ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS ISTITUTO DELLA ENCICLOPEDIA ITALIANA FONDATA DA GIOVANNI TRECCANI
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Copyright by ISTITUTO DELLA ENCICLOPEDIA ITALIANA FONDATA DA GIOVANNI TRECCANI S.p.A. 2005 Printed in Italy Photolith and printing by MARCHESI GRAFICHE EDITORIALI S.p.A. Via Bomarzo, 32-00191 Roma
CHAIRMAN Roberto Poli CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER Paolo Scaroni DIRECTORS Alberto Clô, Renzo Costi, Dario Fruscio, Marco Pinto, Marco Reboa, Mario Resca, Pierluigi Scibetta
ISTITUTO DELLA ENCICLOPEDIA ITALIANA PRESIDENT Francesco Paolo Casavola BOARD OF DIRECTORS VICE PRESIDENT Cesare Geronzi Roberto Artoni, Marcello De Cecco, Giuseppe de Vergottini, Giovanni Fiori, Ademaro Lanzara, Federico Pepe, Riccardo Perissich, Vincenzo Pontolillo, Giovanni Puglisi, Giuseppe Vacca MANAGING DIRECTOR Francesco Tatò SCIENTIFIC COUNCIL Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, Francesco Cossiga, Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, Giovanni Conso, Rita Levi-Montalcini; Mario Agrimi, Adriano Alippi, Girolamo Arnaldi, Baccio Baccetti, Giuseppe Franco Bassani, Mario Beccari, Giuseppe Bedeschi, Giampio Bracchi, Pietro Calissano, Luciano Canfora, Mario Caravale, Sergio Carrà, Enrico Castelnuovo, Francesco Clementi, Piero Coda, Umberto Colombo, Adele Benedetta Craveri, Francesco D Agostino, Giuseppe Dalla Torre, Nino Dazzi, Antonio Fazio, Domenico Fisichella, Giuseppe Galasso, Paolo Galluzzi, Emma Giammattei, Antonio Giuliano, Gherardo Gnoli, Augusto Graziani, Tullio Gregory, Maurizio Iaccarino, Carlo Jean, Fiorella Kostoris Padoa Schioppa, Luigi Labruna, Lucio Lanfranchi, Carlo Maria Ossola, Giorgio Parisi, Sandro Petruccioli, Giovanni Pugliese Carratelli, Gian Tommaso Scarascia Mugnozza, Pietro Scoppola, Salvatore Settis, Francesco Sicilia, Fulvio Tessitore, Edoardo Vesentini, Vera Zamagni BOARD OF AUDITORS Gianfranco Graziadei, Chairman; Mario Perrone, Saverio Signori Luciano Pagliaro, Delegate of the State Auditor s Department
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS PROJECT DIRECTORS Mario Beccari, Ugo Romano SCIENTIFIC CO-ORDINATING COMMITTEE Pier Federico Barnaba, Piero Bernardini, Giovanni Brighenti, Sergio Carrà, Alberto Clô, Carlo Giavarini, Renzo Mazzei, Ferruccio Trifirò EDITORIAL DEPARTMENT Chief Editor: Carlo Amadei Technical-Scientific Area. Supervisors: Fabio Sebastiani; Maria Teresa Amoroso. Chemistry: Andrea Ciccioli, Alessandro Di Menno Di Bucchianico, Antonio Di Meo - Physics: Maria Grazia Ianniello - Engineering: Lucilla Monteleone, Roberto Steindler - Biological, Geological and Natural Sciences: Francesca Beolchini, Francesca Ricci, Paola Vinesi Legal, Economics and Historical-Geographical Area. Supervisor: Giandomenico Patrizi. Law: Fabiana Di Porto, Stefano Petitti - Economics: Chiara d Auria, Giuseppe Smargiassi - Geography: Arianna Ballabene - History: Silvia Dionisi Italian language edition. Pino Bongiorno, Ilenia Romana Cassetta, Fabio Catino, Claudio Censori, Marina Chiarioni, Katia Furia, Patrizia Greganti, Tomáš Kubíček (illustrations), Simona Martullo, Michela Mastroddi, Enza Milanesi, Simona Nucciarelli, Enrico Piccioni, Tiziana Provvidera English language edition. Co-ordination: Cosima Campagnolo. Hannah Chapman, Johanna Erhardt, Francesca Fava, Patrick O Keeffe, Mary Anne Tafuri. Consultant: Peter Joseph Glendening. Translators: Luigi Attardi, Fabrizio Balsamo, Paul David Blackmore, Alberta Crescenzi, Paolo Del Giudice, Peter Joseph Glendening, Rachel Golder, H.J. Michael Harris, Erika Louisa Milburn, Patrick O Keeffe, Valentina Palombi, Lenore Rosenberg, Stefano Salpietro, Centro Lingue Tradint S.r.L. Secretaries: Pasqualina Leone, Giancarla Palumbo, Maurizia Scapin
ART DEPARTMENT Art Director: Gerardo Casale Graphics: Giuseppe De Gregori Illustration sourcing: Daniele Piselli; Claudio Cigognetti; Alessandro Albanese, Anna Maria Ciai, Gilberto De Angelis Drawings: Marina Paradisi; Giuseppina Elia, Massimo Montelli, Anna Olivieri, Francesca Ottaviano, Giuseppe Polegri, Paola Salvatori (cartography) Graphics and layout: Giuseppe De Gregori; Giulia Romana Faggiani, Francesca Ottaviano Quality control: Anna Rita De Nardis Secretaries: Aurora Corvesi, Carla Proietti Checchi LIBRARY Gabriella Miggiano; Marina Battaglini, Massimo Menna, Giuliana Scudder Secretary: Gabriella Michetti PUBLISHING DEPARTMENT Publishing administration: Luisa Fusé; Cecilia Rucci, Mirella Aiello Planning: Luisa Cinquina; Tiziana Picconi Quality control: Rosalba Lanza; Simonetta Paoluzzi Industrial production: Maria Devrushian; Loreta Lucchetti Secretary: Eliana Naddeo PUBLISHING DIRECTOR Massimo Bray
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS volume i EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT SCIENTIFIC CO-ORDINATION Pier Federico Barnaba, Giovanni Brighenti, Renzo Mazzei
INDEX OF VOLUME I EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT Roberto Prato OIL EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION 3 1 GEOSCIENCES Erling Halfdan Stenby, Wey Yan 1.1 COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROCARBONS 31 1.1.1 Introduction 31 1.1.2 Composition of petroleum fluids 31 1.1.3 Physical properties of hydrocarbons 37 1.1.4 Heavy petroleum fraction 51 1.1.5 Reservoir fluids 54 1.1.6 Formation water 58 Detlev Leythaeuser 1.2 ORIGIN, MIGRATION AND ACCUMULATION OF PETROLEUM 65 1.2.1 Origin of petroleum 65 1.2.2 Migration of petroleum 73 1.2.3 Accumulation of petroleum 77 1.2.4 Alteration of petroleum 81 Raffaele Casnedi 1.3 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS 85 1.3.1 Reservoir rocks 85 1.3.2 Cap rocks 102 1.3.3 Hydrocarbon traps 104 1.4 RELATIONS BETWEEN SEDIMENTARY BASINS AND PETROLEUM PROVINCES 117 Carlo Doglioni 1.4.1 Plate tectonics 117 Albert Bally 1.4.2 Sedimentary basins 136 Alain-Yves Huc 1.4.3 Source rocks: formation and distribution 149 XXVII
2 PETROLEUM EXPLORATION Roberto Prato 2.1 PROGRAMMING EXPLORATION ACTIVITY 163 2.1.1 Definition of exploration 163 2.1.2 Examining and defining available technical data 163 2.1.3 Selecting areas 166 2.1.4 Acquiring mineral rights 168 2.1.5 Programming direct and indirect surveys 169 2.1.6 Analysing petroleum potential 172 2.1.7 Economic aspects of petroleum exploration 176 2.2 GEOLOGICAL PROSPECTING 185 Nigel Press, Mattia Sella 2.2.1 Photointerpretation, remote sensing, digital cartography, integrated mapping 185 Raffaele Casnedi, Mattia Sella 2.2.2 Geological surveying 196 2.2.3 Petrography 199 2.2.4 Principles of stratigraphy and sedimentology 203 2.2.5 Tectonics and structural geology 206 Jean-Claude Dereuder 2.2.6 Subsurface geology 209 Daniel M. Jarvie et al. 2.2.7 Applied geochemistry 218 2.3 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 239 Rinaldo Nicolich 2.3.1 Gravimetric surveys 239 2.3.2 Magnetometric surveys 244 2.3.3 Magnetotelluric surveys 248 2.3.4 Seismic surveys: reflection and refraction 251 Mauro Gonfalini 2.3.5 Electric, acoustic and radioactive recording in the well 271 2.4 EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPLORATION 277 Giovanni Bertotti, Paolo Ruffo 2.4.1 Integrated interpretation, geological modelling 277 Frédéric Schneider 2.4.2 Basin modelling for petroleum exploration 287 Mauro Gonfalini 2.4.3 Planning of exploratory wells and connected activities 296 3 DRILLING AND COMPLETION OF WELLS Paolo Macini 3.1 DRILLING RIGS AND TECHNOLOGIES 303 3.1.1 Introduction 303 3.1.2 Rotary drilling rigs 305 3.1.3 Hoisting system 306 3.1.4 Rotation system 309 3.1.5 Circulation system 312 3.1.6 Power generation and distribution system 314 3.1.7 The drill string 315 XXVIII
3.1.8 Bits 318 3.1.9 Casing 323 3.1.10 Cementing 324 3.1.11 Drilling fluids 326 3.1.12 The wellhead 330 3.1.13 Safety equipment 331 3.1.14 Well control 333 3.1.15 Drilling problems 334 Diego Giacca 3.2 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING 337 3.2.1 Introduction 337 3.2.2 Characteristics, configurations and planning of a directional or horizontal well 339 3.2.3 Methods for assessing and surveying the deviation 346 3.2.4 Conclusions 353 Ezio Mesini 3.3 MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS IN THE WELL 355 3.3.1 Introduction 355 3.3.2 Control of drilling parameters and geological monitoring: mud logging 355 3.3.3 Conventional core sampling 357 3.3.4 Types of log and methods of measurement 359 3.3.5 Borehole seismic 365 3.3.6 Fluid sampling and pressure measuring 368 3.3.7 Production tests 369 Paolo Macini 3.4 OFFSHORE DRILLING 373 3.4.1 Introduction 373 3.4.2 Rigs standing on the seabed 374 3.4.3 Floating rigs 376 3.4.4 Drilling from floating offshore rigs 379 Claudio Alimonti 3.5 WELL COMPLETION 385 3.5.1 Introduction 385 3.5.2 Types of completion 386 3.5.3 Completion equipment 390 3.5.4 Equipment 393 3.5.5 Completion fluids 394 3.5.6 Casing perforation 395 3.5.7 Filters and drains for solid transport control 397 3.5.8 Artificial lift systems 399 Adriano Pirocchi 3.6 DRILLING ENGINEERING 403 3.6.1 General 403 3.6.2 Drawing up of drilling programme 404 3.6.3 Shutdown of well 423 Marco Marangoni 3.7 COMPLETION ENGINEERING 425 3.7.1 Introduction 425 3.7.2 Completion layout 427 XXIX
3.7.3 Fluids present in the well 433 3.7.4 Impact of safety on the completion scheme 434 3.7.5 Selection of materials 436 3.7.6 Determining the size of the tubing 438 3.7.7 Choosing packer type, setting method and tubing-packer connection 443 3.7.8 Tubing hanger selection 444 3.7.9 Subsea completions 445 3.7.10 Notes on artificial lift 446 3.7.11 Final design 447 3.7.12 Workovers 447 4 OIL FIELD CHARACTERISTICS AND RELEVANT STUDIES Paolo Macini, Ezio Mesini 4.1 THE PETROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR ROCK 453 4.1.1 Introduction 453 4.1.2 Porosity 455 4.1.3 Permeability 462 4.1.4 Fluid saturation 470 4.1.5 Wettability 474 4.1.6 Capillary pressure 477 4.1.7 Compressibility of rocks 481 Véronique Ruffier-Meray 4.2 PETROLEUM FLUID PROPERTIES 487 4.2.1 Introduction 487 4.2.2 Phase behaviour 487 4.2.3 Fluid classification 489 4.2.4 Lateral and vertical distribution of hydrocarbons in reservoir 490 4.2.5 Sampling 491 4.2.6 PVT analyses (laboratory procedures and parameters measured) 494 4.2.7 Equations of state 498 4.2.8 Empirical PVT correlations 500 4.2.9 Reservoir water 504 Francesca Verga 4.3 DRIVE MECHANISMS AND DISPLACEMENT PROCESSES 509 4.3.1 Pressure gradients 509 4.3.2 Drive mechanisms 513 4.3.3 Material balance 516 4.3.4 Displacement processes 518 Francesca Verga 4.4 WELL TESTING 527 4.4.1 Introduction 527 4.4.2 Test procedures and typologies 529 4.4.3 Test interpretations 535 4.4.4 Evaluation of well productivity 550 Luca Cosentino 4.5 STATIC RESERVOIR STUDY 553 4.5.1 Introduction 553 4.5.2 Structural model 553 XXX
4.5.3 Stratigraphic model 555 4.5.4 Lithological model 558 4.5.5 Petrophysical model 560 4.5.6 Integrated geological model 568 4.5.7 Calculation of hydrocarbons in place 570 Khalid Aziz, Hamdi A. Tchelepi 4.6 DYNAMIC RESERVOIR STUDY 575 4.6.1 Oil recovery processes 575 4.6.2 Reservoir flow simulation 576 4.6.3 Simulation workflow 583 4.6.4 Practical considerations 585 4.6.5 Prediction uncertainty 586 4.6.6 Development plans 587 4.6.7 Development schemes 587 4.6.8 Injection schemes 588 5 DEVELOPMENT PHASE OF HYDROCARBON FIELDS Doriano Vannini 5.1 DEVELOPMENT OF ONSHORE FIELDS 595 5.1.1 Introduction 595 5.1.2 Feasibility study 596 5.1.3 Construction design of the structures 597 5.1.4 Areas for field structures 599 5.1.5 Well locations (clusters or single locations) 600 5.1.6 Equipment installed in wellhead area 601 5.1.7 Hydrocarbons processing plants 605 5.1.8 Treatment plants for secondary recovery projects 606 Fabio Pallavicini 5.2 DEVELOPMENT OF OFFSHORE FIELDS 609 5.2.1 Introduction 609 5.2.2 Development in shallow waters 609 5.2.3 Development of marginal fields 626 5.2.4 Development in very deep waters 628 Romano Bianco 5.3 TREATMENT PLANTS FOR OIL PRODUCTION 643 5.3.1 Introduction 643 5.3.2 Characterization of oils 645 5.3.3 Separations 649 5.3.4 Treatments 657 5.3.5 Process equipment 669 5.3.6 Secondary recovery systems 675 Romano Bianco 5.4 TREATMENT PLANTS FOR GAS PRODUCTION 681 5.4.1 Introduction 681 5.4.2 Sales gas specifications 682 5.4.3 Gas/liquid separation 684 5.4.4 Dehydration and condensate removal 685 5.4.5 Other treatments 695 XXXI
5.4.6 Process equipment and special units 701 5.4.7 Liquefaction of natural gas 704 6 FIELD PRODUCTION PHASE Michael J. Economides, Luigi Saputelli 6.1 WELL MONITORING 709 6.1.1 Introduction 709 6.1.2 Field monitoring and analysis of well performance 710 6.1.3 Production logging and well monitoring techniques 714 6.1.4 Pressure measurement technology 716 6.1.5 Temperature measurement technology 717 6.1.6 Multiphase flow measurement technology 719 6.1.7 Assessment technologies for fluid saturation distribution 720 6.1.8 Instrumented well and future trends 721 Michael J. Economides, Luigi Saputelli 6.2 PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION 725 6.2.1 Introduction 725 6.2.2 Workovers to eliminate undesired water and/or gas production 733 6.2.3 Reservoir stimulation: matrix acidizing and hydraulic fracturing 736 6.2.4 Sand control 743 6.2.5 Perforating 745 6.2.6 Production optimization by artificial lift 746 6.2.7 Asphaltenes and paraffin control 751 6.2.8 Workovers in case of casing and tubing collapse or in case of lack of cement 752 6.2.9 Well architecture for production optimization 753 6.2.10 Operation and maintenance of petroleum production systems 756 Gianfranco Altieri 6.3 THE DECISION TO ABANDON A FIELD 761 6.3.1 Introduction 761 6.3.2 Economic reasons 762 6.3.3 Technical reasons 762 6.3.4 Actions to prolong the life of a field 765 6.3.5 Abandoning a field 767 7 HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE Roberto Bruschi 7.1 TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE 771 7.1.1 General observations on the hydrocarbon transport 771 7.1.2 Routes across the environments 778 7.1.3 Transport fluid dynamics 792 7.1.4 Materials 800 7.1.5 Mechanical resistance 808 7.1.6 Construction 817 7.1.7 Inspection, maintenance and repair 822 XXXII
Claudio Alimonti 7.2 TRANSPORT OF CRUDE BY SEA 829 7.2.1 Introduction 829 7.2.2 Resource distribution and trading 829 7.2.3 Port structures 830 7.2.4 Typology of vessels used 832 7.2.5 Renewal of tanker fleet 839 7.2.6 Environmental aspects of transport by sea 845 7.2.7 The case of the Mediterranean 849 Claudio Alimonti 7.3 TRANSPORTING NATURAL GAS BY SEA 855 7.3.1 The geographical distribution of gas and commercial activities 855 7.3.2 Transport technologies 856 7.3.3 The transport of LNG 859 7.3.4 The transport of CNG 867 7.3.5 The transport of NGH with GTS technology 871 7.3.6 Technologies of natural gas commercial exploitation 875 7.3.7 The transport of LPG 877 7.4 UNDERGROUND STORAGE OF NATURAL GAS 879 Franco Falzolgher 7.4.1 Storage systems: principles, techniques and development 879 Gianfranco Altieri 7.4.2 Underground structures for natural gas storage 901 XXXIII
NOTES UNITS OF MEASUREMENT The units of measurement generally adopted are those of the Système International (SI), with corresponding multiples and submultiples. Only in particular contexts, typically connected with the petroleum industry, certain non- SI units of current use have been maintained. Main units of measurement adopted ampere A angstrom Å atomic mass unit u bar bar barrel bbl becquerel Bq British thermal unit Btu calorie cal candela cd coulomb C darcy D day d decibel db degree Celsius C degree Fahrenheit F degree (sexagesimal) electron volt ev farad F foot ' (ft) gram g gray Gy hectare ha henry H hertz Hz horse-power hp hour h inch '' (in) joule J kelvin K kilogram kg kilowatt-hour kwh litre l lumen lm lux lx metre m square metre m 2 cubic metre m 3 minute (angle) minute (time) min mole mol newton N nit nt ohm Ω parts per million ppm pascal Pa poise P pound lb pounds per square inch psi radian rad second (angle) second (time) s siemens S sievert Sv standard cubic foot scf or SCF or sft 3 steradian sr stock tank barrel stb stokes St tesla T tonne t tonnes of oil equivalent toe volt V watt W weber Wb yard yd year yr TERMINOLOGY AND SPELLING In the sectors of petroleum engineering and chemistry, of the petrochemical industry and of the earth sciences, specific terms, acronyms and expressions are frequently used. The criterion adopted in this work is based on their frequency of use, i.e. given two possible terms, the more common one has been used. British spelling, according to the most authoritative reference works, has been adopted. XXXV
CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE In the nomenclature of simple compounds, the rules of IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) have been adopted as far as possible, traditional names being limited to the cases admitted by IUPAC. When there are two or more names admitted, the commonest one is adopted. Two principal exceptions to the above rule have been applied in this work: For organic compounds used in the petrochemical industry, the name adopted is that listed in: Wells G.M. (1999) Handbook of petrochemicals and processes, Aldershot, Ashgate; Brookfield (VT), Gower. The British English spelling of sulphur and sulphur containing compounds is adopted. TRANSLITERATIONS In writing names belonging to other languages with an alphabet other than the Latin alphabet, the Romanization Tables compiled by the Library of Congress of Washington have been applied, introducing however certain modifications intended to reduce to a minimum the number of diacritical marks, and in particular in the case of Arabic and Persian adopting a number of transliterations by now accepted in local and international usage. Opposite page: Kazakhstan, the Caspian Sea, artificial island for the perforation and production in Kashagan, the world s biggest reservoir discovered in the last thirty years. The activity is carried out in a joint venture, where Eni partecipates acting as the sole operator. The reservoir is situated in the north of the Caspian Sea, 80 km from Atyrau. Its development represents one of the biggest challenges in the world petroleum industry. XXXVI