphasis (TM; Mahoney et al., 1987; Mahoney, 1989). The items, developed according to predefined scale construct techniques (Anastasi, 1989), are scored by a 5-point Likert format. Statistical Analyses Data were grouped for analyses by rank (elite, sub-elite), and event (dressage, show jumping). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was applied utilizing General Linear Model procedures of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 1990). Least squared means procedures were required due to unequal number of observations upon which to compare differences between variables. Post hoc analyses using Tukey s HSD procedures were performed when significant main effects were observed. Significance was determined at the 0.05 level of confidence. No information regarding gender response has been published on equestrian athletes. In addition, difficulty arises in obtaining adequate sample size on male equestrians for optimal statistical analyses. It was therefore decided to present psychological responses by gender for descriptive purposes only. Results Mean mood and psychological skills response of elite and sub-elite equestrians are shown in Table 1. Wilks s A criterion indicated a significant main effect, F(12, 51) = 5.25; p =.0001, across rank. competitors exhibited significantly higher anxiety management (p [less than].0005), and concentration (p [less than].002) than sub-elite athletes. The elite group also measured nonsignificantly higher in confidence and motivation, but lower in mental preparation than less-skilled riders. No significant differences in mood states were observed between groups, although there was a trend for top equestrians to score higher in tension, anger, fatigue, confusion, and total mood disturbance, and lower in vigor than the sub-elite group.

Journal of Sport Behavior Sept 1999 v22 i3 p399(1) Page 3 Mean psychological responses of equestrians by event are shown in Table 2. Wilks s [Lambda] [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 1 OMITTED] criterion indicated no significant main effect, F(20, 104) = 1.56; p =.0768) by event. There was a tendency for dressage athletes to score higher in anxiety management but lower in confidence than show jumpers. When descriptively comparing mood states between gender, as shown in Table 3, responses indicated a trend for males to exhibit higher vigor, but less tension, depression, fatigue, confusion, and total mood disturbance than females. Male athletes also scored higher in anxiety management and confidence, but lower in motivation than female competitors. Discussion The purpose of this study was to quantify mood and psychological skills of elite and sub-elite equestrian athletes. Prior studies have noted large variability among competitors in numerous sports, resulting in equivocal findings. This has subsequently led to mixed feelings concerning psychological profiling as a useful predictor of successful performance (Chartrand, Jowdy & Danish, 1992; Heyman, 1992), or supporting the benefits of psychometric testing to delineate athletic status, identify performance potential, or isolate predisposition to injury (May, Veach, Reed & Griffey, 1985; Meyers et al., 1992b, 1994; Raglin, Morgan & Luchsinger, 1990). In this study using limited sample size, significant differences and trends were still apparent between skill level, event, and gender. Table 2. Mean Mood and Psychological Skills Response of Equestrian Athletes by Event Event Variables Dressage Show Jumping Subjects 50 15 POMS Tension 10.9 [+ or -] 0.8 12.2 [+ or -] 1.7 Depression 9.9 [+ or -] 1.4 7.8 [+ or -] 2.9 Anger 8.0 [+ or -] 1.0 9.2 [+ or -] 2.0 Vigor 17.4 [+ or -] 0.7 17.3 [+ or -] 1.5 Fatigue 8.4 [+ or -] 1.0 8.9 [+ or -] 2.1 Confusion 7.3 [+ or -] 0.6 8.3 [+ or -] 1.3 TMD 27.0 [+ or -] 4.4 29.0 [+ or -] 9.0 PSIS (%) Anxiety Management 68.2 [+ or -] 1.8 60.1 [+ or -] 3.8 Concentration 72.4 [+ or -] 2.0 71.1 [+ or -] 4.1 Confidence 63.8 [+ or -] 2.2 71.9 [+ or -] 4.5 Mental Preparation 65.3 [+ or -] 1.5 65.3 [+ or -] 3.0 Motivation 70.3 [+ or -] 1.8 69.3 [+ or -] 3.8 Team Emphasis 74.1 [+ or -] 1.2 77.4 [+ or -] 2.5 a Mean [+ or -] SEM Table 3. Mean Mood and Psychological Skills Response of Equestrian Athletes by Gender Gender Variables Male Female Subjects 6 59 POMS Tension 6.8 [+ or -] 3.0 11.4 [+ or -] 0.8 Depression 6.3 [+ or -] 5.0 9.6 [+ or -] 1.3

Journal of Sport Behavior Sept 1999 v22 i3 p399(1) Page 4 Anger 8.0 [+ or -] 3.4 8.2 [+ or -] 0.9 Vigor 21.3 [+ or -] 2.5 17.1 [+ or -] 0.7 Fatigue 3.8 [+ or -] 3.6 9.0 [+ or -] 0.9 Confusion 5.5 [+ or -] 2.3 7.6 [+ or -] 0.6 TMD 9.0 [+ or -] 15.2 28.7 [+ or -] 3.9 PSIS(%) Anxiety Management 75.5 [+ or -] 7.0 65.6 [+ or -] 1.8 Concentration 70.8 [+ or -] 7.0 72.2 [+ or -] 1.8 Confidence 72.2 [+ or -] 8.2 64.3 [+ or -] 2.1 Mental Preparation 61.7 [+ or -] 5.2 65.4 [+ or -] 1.3 Motivation 67.9 [+ or -] 6.6 70.5 [+ or -] 1.7 Team Emphasis 77.9 [+ or -] 4.4 74.4 [+ or -] 1.1 a Mean [+ or -] SEM Rank The nonsignificant differences in mood states between rank have been reported elsewhere in the literature, to a limited extent, with professional tennis players (Meyers et al., 1994). Rank differences have been noted, however, in such sports as rodeo, football, and swimming (Daiss, LeUnes & Nation, 1986; Meyers, Sterling & LeUnes, 1988; Nation & LeUnes, 1983; Pursley et al., 1990). Mood state scores at both levels of competition revealed the "iceberg profile" (Morgan, 1980). Morgan and Pollock (1977) suggested that affective differences in the POMS are consequences of competition at high levels as opposed to antecedents for excellence. Although one would expect the pressures on elite athletes to represent their country at the next Olympiad, as well as maintain seasonal rankings and endorsements, would require a mindset uniquely different than less-skilled competitors, no significant mood state differences were observed in this study. These findings could be attributed to several factors such as high variability within and between groups (Meyers et al., 1994; McNair et al., 1971), small sample size, prior performance, subject selection, and task difficulty (Gould, Weiss & Weinberg, 1981; Landers, 1980; Meyers et al., 1994). In the final analysis, the nonsignificant findings in mood states may simply reflect the unique level of mood states pervasive among athletes involved in the unpredictable nature of human:equine sports at all levels of competition. Statistically significant differences in psychological skills between elite and sub-elite athletes in this study, however, were evident. The more successful athletes possessed higher anxiety management and concentration skills than less-successful peers. These findings are consistent with prior personality research on both traditional and nontraditional competitors (Lesser & Murphy, 1988; LeUnes, Hayward & Daiss, 1988; Mahoney, 1989; May et al., 1985; Meyers et al., 1988, 1990, 1994; Meyers, LeUnes & Bourgeois, 1996; Morgan, 1984; Nation & LeUnes, 1983). Again, the inability to obtain a greater sample at the elite level may have attenuated any additional findings as reported in other studies. Event When attempting to define the physical demands of dressage and show jumping, distinct differences exist between the two events. Dressage reflects precision, elegance, and obedience while performing deliberate, predetermined equine maneuvers. These tasks require a tremendous degree of concentration, mental preparation, and management of tension/anxiety. Show jumping, however, is the more dynamic, least predictable of the two events. Riders and mounts are continually faced with a new jumping course at each competition, with speed, split-second timing, and challenging fences increasing the potential for serious injury. Regardless of the anecdotal evidence, however, no significant differences in psychological skill and mood state response between the two events existed. Although these events may be distinctly different in technique, results may simply reflect the similarity of mental approach required to participate in either event. When compared to traditional athletes at this level of competition, psychological skill responses of equestrians were higher than reported in professional women s tennis (Meyers et al., 1994), competitive rock climbers (Feher, Meyers, & Skelly, 1998), and Olympic weightlifting (Mahoney, 1989). With the exception of vigor, mood state scores were also higher

Journal of Sport Behavior Sept 1999 v22 i3 p399(1) Page 5 than observed in elite runners (Morgan & Pollock, 1977), triathletes (Bell & Howe, 1988), football players (LeUnes & Nation, 1996; Nation & LeUnes, 1983), and norms (McNair et al., 1971). Psychological responses measured in this study, however, were similar to other equine-related competitors such as rodeo (Meyers et al., 1988, 1996), and animal science judging (Meyers, Bourgeois, LeUnes & Potter, 1997a). Gender The issue of gender differences has been extensively studied in various competitive environments. The aggressive style more typically associated with male competitors or the diligence, maturity, and attention to detail often noted of female participants may suit a coach s style of training or may be advantageous in a specific sport (Meyers et al., 1997a). Although the data was not subjected to statistical analysis by gender, perceptual differences between male and female athletes were evident. The trend for males to score higher in anxiety management and confidence agree with prior studies on other equine-related competition, e.g., rodeo, indicating significantly greater psychological skills and lower mood disturbance in males when compared to female competitors (Meyers et al., 1988, 1992b, 1996). Male competitors have also exhibited significantly greater coping and cognitive skills when confronted by competitive/physical stress (Meyers, Bourgeois, Stewart & LeUnes, 1992a). It is also interesting to note the higher than normal fatigue response observed in female equestrians, which may be reflective of the excessive physical demands imposed by the human:equine weight and power differential noted in this sport (Meyers et al., 1997b). The extremely limited number of males in this sample preclude a more definitive conclusion, and leaves the question of gender differences in this sport for further investigation. In conclusion, limited differences exist between equestrian athletes across rank, event, and gender. In addition, these athletes exhibit distinctly different mood and psychological skill profiles than observed in other traditional sports. Additional research exploring personality differences across other equestrian events, at other levels of equestrian competition, with a larger sample size appears warranted. References Albrecht, R. R., & Ewing, S. J. (1989). Standardizing the administration of the Profile of Mood States (POMS). Development of alternative word lists. Journal of Personality Assessment, 53, 31-39. Anastasi, A. (1989). Psychological testing. New York: Macmillan. Bell. G. J., & Howe, B. L. (1988). Mood state profiles and motivation of triathletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 11, 66-77. Bixby-Hammett, D. M. (1987). Accidents in equestrian sports. American Family Physician, 36, 209-214. Chartrand, J. M., Jowdy, D. P., & Danish, S. J. (1992). The Psychological Skills Inventory for Sport: Psychometric characteristics and applied implications. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14, 405-413. Feher, P., Meyers, M. C., & Skelly, W. A. (1998). Psychological profile of rock climbers: State and trait attributes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 21, 167-180. Daiss, S., LeUnes, A., & Nation, J. (1986). Mood and locus of control of a sample of college and professional football players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63, 733-734. Gould, D., & Udry, E. (1994). Psychological skills for enhancing performance: Arousal regulation skills. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26, 478-485. Gould, D., Weiss, M., & Weinberg, R. (1981). Psychological characteristics of successful and non-successful Big Ten wrestlers. Journal of Sports Psychology, 3, 69-81. Heyman, S. (1992). Comparisons of successful and unsuccessful competitors: A reconsideration of methodological questions and data. Journal of Sport Psychology, 4, 295-300.

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