Teacher Self-Efficacy in New Nurse Educators

Teacher Self-Efficacy in New Nurse Educators KATHERINE E. NUGENT, PHD, RN,* MARTHA J. BRADSHAW, PHD, RN,t AND NORIKO KITO, MSN$ The purpose of this study was to determine the variables that influence teacher self-efficacy in faculty with five or fewer years of teaching experience. Specifically, the relationship between formal educational courses and teacher self-efficacy in the teaching domains of course preparation, instructor behavior, evaluation and examination, and clinical teaching were examined. Findings showed that the 346 new nurse educators in this study had a strong sense of teacher self-efficacy. Results of multiple regression analysis indicated that formal education courses, teaching experience in nursing, and other teaching experience influenced the level of teacher selfefficacy. This study has implications for the mentoring of new faculty in the teaching role. (Index words: Nursing education; Nursing faculty; Teacher selfefficacy; Teaching competencies) J Prof Nurs 15:229-237, 1999. Copyright 1999 by W.B. Saunders Company N URSE EDUCATORS have been challenged to be innovative and think differently about nursing education and practice in a reformed health care system. The new paradigm of health care is emerging as an unpredictable and uncertain pattern. This ambiguity complicates the mission of nurse educators to prepare new graduates. Accustomed to using conditions in acute care settings to define the boundaries of the curriculum, they now wrestle with how to prepare graduates to practice in a fluid and rapidly changing work environment based primarily in a community setting. (Tagliareni & Marckx, 1997; Valiga & Bruderle, 1994). An educational environment dominated by uncertainty, innovation, and ambiguity mandates creating a balance between celebrating what has been done well *Professor and Associate Dean of Undergraduate Programs, School of Nursing, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA. #Associate Professor, Parent-Child Nursing Department, School of Nursing, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA. SDoctoral Student, School of Nursing, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr Nugent: Medical College of Nursing, School of Nursing, Augusta, GA 3O912-4732. Copyright 1999 by W.B. Saunders Company 8755-7223/99/1504-0009510.00/0 and developing and identifying strategies that will work in the future educational environment (Tagliareni & Mar&x, 1997). Nurse educators who are confident in their ability to assist students in bridging the gap between theory and practice will be more successful in adapting to changes in the health education environment. This confidence, or belief in one's ability to teach, "is termed teacher self-efficacy." Historically, graduate education focused on teaching and encouraged self-efficacy in new faculty. The emphasis of graduate education has shifted, however, from preparing faculty to teach to preparing advanced practice nurses and nurse researchers. Although this shift in the focus of graduate education has been beneficial to prepare nurses to deliver health care, the concern now is that new faculty are not prepared to assume the faculty role and will not feel confident in their teaching skills. Related Literature Changes in health care and an emphasis on curriculum revolution in nursing education have resulted in a renewed emphasis on quality teaching. The evaluation of the quality of teaching tends to focus on documented outcomes as measured by teaching effectiveness (Glen, 1991). Teaching effectiveness is a widely known concept within education and traditionally is determined by students, peers, and self (Glen, 1991; Melland, 1996). Quality teaching is based on a combination of personal traits, interpersonal relationship skills, competency, and professional decision making (Brophy & Good, 1986; DeYoung, 1990). As an outcome measure, teaching effectiveness has been examined in relation to other forms of productivity, most notably research (Melland, 1996). Whereas recommendations have been made to better define research or scholarship, few recommendations regarding better definitions and evaluations of quality teaching exist. Furthermore, there is little research regarding a nursing faculty view of self as an effective teacher. Journal of ProfessionalNursing, Vo115, No 4 (July-August), 1999: pp 229-237 229

230 NUGEN~ BRADSHAW, AND KITO SELF-EFFICACY Self-efficacy is a construct that differs from teaching effectiveness in that it is internally derived and measured. Self-efficacy is defined as the belief or view held by the teacher that he or she has influence over students in a way that brings about learning, regardless of how unmotivated or difficult the students may be (Guskey & Passaro, 1994). It includes judgments one makes about personal competencies needed to bring about a course of actions and to meet goals (Fritz, Miller-Heyl, Kreutzer, & MacPhee, 1995). This construct goes beyond effectiveness to include the notion that efficacy is a personality trait that enables teachers to control the learning environment in such a way as to produce desired goals or outcomes (Guskey & Passaro, 1994). Thus, self-efficacy is not just perceived effectiveness but represents the capacity the teacher perceives he or she has to affect student performance and to bring about instructional goals (Ashton, 1984). Self-efficacy is... the belief or view held by the teacher that he or she has influence over students in a way that brings about learning... Theory development of the construct of teacher self-efficacy emerged from Bandura's (1977) cognitive theories of social learning and self-efficacy. Based on Bandura's response-outcome expectancies, self-efficacy is defined as the perceived ability to engage in certain behaviors (efficacy expectation) that are most likely to bring about the desired outcomes (outcome expectation) (Bandura). In teaching, two factors that comprise teacher self-efficacy have been identified. One is personal effzcacy, which is the belief that one has the skills or personal ability to bring about a positive change in students (efficacy expectation). In nursing education, a faculty member who has a thorough knowledge of the content is clinically competent is likely to have a strong sense of personal efficacy, believing in the ability to offer requisite knowledge and skills for students. The other factor in self-efficacy is teaching e~zcacy. This is the belief that students benefit from the actual educational experience as developed and presented by the teacher, regardless of the influence (positive or negative) of outside sources, such as previous negative learning experiences or lack of support for education (Allinder, 1995). Teaching efficacy has been found to be predictive of the faculty's ability to implement curriculum and may underlie critical components of the teacher role, such as decisions about instruction, class management, and referral of problem students (Soodak and Podell, 1996). Extensive research has been conducted to refine and describe the construct of teacher self-efficacy (Guskey & Passaro, 1994; Allinder 1995; Soodak and Podell, 1996). Although different research methodologies were used in the studies, the results of these studies, in general, have supported the notion that teacher selfefficacy is comprised of personal efficacy and teacher efficacy (Benz, Bradley, Alderman, & Flowers, 1992). Soodak and Podell believe that personal efficacy, a teacher's beliefs about his or her skills, is equated with Bandura's (1997) efficacy expectation and outcome efficacy. Teaching efficacy is the belief that teachers can overcome outside influences to bring about learning (Guskey & Passaro, 1994; Soodak and Podell, 1996). It is derived from the confidence the teacher has in the teaching-learning process as a means to effect change. Allinder (1995) examined self-efficacy in teachers as well as their use of formative evaluation and student learning outcomes. Those teachers who had a strong sense of both personal and teaching efficacy more often increased their end-of-year goals for students than did teachers with a lower sense of self-efficacy. This willingness to set and attain higher goals reflects the teacher's belief in self to bring about such outcomes and belief that students benefit from the educational process (Allinder). In addition to confident beliefs, teachers with a strong sense of self-efficacy are likely to put more effort into their work. To bring about learning, they are more likely to engage in behaviors that are different from than those of lowefficacy teachers. Specifically, behaviors characterizing self-efficacy include persistence, sustaining tasks, and clearly conveying expectations to the learner(s) (Allinder, 1995). APPLICATION TO NURSING EDUCATION In nursing, self-efficacy could be viewed as the extent to which the nurse educator bridges the theory-to-practice gap. To avoid having teachers without current clinical knowledge in the classroom, practicing nurses who know content specialties have become nurse educators. These faculty likely exemplify teachers with a strong sense of personal selfefficacy (Ferguson & Jinks, 1994). Conversely, it is likely that less-experienced nurses would have a weaker sense of personal self-efficacy. The same argument

TEACHER SELF-EFFICACY IN NURSE EDUCATORS 23] could hold true for nurse educators with limited experience in teaching. Faculty with a limited knowledge base in the process of education and with little teaching experience would have less of a sense of control over the teaching-learning environment and, consequently, would have a weaker sense of teacher self-efficacy than might be seen in more knowledgeable and experienced faculty. Whereas personal self-efficacy in nurse educators comes from a strong clinical base, teacher self-efficacy in nurse educators may be less developed. Teacher self-efficacy is based on the nurse educator's confidence in ability to plan and use an effective curriculum; select, use, and modify appropriate teaching strategies; evaluate students and the program using a variety of tools; and revise the program and teaching strategies as indicated. Nurse educators may have a sense of competency in the discipline (personal efficacy) but little sense of competency as an instructor (teacher efficacy) (Sherman, Armistead, Fowler, Barksdale, & Reif, 1987). Yet effective instruction in nursing calls for teachers who have both personal and teaching efficacy. To be equipped to carry out these endeavors, nurse educators need a clear understanding of the process of education. Developing nurses as professional educators has long been an under-emphasized focus in graduate education. Baccalaureate education generally includes experiences in the basic arts and sciences; courses directly related to the profession's typical problems and activities; and some form of professional initiation-such as clinical studies, an apprenticeship, or an internship--in order to bridge theory and practice. Graduate education emphasizes acquiring the knowledge and skills necessary for advanced practice. As a result, professional students are not taught how to teach professionals. Although, the issue regarding the need for qualified, well-prepared teachers of nursing has received attention by nurse leaders and has appeared in the nursing literature (Princeton, 1992), a 1989 survey of master's programs in nursing determined that of the 92 respondents (deans or their designees), only 10 offered majors in nursing education. Sixty-six of the respondents offered minors, electives, or "tracks" in education, usually requiring two or three courses. Fifteen of the respondents offered no courses in nursing education (Oermann & Jamison, 1989). Sterling (1995) addressed this problem and indicated that the most common role for preparing nurse educators has been that of teaching assistant. The importance and benefit of guided formal learning experiences to prepare graduate students to be teaching assistants has been determined (Dalgaard, 1982). These formal learning experiences include common aspects of the teacher role, such as the development of objectives and constructing test items, orientation to various forms of instructional media, and critique of presentation style. Although such preparation of teaching assistants has merit, this approach to teacher development is not as beneficial as formal, graduate-level courses in higher education. Courses addressing the culture of nursing education offer not only experiences in curriculum development and instructional strategies, they also expose future educators to a way of life, unique values, ways of thinking, and how to uncover researchable problems (Sterling, 1995). Formal preparation for teaching should include guided reflection, complex role taking in new and challenging situations, and guided integration of experiences (Sherman et al., 1987). Developmental opportunities such as these are found within graduate programs directed toward teacher development. Oermann and Jamison (1989) contended that nursing faculty need this knowledge base, socialization, and set of unique skills to function effectively as teachers. What is unclear is why faculty believes that teaching assistants need formal preparation in teaching, even though many of those same faculty have had little or no formal preparation themselves. Purpose of the Study This study was developed to identify variables influencing teacher self-efficacy in nursing faculty with 5 or fewer years of teaching experience. Specifically, the investigators were interested in the relationship between formal educational courses and teacher selfefficacy. Research questions included the following: 1. How confident do new faculty feel in the teaching skill domains of course preparation, instructor behavior, evaluation and examination, and clinical teaching? 2. Is there a difference in the perceived selfefficacy in faculty who reported having taken formal educational course work? 3. Is there a difference in the perceived selfefficacy of faculty in relation to years of teaching experience?

232 4. Is there a difference in the perceived selfefficacy of faculty who reported having teaching experience in related areas? The following operational definitions were used in the study: New nurse educator was defined as a full-time faculty member who has been teaching for 5 or fewer years. Teacher self-efficacy was defined as the personal judgment or belief an individual has concerning his or her capabilities to execute given levels of performance (Bandura, 1984). Methodology SAMPLE The sample for this study was drawn from National League for Nursing (NLN)-accredited baccalaureate programs in which the dean or director reported having faculty who met eligibility criteria. Of the 535 deans and directors contacted, 303 responded. Of those that responded, 56 stated that the faculty in their programs did not meet eligibility criteria; 12 declined participation; and 235 agreed to distribute questionnaires to their faculty. A total of 1,352 questionnaires were mailed. Four hundred fifty surveys were returned. Of those returned, 60 were completed by faculty who did not meet eligibility criteria, and 49 were incomplete. Thus, 346 comprised the study sample. The overall response rate was 33 per cent, and the useable response rate was 25.6 per cent. Although these percentages are low, they are realistic for the indirect method used for contacting subjects via mail survey. The majority of the faculty were female (95.4 per cent), between the ages of 31 to 50 years (82 per cent), master's prepared (83.5 per cent); and holding the rank of instructor or assistant professor (97.7 per cent). Twenty-six percent of the faculty reported five years of teaching experience, whereas 24.9 per cent reported 3 years and 20.8 percent reported 2 years of experience. The majority (59.5 per cent) of the faculty reported having previous teaching experience in a field other than nursing (ie, staff development, higher education). A majority (71.1 per cent) of the faculty reported having some formal nursing education courses, whereas 29 per cent reported having no formal courses in education (Table 1). DATA COLLECTION Potential participants for the study were identified with the assistance of deans and directors of NLN- NUGENT, BRADSHAW, AND KITO TABLE 1. Data Summary of Variables (n = 346) Variable n % Age (y) <30 21 6.1 31-40 119 33.4 41-50 168 48.6 51-60 35 10.1 >60 3.9 Gender Mate 16 4.6 Female 330 95.4 Highest degree Master's 289 83.5 Doctorate 45 13.0 Other 12 3,5 Rank Instructor 163 47.1 Assistant professor 175 50.6 Associate professor 7 2.0 Professor 1.3 Years of teaching <1 86 24.9 1-3 110 31.8 4-5 150 43.3 Education courses None 100 28.9 1-3 semester hours 72 20.8 4-6 semester hours 75 21.7 ->7 semester hours 70 28.6 Previous teaching experience Yes 206 59.5 No 140 40.5 accredited baccalaureate nursing programs. Each dean was sent a letter explaining the study and soliciting their willingness to distribute questionnaires to eligible faculty. Those willing to assist in identifying participants returned a form to the investigators identifying how many faculty questionnaires were needed. The requested number of demographic forms and inventory tools were returned to the deans for distribution to eligible faculty. A letter explaining the study was attached to each packet. Consent to participate in the study was determined by completion of the instruments. Instrument The Self-Efficacy Toward Teaching Inventory (SETTI) and demographic data sheet were used to collect data. The SETTI is a 48-item, self-report scale measuring the degree to which subjects feel confident in their ability to execute specific teaching behaviors across four domains: course preparation, instructor behavior, evaluation and examination, and clinical skills. Participants responded to each statement using a Likert-scale format ranging from "not confident" (1)

TEACHER SELF-EFFICACY IN NURSE EDUCATORS 233 to "completely confident" (4). The instrument generates a total score ranging from 48 to 192 points. In addition, a subscale score can be calculated for each domain. The original version of the SETTI consisted of 35 items (Tollerud, 1990) and was used to measure the perceived self-efficacy of teaching skills of advanced doctoral students and graduates from counselor education programs. Construct and content validity were established on the original scale via literature review, feedback from faculty who were considered experts, pilot study, and factor analysis (Prieto & Altmaier, 1994; Tollerud, 1990). Internal consistency was reported at.94, and factor analysis showed the items of the SETTI converging into one factor, with loadings from.39 to.78, which accounted for 35 per cent of the variance. The original scale was later adapted by Prieto and Altmaier (1994) to measure perceived self-efficacy among graduate assistants. Their version consisted of 32 items, which were identical to the original scale except for 3 deleted items that were specific to counselor education. Internal consistency for this version of the scale was reported at.94 (Prieto & Altmaier). The SETTI was further revised for this study by the investigators. Three of the items that did not pertain to nursing were eliminated from the Prieto and Altmaier (1994) adaptation of the scale. Nineteen items were added that dealt with selecting teaching strategies, promoting critical thinking and more specific behaviors associated with clinical teaching and evaluation of student performance in the clinical area. Items added to the scale were reviewed by faculty with expertise in teaching and evaluation. Internal consistency for the revised scale was reported at.95 alpha coefficient. Reliability on the four subscales was reported as course preparation,.89; instructor behavior,.89; evaluation and examination,.88; and clinical skills,.91. DATA ANALYSIS Descriptive data analysis was conducted on the demographic variables. To identify factors that influence self-efficacy, the investigators examined relationships between demographic variables and the mean score on the SETTI. Correlational analysis, multiple regression, and analysis of variance were used to determine the relationships of the dependent variable (SETTI) with study variables. Factor analysis was performed on the investigator's version of the scale. Results CONFIDENCE OF NEW FACULTY To determine how confident new faculty felt in the teaching skill domains of course preparation, instructor behavior, evaluation and examination, and clinical teaching, a mean score was calculated for the total scale and for each of the subscales. The scores on the SETTI ranged from 105 to 192, with a mean score of 160 and a standard error of 1.00. Scores for each subscale were reported by the mean score and the corresponding mean Likert rating in parenthesis. The mean scores for each subscale were as follows: course preparation, 40.6 (3.36); instructor behavior, 47.4 (3.40); evaluation and examination, 34.7 (3.09); and clinical skills, 48.0 (3.43). Correlation of the variables of interest with the dependent measure demonstrated significant positive relationships with age (r =.164, P <.01), hours of formal education courses (r =. 193, P <.01), and years of teaching in nursing education (r =.306, P <.01). A positive relationship between the dependent measure and the highest educational degree (r =.130, P <.05) also was found. Although women comprised the majority of participants in this study, Student t test showed that male faculty scored higher on the SETTI. No significant relationship was found between faculty rank and years of non-nursing teaching and the SETTI scores (Table 2). PERCEIVED SELF-EFFICACY IN RELATION TO FORMAL EDUCATIONAL COURSE WORK, YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE, AND TEACHING EXPERIENCE IN RELATED AREAS Multiple regression was used to ascertain the variance accounted for in the SETTI scores by age, TABLE 2. Pearson Correlational Matrix Between Demographic (n = 34.6) Variables and SETTI 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Age --.179"*.150"*.130".112".221"*.164"* 2. Highest degree -- NS.390** NS.239**.130" 3. Educational courses -- NS NS.197"*.193"* 4. Rank -- NS.184"* NS 5. Teaching experience (nonnursing) -- NS NS 6. Years of teaching --.306** 7. SETTI Abbreviations: SETTI, Self-Efficacy Toward Teaching Inventory; NS, not significant.

234 NUGENT, BRADSHAW, AND KITO highest educational degree, rank, formal education courses, teaching experience in nursing, and other teaching experience. Age was entered first to control its possible influence on self-efficacy. After this, the remaining variables of formal education courses, teaching experience in a nursing program, other teaching experience, rank, and highest educational degree were forward selected using a significance level of.05 for inclusion in the model. Table 3 presents a brief summary of the results. The block variable of age accounted for 2 per cent of the variance found in the SETTI scores, which was statistically significant at P <.05. When selected into the model, the three variables (formal education courses, teaching experience in nursing, and other teaching experience) were identified as predictor variables in the regression model and explained 12.2 per cent of the total variance. As can be seen in Table 3, the changes in R 2 through the entering process indicated that the number of years in teaching experiences in nursing education accounted for most (10 per cent) of the variance. Correlational analysis was used to determine if there was a relationship between formal education courses, teaching experience and years of teaching, and the domains of course preparation, instructor behavior, examination and evaluation, and clinical teaching. Findings of this analysis showed a significant (P <.01) relationship between all of the domains and years of teaching and formal education courses. There was a significant relationship between previous teaching experience and the domain of instructor behavior. The relationship between previous teaching experience and the other domains were not significant. FACTOR ANALYSIS The 48 items on the revised SETTI were analyzed using principal components analysis method for factor extraction (n = 332). Although the results indicated that the factor structure was clear and reasonable, items did not emerge on four subscales as reported in past studies. Eight factors had Eigen values higher than 1.00. Parallel analysis suggested five factors; these factors were orthogonally rotated with varimax rotation (Table 4). Factor 1 (14.83 per cent) and factor 2 (11.38 per cent) accounted for most of the total variance. The remaining factors accounted for 9 per cent of the total variance. Discussion The purpose of this study was to determine the confidence level of perceived teacher self-efficacy of new faculty in the teaching domains of course preparation, instructor behavior, evaluation and examination, and clinical teaching. New nurse educators in this sample were confident in their teaching skills as documented by the reported mean scores of 3.09 to TABLE 3. Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting SETTI (n = 3261) Overall Model Stepwise Variables R Adj R 2 Change in R 2 Ffor Change 1 Ages.164.023.026 8.637 F(1,325) = 8.637, P =.004 2 Age.164 Years of teaching.102.061 29.517 in nursing.306 F(2,324) = 19.456, P <.001 3 Age.164 Years of teaching in nursing.306.114.015 5.346 Education courses in F(3,323) = 14.927, P <.001 nursing.193 4 Age.164 Years of teaching in nursing.306 Education courses in.122.011 4.046 nursing.193 F(4,322) = 12.312, P <.001 Non-nursing teaching experiences.099 b Weight in Model Beta 2.061.161" 1.245.097 4.107.292** 1.061.083 3.799.270** 1.964.124".878.069 3.925.279** 1.982.125" 4.010.105" Abbreviations: SETrl, Self-Efficacy Toward Teaching Inventory; R, Zero-order Pearson Product Moment Correlation of variable with the SETTI; adj, adjusted. 1-Missing values were excluded by using listwise deletion. SAge was controlled in the model. *Statistically significantly different (P-<.05). **Statistically significantly different (P--<.001 ).

TEACHER SELF-EFFICACY IN NURSE EDUCATORS 235 TABLE 4. Results of the SETTI FactorAnalysis and Rotated Factor Loadings Item Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor No. 1 2 3 4 5 Commonality 1.440.162.302.160.072.342 2.578 -.012.054.213.323.488 3.592 -.056,164.127.264.466 4.267.137.146.695.214.641 5,408.242 -.011.596.062.585 6,588.140.083.210.027.417 7.576.256.030.245.098.468 8.548.223.222.300.082.497 9.605.034.286.042.059.455 10.408 -.043.031.300.388.411 11.350.097.046.556.179.475 12.11t.208.155.807.113.744 13.051.185.191.777.189.712 14.18I.319,145.392.462.523 15.201.247.060.595.317.560 16 -.015.265.111.081.653.515 17.130.130.337.107.644.573 18.210.205.105.102.675.563 19.104.351.038.152.589.506 20.250.195.053.204.625.536 21.124.144.228.224.670.587 22.540.289.098.238.199.481 23.517.127.164.322.205.456 24.678.172.213.138.114.567 25.670.160.137.105.052.507 26,752.172.085 -.037.058.607 27.581.369.300.152.026.588 28.646.359.135.058.092.576 29.525.326.186.099,187.462 30.369.376.132.421.135.491 31.322.524.216.282.109.516 32.222.551.294.337.162.579 33.196,603,307,330.004.606 34.156.661.236.132.246.592 35.145.666.035,145.326.593 36.113.558.166.149.288.457 37,194.600.094.178.260.506 38.225.689.248.157.158.638 39,241,469.549.057.108.594 40.083.359.620.132.037.540 41.212.259.734.006.156.675 42.259.182.709,173.201.673 43.183.085.784,137,093.682 44.192.077.767.097,190,677 45.283.331,396.085.161.380 46.212.361.300.146.243.346 47.285.448.237.040.314.438 48.369.295.399.117.259.463 Eigenvalue 16,990 2.790 2.591 1.773 1.610 Variance(%) 35.4 5,8 5.4 3.7 3.4 Abbreviation: SETTI, Self-Efficacy Toward Teaching Inventory. 3.43 in each of the domains. This level of teacher self-efficacy was probably influenced by the fact that in this sample the majority of the participants had taught for 3 or more years in a nursing program and had taken formal education courses. The results of the study did not support the investigator's belief that formal education courses influenced teacher self-efficacy more than other variables. Data related to research questions 2, 3, and 4 indicated that new nurse educators who had formal educational courses, previous exposure to teaching, and years of teaching experience--reported a higher level of teacher self-efficacy in nursing. However, the items of teaching experience and formal education were of compounding, rather than singular, influence on perceived self-efficacy. These findings support Bandura's (1977) self-efficacy theory that teachers become more confident in their ability to execute effective teaching behaviors when they receive instruction or experience. An evaluation of the descriptive data associated with the subscales showed some interesting trends. Any inferences associated with this comparison, however, were not statistically significant. New nurse educators scored the highest mean (3.43) in the clinical skill domain. Because the focus of graduate nursing education is advanced practice, this finding was not surprising. It supports assumptions in the literature that faculty who are clinical content specialists have a strong sense of personal self-efficacy (Ferguson & Jinks, 1994). Because teacher efficacy is comprised of both personal efficacy and teacher self-efficacy (Allinder, 1995; Guskey & Passaro, 1994; Soodak & Podell, 1996), one could argue that since this sample of master's-prepared faculty felt confident in their dinical teaching skills, they were confident in their ability to operate in the dinical teaching environment. Of further interest were the trends suggested by the data associated with the first research question. Whereas new nurse educators had similar levels of confidence and therefore teacher self-efficacy in the domains of course preparation (3.36) and instructor behavior (3.40), they felt the least amount of confidence in areas of examination and evaluation (3.09). This infers that even with a strong sense of personal efficacy, teacher self-efficacy may be less developed (Sherman, et al., 1987). T]he skills of course preparation and instructor behavior are typical teaching endeavors that are more easily learned through teaching experience and by role modeling provided by more experienced faculty. Because faculty in this study did not have as strong a belief of personal competency in the domain of evaluation and examination, one could hypothesize that educational courses in evaluation and examination would strengthen teacher self-efficacy, although, this was not statistically supported in this study. Of related interest are the statistical results of the SETTI as modified for this study. The introduction of new items related to promoting critical thinking,

236 NUGEN~ BRADSHAW, AND KITO clinical teaching, and evaluation changed the original nature of the SETTI. These new items addressed more complex faculty roles and measures of higher-order teacher behaviors. Responses by subjects leads one to wonder whether, even if nurse educators believe they are promoting critical thinking, they may not know how to evaluate students' grasp of such thinking. Conclusion As nurse educators contemplate how best to prepare future graduates to practice in a complex health care environment, educational research becomes even more important to evaluate effectiveness. This study examined how the variables of formal education courses, years of teaching experience, and previous exposure to teaching influenced teacher self-efficacy in faculty with 5 or fewer years of teaching experience. Although the findings of this study did not support the investigators' assumption that formal nursing education would significantly influence self-efficacy in nurse educators, the results did provide insight into the confidence of new educators in specified domains of teaching. The research methodology in this study allowed the investigators to recruit a larger number of faculty from a wider geographical area, but the findings were limited by sample size, sample demographics, indirect method of subject recruitment, and self-reported data. Not having direct access to faculty and having data collection occur at the end of an academic term resulted in a lower than desired sample size and limited the ability to generalize the findings. In addition, the data were exclusively self-reported. What people actually do and what they report they do may differ. Because participants were reporting behaviors associated with the faculty role, there may have been a potential to report an inflated level of confidence. The sample for this study was skewed in that the majority of the faculty had 3 or more years of teaching and had taken formal education courses. Additionally, research with a more controlled sample might determine the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and education and years of teaching experience. Further research is needed concerning the revised measurement of the SETTI. Despite the limitations of the study, the findings stimulate questions and have implications for nurse educators. National demographic data report a shortage of nursing faculty due to the "graying" of present faculty and a decreased number of nurses preparing to teach. Other data clearly indicate that the process of educating students will change dramatically, with an increased use of technology in teaching, an emphasis on critical thinking, and the use of active learning strategies. This shift in teaching strategies has the potential to impact teacher self-efficacy in both the novice and experienced teacher as traditional facultycontrolled strategies become ineffective. This study reported that new nurse educators felt confident about their abilities in the traditional domains of teaching. One could speculate that if efficacy could be enhanced in these domains, this confidence may be transferrable into a feeling of being able to control the learning environment, thus neutralizing the fear of implementing nontraditional teaching strategies...new nurse educators felt confident about their abilities M the traditional domains of teaching. The findings of this study indicate that both teaching experience and formal education influence teacher self-efficacy, suggesting a framework to be followed for orienting new nurse educators. Orientation of new faculty should consist of instruction in the skill domains of course preparation, instructional behavior, evaluation and examination, and clinical teaching. These are essential components used in all instructional settings and could be offered in a series of seminars. In addition to instruction, new faculty should be mentored by experienced faculty who can share lived experiences and provide direction and feedback as the faculty member assumes the role of educator. A structured mentoring program in which an experienced faculty member counsels, guides, and helps a less-experienced faculty member not only helps the new faculty member but enriches the teachinglearning environment (Brown, 1999). Continued theory-driven investigation into the factors that influence teacher self-efficacy is important to nursing education. Nurse educators are concerned about their ability to adapt from a faculty-centered learning environment to an active student learner environment. An increased feeling of teacher selfefficacy will empower faculty to be creative in providing a learning environment that will successfully prepare students to practice in a new health care environment.

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