New curriculum plan for Year 7, 8 9 and Greek

Transcription

1 New curriculum plan for Year 7, 8 9 and Greek Year 7 The following scheme of work is designed to work in conjunction with extant schemes. It requires copies of Oxford Latin Course (Book 1), So you really want to learn Latin? and various resources detailed below. As has always been the case, lessons should begin with a chapter from The Roman Mysteries and end with a classically themed film (i.e. The Odyssey). These will give pupils a good grounding in Classical Civilisation, which will be beneficial for further study at both GCSE and A Level. N.B.: Where exercises from So you really want to learn Latin? are indicated, pupils should aim to complete at least one exercise per lesson. Where translations from Oxford Latin Course are indicated, two or three lessons will be necessary to complete the work and consolidate learning. Half Term Aims and Objectives Assessment Autumn 1 Cover chapters I and II of Oxford Latin Course. Vocabulary tests I and II. Pupils to learn The most important thing about Latin (word order see attachment); noun cases and declensions (1 st, 2 nd and 3 rd ); verb persons and portare in present indicative. Oral testing on declensions and conjugations. Autumn 2 Prior to beginning So you really want to learn Latin? (hereafter referred to as Oulton ), pupils will need a lesson on grammatical terminology (see attachment). Pupils should work through exercises inc., covering the present and future tenses. Learn portare in future indicative. Spring 1 Pupils should begin by learning portare in the imperfect tense and working through exercise 1.7. To consolidate Vocabulary and translation test (marked out of twenty) on verbs and nouns learned to far. Oral testing on declensions and conjugations. Vocabulary and translation test (marked out of twenty) on verbs and nouns learned to far. Oral testing on

2 learning of verbs, they should then complete a translation of Market Day (OLC p31). Pupils should complete exercises 1.8 and 1.9, covering principal parts by half term. Spring 2 Pupils to begin by learning portare in the perfect tense. Complete exercises Read Aeneas and the origins of Rome (Oulton, p14) and answer subsequent questions. Summer 1 Pupils to complete all exercises in Chapter 1 of Oulton. As they already familiar with their noun declensions, they should be wellprepared for Chapter 2. Pupils to complete exercises inc. Summer 2 Pupils to complete exercises and Further exercises in this chapter should be used as extension activities. declensions and conjugations. Vocabulary and translation test (marked out of twenty) on verbs and nouns learned to far. Oral testing on declensions and conjugations. Vocabulary and translation test (marked out of twenty) on verbs and nouns learned to far. Oral testing on declensions and conjugations. Exam style test. Questions (out of 20) based on The Death of Hector (OLC pp50 1) Year 8 The following scheme of work is designed to work in conjunction with extant schemes. It requires copies of Oxford Latin Course (Book 1), So you really want to learn Latin? and various resources detailed below. As has always been the case, lessons should end with a classically themed film (i.e. Asterix / Jason and the Argonauts). This will give pupils a good grounding in Classical Civilisation, which will be beneficial for further study at both GCSE and A Level. N.B.: Where exercises from So you really want to learn Latin? are indicated, pupils should aim to complete at least one exercise per lesson. Where translations from Oxford

3 Latin Course are indicated, two or three lessons will be necessary to complete the work and consolidate learning. Please note that this scheme of work is not designed to be overly prescriptive but rather to run as a guideline for what should, ideally, be achieved throughout the academic year. Half Term Aims and Objectives Homework and Assessment Autumn 1 Lesson 1: Read Chapter 3 of Oulton and complete Ex Homework: Learn set vocabulary + all noun cases and meanings. Lesson 2: Starter: the genitive case, using English examples, then Ex 3.3, Assessment: Test on noun cases and short translation Lessons 3, 4, 5 + 6: Translation of The Siege of Troy in OLC pp44 5. Autumn 2 Lesson 1: Read p30 of Oulton and write down ALL relevant prepositions. Lesson 2: Ex 3.6, (Oulton). Lesson 3: Read and understand p32 (Oulton) on clauses and complete Ex Lessons 4, 5, 6 + 7: Translation of The Death of Hector (OLC pp50 1) Spring 1 Lesson 1: Read pp34 5 on the foundation of Rome and complete Ex Lesson 2: The 2 nd Declension and Conjugation (reminder). Read p36 of Oulton and complete Ex Lesson 3: Ex Lessons 4, 5 + 6: Translate The Fall of Troy (OLC pp55 6). Spring 2 Lesson 1: Ex (Oulton) Lesson 2: Ex (Oulton) Lesson 3: Revise bellum Homework 1: Learn prepositions. Homework 2: Ex 3.11 on derivations. Homework 3: Research project on the Trojan War and learn set vocabulary. Assessment: Test (in English) on the Trojan War and translations of prepositions and clauses. Homework 1: Research the story of Romulus and Remus. Homework 2: Learn set vocabulary and research the Fall of Troy. Assessment: Test on the foundation of Rome + key vocabulary. Homework: Learn all case meanings, 2 nd declension nouns and verbs of the 2 nd conjugation. Research the story of The Odyssey.

4 Summer 1 and read Oulton p40. Complete Ex 4.10 Lesson 4: Ex 4.11 (Oulton) Lessons 5, 6 + 7: Class translation (aloud) of Polyphemus (OLC pp60 2). Lessons 1, 2 + 3: Read p42 (Oulton) and begin translation Ex 4.12 Lessons 4 + 5: Translation Ex 4.13 Summer 2 Lessons 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, +6: Paired translation of Dido and Aeneas and The Fall of Troy (OLC pp68 71). Assessment: Test on The Odyssey and neuter nouns. Homework 1: Learn set vocabulary. Homework 2: Translation Ex 4.14 Assessment: Vocabulary and translation of introductory cartoons on p67 of OLC. Homework: Revision of all key vocabulary and stories studied throughout the year. Assessment: Extended test on grammar, vocabulary and aspects of Classical Civilisation learned throughout the year. Year 9 The following scheme of work is designed to work requires copies of Oxford Latin Course (Book 2), So you really want to learn Latin? and various resources detailed below. It is designed to prepare pupils for the rigours of the GCSE and to extend their knowledge of the Classical world. As ever, it is important that, at the end of each term, pupils are rewarded for their hard work with the traditional Treasure Hunt (Christmas), Latin Raps (Easter) and Floralia (Summer). As has always been the case, lessons should end with a classically themed film (i.e. Nero / Ancient Rome Series). This will give pupils a good grounding in Classical Civilisation, which will be beneficial for further study at both GCSE and A Level. N.B.: Where exercises from So you really want to learn Latin? are indicated, pupils should aim to complete at least one exercise per lesson. Where translations from Oxford Latin Course are indicated, two or three lessons will be necessary to complete the work and consolidate learning. Please note that this scheme of work is not designed to be overly prescriptive but rather to run as a guideline for what should, ideally, be achieved throughout the academic year.

5 Half Term Aims and Objectives Homework and Assessment Autumn 1 Lesson 1: The tenses. An introduction to the Homework: learn imperfect, pluperfect, vocabulary and tense present, future and passive endings and meanings. IN ENGLISH with appropriate exercises. Lesson 2: The imperfect Assessment: test on new tenses and vocabulary. endings to be written out and recited. Ex 1.7 (Oulton) with vocabulary. Lesson 3: The future endings to be written out and learned. Ex 1.6 (Oulton). Lesson 4: The perfect endings to be written out and learned. Ex 1.10 (Oulton). Lessons 5, 6 & 7: Translation of Decimus Quintum lacessit (OLC p9) Autumn 2 Lesson 1: Who? What? When? Revisit verb starter using new tenses and recap and parse. Ex 1.8 (Oulton). Lesson 2: Latin derivations. Ex 1.13 & 1.14 (Oulton). Lesson 3: Revising noun cases and endings. Ex 2.2 & 2.3 (Oulton). Translate Ex 2.3 into Latin. Lesson 3: Ex 2.5 & 2.6 (Oulton). Lesson 4: Read Chapter 17 (OLC) on Elections and create an election poster for a Roman candidate. Lesson 5: Ex 2.7 & 2.8 & 2.9 (Oulton) Lessons 6 & 7: Whole class translation (aloud) of Quintus domo discessit (OLC pp13 4) Spring 1 Lesson 1: Read Chapter 18 (OLC) on Senatus Populusque Romanus and answer questions on p16 in Homework: learn all noun declensions in full & key vocabulary. Assessment: test on noun cases and declensions, vocabulary and derivations. Homework: learn vocabulary and continue to practise and study cases

6 English. Lessons 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6: Small group translation of Chapter 19, Roma, (OLC) using new knowledge of tenses. Spring 2 Lesson 1: Revision of noun cases in all declensions. Ex 3.1 & 3.2 (Oulton) Lesson 2: Read Chapter 3 (Oulton) and revise genitive case. Complete Ex 3.3 & 3.4 (Oulton) Lesson 3: Ex 3.5 & 3.6 (Oulton) Lessons 4, 5 & 6: In small groups, read Quintus domum novam invenit, translate and answer questions on p21 (OLC) Summer 1 Lesson 1: Copy out main prepositions (p30). Ex 3.7 & 3.8 (Oulton) Lesson 2: Read p32 on clauses (OLC) and complete Ex 3.9 & Lesson 3: Derivations (Ex 3.11 & 3.12 (Oulton) Lesson 4: Read The Foundation of Rome (Oulton p34) and answer subsequent questions. Lesson 5: Revise second conjugation verbs and complete Ex 4.1 & 4.2 (Oulton) Lesson 6: Read pp22 4 (OLC) on Rome and write a 1 st person narrative of a visit to the city. Summer 2 Lessons 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6: Extended translation of Chapter 20 (OLC). The English section on Greece and Rome to be read first, followed by full, small group translation of Ludus Orbillii. and tenses. Assessment: test on key vocabulary, tenses and cases with short translation. Homework 1: learning key vocabulary and continue to study cases and tenses. Homework 2: research project of the history of the Roman senate. Assessment: short, independent translation exercise (marked out of 20). Homework 1: revise second conjugation verbs and key vocabulary. Homework 2: research life in Rome in the First Century A.D. Assessment: Assessment of 1 st person narrative with particular attention to historical and imaginative detail. Homework: Revision of all key vocabulary, grammar and tenses. Assessment: individual reading of Quintus Miser est (OLC p28), answering all subsequent questions.

7 EXMOUTH COMMUNITY COLLEGE ANCIENT GREEK COURSE

8 Dear student Welcome to the fascinating world of Ancient Greek, which along with its sister Latin, is one of the two mother tongues of nearly all modern European languages today. Of all European languages it is the one which has changed least in 2,500 years, and many words in modern Greek are very similar to it. But be warned: if you go on holiday to Greece and try out a few words you will not be understood, as the pronunciation has changed a great deal! But the basic alphabet is the same, and this is rather different from the one we use. You will have fun learning that, and even writing English words in the Greek alphabet can be useful when making those very private diary entries you want to keep secret from parents or annoying brothers and sisters! Probably more beautiful, wise, powerful and enchanting things have been written in Greek than in any other language drama and plays are actually a Greek invention and that is the reason why all over the world select groups of people of all ages and backgrounds still study it. To such a group you now belong! Famously difficult, but wonderfully rewarding, whether you study it for only a term or keep on with it till you can read the exciting adventures of Odysseus for yourself in the original, it is hoped that you will enjoy this language odyssey of your own which begins with learning a rather different alphabet from the one you are reading now!

9 UNIT 1: the alphabet - getting to know your p s and q s! LOWER CASE UPPER CASE SOUNDS LIKE NAME a as in HAT alpha b as in BAT beta g as in GOD Gamma d as in DOG delta e as in PET epsilon ds as in zeta WORDS e as in eta BEAR th as in THIN theta i as in PIT iota k as in KITE kappa l as in LAP lambda m as in MAP mu n as in NAP nu x as in SAX xi o as in POT omicron p as in POT pi r as in RAT rho or s as in SIT sigma t as in TAP tau ou as in SOUP upsilon f as in FAT phi ch as in chi Scottish LOCH ps as LIPS psi aw as in SAW omega For the moment, just concentrate on learning the lower case alphabet; as in Latin, upper case (capitals) are not used at the beginning of sentences as they are in English, but just kept for the first letter of names. POINTS OF INTEREST 1) You will see that there are two versions of the letter E: short (and long the letter O: short (and long ( 2) There are two versions of the letter S: but is only used at the end of a word. So, if you wanted to attract the attention of your favourite female teacher, you would call out,. (And of course bring her a box of chocolates). SOME DETECTIVE WORK

10 If you now check back over your alphabet, you will notice there are four basic sounds in English which do not exist in Greek. Can you work out what they are? GETTING BREATHLESS There is an h sound in Greek, but it is not written as a letter; it is a symbol which is placed above a vowel, but only when that vowel is at the beginning of a word. It is a little curl that points to the right, and its proper name is a ROUGH BREATHING, and looks like this: ha) ho)he)(hair)(hou)hi) But if the breathing points to the left it is called a SMOOTH BREATHING, and has no sound; it is just a decoration, like a fancy hat! a) o)e)(air)(ou)i) DOUBLING UP AFFECTS THE BREATHING! Vowels fancy each other in Greek, and double up a good deal, often at the beginning of a word. The proper name for this is not hanky-panky, as you might imagine, but a DIPHTHONG. Here are the common ones, with both rough and smooth breathings, and their pronunciation: (hoy)(oy) (heye)eye) (hwee)(wee) (how)(ow) hyou)(you) (hay)(ay) STORY TIME: THE FARMER AND A CHEEKY BOY This little story is written in English, but with some words made up out of Greek diphthongs. Write out the whole story properly in English. Once upon a time, a farmer saw a boy in his field. he shouted. I can see I ve got my on did get in there? Stay away from my The boy shouted back, keep your on, mate! I m only going for a AND FINALLY Let s see if you can transliterate! (That means swap between different alphabets.) The following list is false Greek, i.e. English words, but written in the Greek alphabet. Copy each word out, then next to it write it out in English. (TIP: the English letter C is transliterated as in Greek.) CONGRATULATIONS! You have now completed Unit 1 and got to know your Greek You are a Unit 2: I be good at Greek, but you is not.

11 The verb to be is the most irregular in all languages, probably because it is the most used one of all, and things that get used a great deal tend to wear down and change. In fact in all languages it is always a horror to learn, particularly in English - as unlucky foreign students discover. Just look at how it changes: INFINITIVE: to be 1 ST PERSON SINGULAR: I am (not be ) 2 nd PERSON SINGULAR: you are (not be or am ) 3 rd PERSON SINGULAR: he is (not be, am or are ) - and that s just the PRESENT tense! What about the Past tense: I was. you were. Or the FUTURE tense: I will/shall be.okay! You get the picture.just be glad you don t have to learn English from the beginning! The verb to be in Greek is tricky too, but at least the present tense begins with the same letter throughout: I am you are (s.) he/she/it is we are you are (pl.) they are and both add an -at the end when the next word begins with a vowel, or they are the last words in a sentence. RECORD VOCAB 1 Throughout this course there will be featured must-know words which you will have to record in your vocab book and learn carefully, if you want to make progress. So, here is your first task: copy out the present tense ofputting the Greek on the left side of the page and the English on the right. ASKING QUESTIONS, AND A LITTLE MYSTERY On its own, you won t get very far with just the verb to be, but by turning it into a question you will get your first taste of real Greek. But the Greek question mark is not the usual one which looks like this (!), but instead uses a semi-colon, which of course as you know looks like this (;) Compare these two: (I am) (am I?) - All you need now is a couple of new words and you will be able to translate some real Greek. You will see though that some of them have an acute accent sign if you know some French you will recognise this little slanted line above the letters: é - but for the moment its presence will have to remain a little mystery! (It will be explained later on, don t worry!) Just copy it out with the words coming up and forget about it for now RECORD VOCAB 2 tell me who? (sing.) who? (plur.)

12 and, too, as well, also WHEN GREEK MEETS GREEK Well, this is it; you are now ready to read your first little story in Greek! It is not perhaps quite as gripping as Harry Potter, but hey we all have to start somewhere. Copy it out first this will give you practice in Greek handwriting - then translate it underneath. It is about two boys called Peter and Paul You will have to work it out from the Greek which is which. Notice that you will see your first capital letter in action, the letter GETTING PERSONAL Just as in Latin, the endings of verbs tell you which person it is: I, you, she/he/it, we, they, and, also just as in Latin, there also exist separate words for those persons called pronouns. Here are some of them in Greek, and, once again just as in Latin, they are used with verbs sometimes to add emphasis or contrast: I you (sing.) we you (plur.) Let s see this in action: Paul slips over, bangs his head and loses his memory completely, and doesn t know who he is, so Peter says to him using personal pronouns to emphasise his point. I am Peter, you are Paul. BITS WHICH CHANGE, AND BITS WHICH DON T Before you get ready to record Vocab 3, a reminder that Greek works just like Latin when it comes to nouns, verbs and adjectives: they all consist of a part which stays the same throughout the stem and the bit on the end which changes, according to number, gender and case. It helps with Greek right from the beginning to recognise which is which, so when you meet new words for the first time you will find that they will be written with a hyphen between the stem and the ending, (except when there is no ending because the stem itself is the complete word). You should copy this when you record the word in your vocab book, but when writing normal Greek you won t of course put the hyphens in. RECORD VOCAB 3 but (when next word begins with a vowel) but a Greek (nominative sing.) Greeks (nom. plur.) a barbarian (nom. sing.) barbarians (nom. plur.) not (when next word begins with a vowel) not (when next word begins with a rough breathing) not no

13 I THINK THAT WORD ORDER IN THIS MIXED UP SENTENCE IS Greek word order is often different from English, and like Latin and German has a tendency to put the verb at the end of a sentence as well. It s best to translate word by word first of all, then swap the words around like pieces of a jigsaw till you get reasonable English. ANOTHER PUNCTUATION POINT Bright students will be wondering, if the semicolon is used instead of a question mark in Greek, what then do they use for a semicolon when they need one? The answer is, a full stop laced above the line, like this: TRANSLATION TIME WHO S GREEK AND WHO S NOT Copy out and translate this thrilling little investigation as to who is who in the Greek world YO! You never know when you might bump into an ancient Greek, so it s important to know how to say hello! You will remember from Latin that it s salve when talking to one person, salvete when talking to two or more, and the good news is that the endings are the same in Greek: The stem of the verb is of course Sometimes (O) is put before a person s name when talking to them, as in we love you. O Mr Gayle. Do you remember how the vocative (= talking to) case works in Latin? It usually looks the same as the nominative, except for 2 nd declension nouns ending in us, when the ending changed to either e ( Quinte! for Quintus), or i ( fili! for filius). Well, with nouns and names in Greek ending in -or when you talk to them the ending changes to the short e, So, becomes SOCRATES MEETS SOPHOCLES AND EURIPIDES: A LITTLE DRAMA Copy out, then translate and have a go at either reading or performing the following thrilling drama in groups of three. : enter Euripides Euripides looks round and points BEING PARTICULAR Greek has lots of little words called PARTICLES which sometimes don t mean very much on their own, but add something to the sentence nevertheless. (In English ordinary words can behave like particles: yeah but and like, for example. How often have you heard something like this I saw her, like, yesterday ) Sometimes in Greek we don t even bother to translate them, but generally we use them to mean things like so, therefore, but, at any rate, while, on the other hand.

14 One that you will see in just about every sentence of real Greek is before a word beginning with a vowel), and this usually means and or but, and most often it is paired with its cousin to produce a kind of balancing act in the sentence, like this: blah blah blahblah blah blah There are three ways of translating the and here: 1) on the one hand.on the other hand. 2) while.(ignoring the completely) 3) (ignoring the completely.but There is no one right translation: you have to decide for yourself what is best. Greek is a much less black and white language than Latin. Here is a typical example of and in action, with the three ways to translate them: 1) On the one hand we are Greeks, on the other hand you re barbarians. 2) While we are Greeks, you are barbarians. 3) We are Greeks, but you are barbarians. RECORD VOCAB 4 good, brave (nom. s.) good, brave (nom. pl.) bad, cowardly (nom. s.) bad, cowardly (nom. pl.) the (nom. s.) the (nom. pl.) the god (nom. s few many UNIT 2 ASSESSMENT TRANSLATION Well done you ve almost finished Unit 2! Just five teeny-tiny questions to go Copy out the Greek first, translate it underneath, and be sure to leave a line in between each question. Good luck! Just one last tip: Greek names often have the definite article (the) before them. Obviously you don t have to translate this!

15 Unit 3: how to keep regular with verbs; how to say the in many ways; the thrill of case endings We turn from the irritatingly irregular verb to be and take a look at a normal everyday one whose endings are the same as those of thousands of others! We will use the verb to stop. Its present stem is and that s the bit which means stop; just like in Latin, the different person endings will tell you whether it means I, you (s), he/she/it, we, you (pl.) they. And so, without any more ado, we proudly present under its full heading: THE PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE OF I stop I stop you stop (s.) he/she/it stops we stop you stop (pl.) they stop PRESENT IMPERATIVE ACTIVE stop! (s.) stop! (pl.) EXPLANATION KEY PRESENT - this refers to when the action of the verb takes place - in this case now, or in the present.! English is the only language that has three different versions of the present tense, something which causes great difficulty to foreigners trying to learn it. (In fact it can be so confusing that even excellent foreign speakers of English with years of experience trip up over this). Compare: I stop I am stopping I do stop. All present tense but if you are not a native English speaker, which one do you use, and when? INDICATIVE this rather scary sounding word is actually not difficult at all. All verbs (not just in Latin) have three MOODS: (well, you have more than one mood, don t you?) the INDICATIVE, which indicates that something is positively happening or has happened or will happen e.g. I stop; the SUBJUNCTIVE, which hints that something may or may not happen now, in the past or in the future e.g. I may stop; and the IMPERATIVE, which is a command to someone, e.g. stop! You will not meet the subjunctive mood in verbs for quite some time, so don t worry about it now; it s just mentioned here for information! ACTIVE this is called the voice of the verb: the opposite of active is PASSIVE. Compare active I stop with the passive version: I am stopped. As you can see, in the active voice the subject here I is performing the action. In the passive, the subject is receiving the action.! Notice that you stop (pl.) is the same word as stop! (pl). Obviously the context of the story or sentence will tell you which is meant not to mention the exclamation mark! RECORD VOCAB 5 Copy out the complete chart of then add the following verbs to your vocab list: I remain, wait, stay

16 I have I recognise, get to know, learn YOU ARE NOW GOING TO GET SIX OF THE BEST! Copy out and translate these little beauties: SOMETHING A BIT DIFFERENT ABOUT THE DEFINITE ARTICLE You will remember that, unlike Latin, Greek has a useful word for the the definite article, to give it its rather classy name. So far we know the nom. masc. s. and the nom. masc. pl.. Here now is the nom. feminine s. - Let s attach it to a feminine noun to see it in action But wait! we haven t met any feminine nouns yet; all we know are lots of boys names (Socrates, Sophocles, Euripides, Peter, Paul) and masculine things ( like god or barbarian). So, it s time to go girly, and what better noun to do it with than this one (no, not shopping) but LOVE! You will see that the definite article is in front of the noun love. A curious thing about Greek is that it uses the definite article when we don t: it is quite normal to put it in where we would leave it out. For example, can mean either god or the god, according to context. It is very often put in front of names: means Socrates, and we don t put in the in English. EMBARRASSING BIT: VOWELS THAT HAVE BITS WHICH HANG FROM THEIR BOTTOMS Very soon you are going to meet vowels which have a little thing hanging downwards which you have not met before, like this: Now, what s going on here? Actually, it s quite simple! The vowels are actually diphthongs, and the little dangly thing it s proper name is an iota subscript is just a miniature letter written underneath the first letter. Really, it should look like this: No one knows why the Greeks wrote it like this; it s just an odd unexplained habit. The little extra letter is not pronounced. SOME MORE ENDING CHANGES See what happens to the noun and definite article endings when placed after these two words, (in) and (from, out of). We will use the word for god as an example, : in (the) god from (the) god Bright students at this point will be going, uh-oh: I remember this from Latin. These are different case endings, I bet, - and you d be right! At the moment you don t have to worry about them, though; just record the two examples above in your vocab books and watch out for them when they come up. RECORD VOCAB 6 (the) love

17 that he in him in us THE BIBLE IN GREEK Did you know that the second part of the Bible (i.e. the New Testament) was written in ancient Greek? If you did, bet you didn t know this: you now know enough Greek already to read some simple sentences from it with a little bit of extra help! Copy out the following, and then translate: Whoever agrees that Jesus is the son of God, OPENING CASES Anyone who has ever learned Latin has a real advantage now over the poor student who has not, because we are now going to talk about SUBJECT and OBJECT and the cases they go into, NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE. All you have to remember is that the subject of the sentence is put into the nominative case, whose ending we have already met for masculine nouns () and feminine ones (), and that the object of the sentence goes into the accusative case.! Remember: the SUBJECT performs the action (Nicky eats dinner) and the OBJECT receives it (Nicky eats dinner.) RECORD VOCAB 7 (ACCUSATIVES) = masculine accusative (s.) ending = feminine accusative (s.) ending masc. acc. (pl.) ending (some nouns end in one, some the other) = fem. acc. (pl.) ending the (masc. acc. s.) the (fem. acc. s.) the (masc. acc. pl.) the (fem. acc. Pl.) CASE PRACTICE Write down and translate these sentences: 1) 2) 3) 4)

18 A WORD ABOUT WORD ORDER Did you get caught out by number 3 or 4 above? Remember that word order is not important as it is in English, as the meaning of the sentence is in the case endings, which of course change, unlike in English. Actually, if you look at questions 3 or 4 again, you can mix the words around in just about any order you like and they will still mean the same thing. Don t try it with English, though! GETTING DEFINITE ABOUT THE DEFINITE ARTICLE (the) It s time to make a little chart of the most useful word in the Greek language, the. So far we have met it in its masculine and feminine dress in both the singular and plural, but knowledge of Latin will remind you that there are three genders (or sexes) for nouns and adjectives, masculine, feminine and neuter. (Neuter means neither male nor female. Cats and dogs are often taken to the vet to be neutered; this is when they lose certain important bits which stop them having babies. Ouch!) Copy this chart into your vocab books and make sure you learn the ones in bold, if you haven t already, as these are the ones we are going to use most at first. (The rest will be introduced a bit later.) Recognising the definite article is going to be the most helpful tool you have later on masc. fem. neut. NOMINATIVE SING. (subject) ACCUSATIVE SING. (object) NOMINATIVE PLUR. ACCUSATIVE PLUR. UNIT 3 ASSESSMENT TRANSLATION Copy and translate the following sentences. You will see how flexible you will have to be in rearranging the words to make sensible easy-to-understand English; you may find it helpful to think of each one as a mini jigsaw puzzle!

19 Unit 4: contractions, participles and questions HAVING A CONTRACTION (No, this is nothing to do with having Greek babies.) When something contracts, it shrinks, and this is what happens to lots of important verbs. They shrink because their stems end in a vowel and, as you have seen, verb endings begin with a vowel (p.9), the vowels meet and blend together making just one a process we call contraction. The rules are simple really: Here it is in action, showing the present indicative active of an a stem verb,, I conquer. I conquer contracts to You conquer (s.) contracts to He/she/it conquers contracts to We conquer contracts to You conquer (pl.) contracts to They conquer contracts to The imperative (command mood) looks like this: Conquer! (s.) contracts to Conquer! (pl) contracts to RECORD VOCAB 8 Write down in your vocab book just the contracted form of I conquer,(all persons), and the two imperatives, then record these two other contracting verbs: I love I see SIX OF THE BEST AGAIN Copy out these contracted verbs and translate them. A REAL GREEK INSCRIPTION This is a big moment. Up till now, except for a couple of simple sentences from the Bible, all the Greek you have done has consisted of made up exercises. Now here is some original Greek from the 5 th century BC taken from a stone-carved inscription. (? - How long ago was that?) The people of the town of Selinus in Sicily (they called themselves the Selinuntines, ) erected a thank you to all the gods who they believed had helped them win in a recent battle. Some of the gods you will know already, or be able to guess.

20 VOCAB FOR INSCRIPTION - there is no need to record these words in your vocab book, unless you are especially keen. (+ acc). because of, through these Zeus, the king of the gods (in acc. case) Phobos, god of fear Poseidon, god of the sea (in acc. case) the twins Castor and Pollux, sons of Tyndareus (in acc. pl.) nickname for the goddess Demeter (in acc. case) nickname for Persephone, Demeter s daughter (in. acc. case) most of all INSCRIPTION TIME TO PARTICIPATE! One of the most common forms of the verb in Greek is called the participle, which when referring to present time (past and future we will meet later on) - can easily be translated in English by adding ing to the verb, as in laughing, crying, sitting, etc. You will discover to your horror that the Greek ending for ing changes according to gender, number, and case, but for the moment let s keep things simple by just learning to recognise one of them: the masc. nom. sing. ending, which is - So, using the verbs you already know, here are their particples: stopping having staying knowing, getting to know loving seeing conquering! It is very common to find in Greek the participle turned into an honorary noun by placing the definite article in front of it, meaning the one doing it. In English we would translate it like this: the conquerer/the one who conquers the lover/the one who loves So this sentence, could be turned into English in a number of slightly different ways, all of them correct: - the lover of the barbarian stays - the one who loves the barbarian stays -he who loves the barbarian stays

21 You would choose the one you think fits best if it is part of a longer piece of writing. TIME TO PARTICIPATE IN A BIT OF TRANSLATION! Copy out and translate the following six phrases, choosing the way you like best to render the participle. MORE QUESTIONS So far you have learnt two question words for who, Now it s time to learn two more only this time you get two for the price of one: means either why? or what? Obviously you will have to work out according to the context which is the right one to use. To turn a statement into a question, Greek simply adds the word like this: you are staying are you staying? RECORD VOCAB 9 why? / what? life truth I trust/believe I hear always UNIT 4 ASSESSMENT TRANSLATION Copy and translate the following:

22 Unit 5: More contractions, accusatives, definite article endings and particles TIME FOR ANOTHER CONTRACTION In the previous unit you met contracted verbs with an stem; now meet ones with an To demonstrate let s use the verb I love, Present indicative active I love contracts to you love (s.) contracts to he/she/it loves contracts to we love contracts to you love (pl.) contracts to they love contracts to Imperative mood love! (s.) contracts to love! (pl.) contracts to Just as with the imperative (s.) of (p.13), note the accent on love! It will help you distinguish it from he/she/it loves. RECORD VOCAB 10 Write down in your vocab books just the contracted forms of then add these six other very useful verbs to your list. Only two of them are ordinary non-contracted ones: which? I harm, do wrong I hate I confess, admit I make, do I write I say, speak. GET CHOPPING! Bribing your teacher with lunch money or a tasty chocolate bar, get some card from him and a pair of scissors and then cut it up into five smaller cards (about 5 by 3 cms.) Then choose five verbs from this unit or unit 4 and make up your own test cards, writing the Greek on one side and the English on the other, with one word per card. Use any of the person ending you like, and write contracted verbs in their contracted form, then test each other with your selection in pairs or groups of three. PRONOUNS IN THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR AND PLURAL Interestingly, English personal pronouns behave like Latin words: that is to say they actually have an accusative case, and so change from their nominative form. Only Latin students would have really noticed this before, but in case you have forgotten how it works they look like this in English:

23 PERSONAL PRONOUN IN NOMINATIVE I you (s.) he she it we you (pl). they IN ACCUSATIVE me you (does not change) him her it (does not change) us you (does not change) them Here are some of them in Greek, which you should immediately record in your vocab book: PERSONAL PRONOUN IN NOMINATIVE I you (s.) we you (pl). IN ACCUSATIVE me you us you FIVE OF THE BEST Usual drill - copy down and translate the following: BECOMING DEFINITE AGAIN Check back over the definite article chart on page 12, and you will notice that we haven t yet used some of the forms there, two of them being the nom. fem. plur. and the acc. fem. plur. Well, take note: from now on we re going to! AND PARTICULAR AGAIN Time for another little particle to add to and Used only as the second or third word in the sentence, it is almost always translated first: meaning for, because. RECORD VOCAB 11 for, because land sea beginning, rule, principle democracy (from people, strength) word, reason, argument

24 UNIT 5 ASSESSMENT TRANSLATION Examine this Greek sentence carefully, then look at the English text below and you will see it embedded somewhere within in it. Find it, and write it out. The barbarians are many and the Greeks are few, but the Greeks conquer them because they have democracy. Barbarians do not love the Greeks; also they do not love the people and they do not love democracy. The land and the sea the Greeks love, and the people also love reason, but I know the people harm democracy, and I hate democracy, for I do not love the people. The barbarians also hate the power of the people, and do not love the rule of the people; I hate the few, but they hate the many.

25 Unit 6: word stuff Congratulations on passing your first five units! Time for a little R and R (rest and relaxation), because in this unit there is no new Greek to learn, but instead you are going to take a look at some of the fascinating language background which goes into making up Greek. The time you finish this unit you will be able to dazzle family, friends and teachers with all sorts of extraordinary knowledge! LANGUAGE FAMILIES With some very strange exceptions which no one can still satisfactorily explain, (Hungarian, Basque, Estonian and one or two others) all the languages of western and eastern Europe are related to one another, sometimes distantly, sometimes closely. No one can doubt this when and you begin to compare words. Here, for example, is the word for mother in some common European languages: English: mother Latin: mater Greek: meter Sanskrit: matar German: mutter Spanish: madre Italian: madre French: mere Czech: matka Russian: mats - and there are thousands of words that can be compared in this way. As language detectives, what are we to make of this? Once upon a time, before any of these languages existed, there was an original grandfather language spoken by one people which somehow appeared no one knows how for sure somewhere in the area of the world which spreads from Britain to India, and this early language is called by language specialists Indo-European. This language is completely lost. Gradually it and its people split up, till eventually thousands of years later three sister languages in different parts of this area developed: Sanskrit, spoken in India, Greek, spoken by the Greeks, and Latin, spoken by the Romans. From these three related languages, daughters sprang, which have developed into the modern European languages spoken today. The picture today. All these languages are described as Indo-European by language specialists; it is a useful umbrella term. The modern Indian languages (Panjabi, Hindi/Urdu/Gujarati) are closest to Sanskrit; Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and French are closest to Latin; modern Greek and Albanian are closest to Greek. Two other separate developments from the Indo-European original account for many of the other most spoken languages in Europe today: Slavic (Russian, Czech, Polish, Serbian, Croatian, Ukranian, Bulgarian) and Germanic (English, German, Dutch, Flemish, Afrikaans). Of course this is a very simplified picture; some languages English is the most famous example have over hundreds of years imported many words from the other ones. Indeed, more than 30% of English derives from Latin! And of course there are many more European languages not mentioned here; and finally, there are the mysterious languages called isolates, which are not related to any other Indo-European one, yet are surrounded by them. Hungarian is perhaps the most famous example. If you can find out the Hungarian for mother and compare it with the list above, you will see for yourself THE GREEK ALPHABET: WHERE DOES IT COME FROM? Actually, not Greece! The Greeks actually invented their alphabet in the 8 th century BC in other words, about 700 years before Julius Caesar got it in the neck but they based it on a borrowed alphabet from the most famous traders and craftsmen in the near east called the Phoenicians. (Queen Dido was originally from Phoenicia, and if you know your Bible, Phoenicia is actually the place referred to as Canaan in it. If you want to look it up on the map it is roughly where modern day Syria is.) But there were some problems, because Phoenician was not an Indo-European language, and thus a very different language from Greek. The problems were basically these:

26 - Phoenician writing runs from right to left; - Phoenician writing did not have any vowels! (A E I O U), or any punctuation or spaces between the letters. They would have written the cat sat on the mat like this: THCTSTNTHMT ; - the Phoenician language did not have aspirates (sounds with an h in them). So, you might think, not very useful! But the Greeks were a very resourceful people, and this is what they did: - decided to write from left to right (just as we do today) and turned round signs accordingly. The capital G in Greek (is actually the Phoencian letter called gimel, and in Phoenician faced the other way round; - the Greeks created separate signs for the vowels A E I O U out of Phoenician consonants changing them a bit, and invented their own sign for Y; - they invented letters which have aspirates (PH and CH, and also a PS ( None of this happened immediately; different Greek cities used differently-looking alphabets till eventually round about 370 BC they settled on the Greek alphabet we have today. Unfortunately, they still only wrote in capital letters and still did not put in any punctuation or spaces between their words, which made reading anything a bit of a struggle, one imagines! try it for yourself: choose any Greek sentence you have already written out normally then write it out in capitals without spaces! Here is one done for you (while you love me, I hate you): SPEAKING AND WRITING When we transliterate Greek words (if you ve forgotten what that means check back to the AND FINALLY section on page 4 ) we generally follow some agreed rules: - names ending in become us. = Herodotus); - Greek is always a c ; - Greek diphthong is always ae ; Caesar); - Greek is usually always y ; (think how many words in English begin poly-; it comes from the Greek stem for many: How do we know what it really sounded like? Good question! After all, there aren t any ancient Greeks around any more to talk to, and though modern Greek has changed less in two thousand years than any other European language, it is still very different from its ancient roots. Well, language detectives have four things to help them and give them a very good idea of how it actually sounded: 1) ancient writers and teachers wrote a great deal about their own language and how it worked, and this is very useful. After all, an ancient Greek ought to know how ancient Greek sounded! 2) people tend to write as they speak, especially poorly educated people, and we know from lots of graffiti and inscriptions that some words were misspelt, because we know what they should look like from how good writers use them. Therefore we know how something sounds to someone by the way they write it. (A good example of a mistake which has many English teachers tearing their hair out is when children write, could of when they mean, could have.) 3) When Greek words and names were transliterated in another language usually Latin that tells us how they sounded to foreign ears. And of course this works both ways. This is how we know for sure that the letter c in Latin was only pronounced like a k and never an s, because when we look at names like Caesar in Greek they are always spelt with a k. Confession time: you were given some incorrect information on your alphabet page, and adult Greek courses tend to do the same thing too. The fact is, we know for sure that the letter was not pronounced like an English f, or that was a th ; you are just told that for convenience, and because it was once long ago believed to be true falsely. The actual sounds are very difficult for modern English mouths to make: the was something like an explosive p-h as in top hat, and is even trickier, being an

27 explosive t as in terrible. The difficulty of making these sounds properly is why still teach and learn it incorrectly. 4) finally, by comparing Greek with other older Indo-European languages, we can guess at likely pronunciation where words are very similar, or the same. GOT A NICE ACCENT? As you have already seen, just a few words in this course have been given an acute accent in order to distinguish them from words that would otherwise look the same (see. p16), but in actual fact in normal ancient Greek texts nearly all words will have one of three different accents. They have not been included in this course as it is quite possible to read and understand Greek without knowing them, and they do make the text look rather cluttered and confusing for beginners! Here, for example is a simple little sentence (the Greek are always brave) from an ordinary Greek book: - you will see that, apart from the rough and smooth breathings, there are three other types of accents: acute (which you ve met, ), grave ( ), and circumflex ( ). What they show is how to stress a word, not with more emphasis as we do in modern European languages, but raising or lowering the pitch of the voice, as in Mandarin or Cantonese Chinese. The acute indicated that your voice went higher, the grave that it either stayed level or even became lowered, and the circumflex that it rose and fell quickly on that vowel. Thus in one way Ancient Greek would have sounded more like Chinese today rather than modern Greek that is, rather sing-song or melodic!

28 Unit 7: getting it in the middle, and going places with prepositions All language learners agree on one thing, that whatever the language is that they are learning, it is verbs which cause more problems than just about else. (Try for example, as a fun bit of role playing, pretending to be a group of foreign students meeting the verb to be for the first time!) So far all the verbs we have met in Greek can be recognised in the first person s. by ending in etc., which we call the active voice, but now we are going to meet a special group of important verbs in the middle voice never mind why, for the moment whose endings are a bit different! Clutch your brow, give a gasp and try not to faint on the floor as you stare in horror at these middle endings: I you (s.) he/she/it we you (pl.) they IMPERATIVE: (s.) (pl.) Getting negative again You learnt in Unit 2 (p.6) how to recognise the different forms of the Greek for not, and now here is another one. You will find it used with the imperative, so as to mean don t! The word is RECORD VOCAB 12 don t!, not I answer I become, happen, am made, am born, am I come, go I fight I walk, journey, travel! note carefully the difference between (I become) and (I know). Extra task: choose one of the five verbs above, and write it out fully with all persons and its middle endings. SIX OF THE BEST Translate into Greek the following: 1) we become 2) they fight 3) don t reply! (pl.) 4) she journeys 5) he is born 6) am I going?

29 GOING PLACES WITH PREPOSITIONS You have already met two prepositions - and (check back to p.10, SOME MORE ENDING CHANGES) meaning in and out of/from, and now you are going to meet some more. Just like in Latin, particular prepositions take particular cases, changing both the definite article and its noun which come after it, but for the moment we are not going to bother learning the changes properly; just note the particular end changes of particular words and record those. But pay special attention to the definite article: you will find this very helpful later on. Just keep in the back of your mind for now that prepositions are followed by one of three cases, the accusative, genitive or dative. Here are three more prepositions: (+ acc.) to, towards (+ acc.) into away from (not followed by the acc. case you will meet this later on) RECORD VOCAB 13 (+ acc.) to, towards towards the land (+ acc.) into into the sea away from away from the land away from him out of out of the sea out of her she he messenger house, home city out of the city student where? UNIT 7 ASSESSMENT TRANSLATION Match the right Greek sentences up with the right English translation. a) She speaks to him. b) He speaks to her. c) Where are the messengers? d) Who are the messengers?

30 e) Are the students coming from the sea into the city and into the house? f) Don t go out of the city towards the house! g) Do you know the house in the city? h) What does she say to the students? i) What do the students say to him? j) From the city towards the sea and from the sea into house k) From the sea towards the city and out of the city into the house.

31 Unit 8: lots more participles, and some boy/girl stuff In Unit 4 (p.14) you met the participle forms of verbs; they ended in as in (loving). (Check back if you need to.) Remember also that if you stick a in front of a participle you turn it into a kind of noun, meaning the one X ing, the one who Xs, as in the one loving, the one who loves. Time to fasten your seatbelts, because we are now going to look at the other type of verbs and see how they form participles, the middle ones ending in It s quite easy: all that happens is that the ending changes to RECORD VOCAB 14 coming, going the one coming/going, the one who comes/goes travelling the traveller, the one travelling, the one who travels fighting the fighter, the one fighting, the one who fights THREE VERY CONFUSED FIGHTERS Can you sort out what these three rather confused soldiers are saying to each other? Write it down then translate it. MATCHING UP MIDDLE PARTICIPLES WITH THE DEFINITE ARTICLE Now watch closely, because here s a very simple but clever trick. The middle participles you have just recorded above obviously will change theirending according to the meaning of the sentence, because as it stands, that ending is only the masc. s. nom. ending, and is no good for anything 1) feminine, 2) plural, 3) or the object rather than the subject of the verb (acc. case needed, of course). Yes, your groan of uh oh! has been heard, but stop panicking, because this is where the simple clever trick comes in, and you go tee-hee! instead. Because all feminine and all plural and all accusative case endings are the same as the endings for the definite article, as laid out in the little chart on page 12! Here it is again so you can see how it works without having to keep turning back: masc. fem. neut. NOMINATIVE SING. (subject) ACCUSATIVE SING. (object) NOMINATIVE PLUR. ACCUSATIVE PLUR.

32 Now we have seen that by adding the definite article to a participle we change it into a kind of a noun meaning the one ---ing/the one who s ---ing (Unit 4, p.14) as in the one coming, but in fact this can only be used for referring to something masculine (like a man) when it is the subject of a sentence. Why? because if you look at the chart, you will see that the article attached to it is the nominative singular masculine one, So, I hear you say, what happens when the man coming is the object of the sentence and not the subject, and has to go in the accusative case? Easy! Look at the chart, and notice that the acc. sing. masc. article is and the participle ending will copy it, like this: So if you saw this, you would notice at once that the endings were feminine, and translate it as something like, I see her/the woman/girl who is coming. And of course it s the same with the plurals: the men who are fighting/fighting men conquer me RECORD VOCAB 15 near! pronunciation tip: together sounds like the ng in song THREE OF THE BEST Copy and translate the following: MATCHING UP ACTIVE PARTICIPLES WITH THE DEFINITE ARTICLE This is a bit of an uh-oh moment, because unfortunately active participles of the type you have already met (e.g. the one loving/he who loves from don t behave in quite the same way. But fear not, because it s not difficult. So have a look at the endings chart below for the active ones, then copy it out. Only the masc. and fem. are given, as we won t meet neuter participles yet: ACTIVE PARTICIPLE ENDINGS Masc Fem nom s. nom. pl. acc. s. acc. pl. Quick recognition tip: masc. active participles end in something (except for the nom. s. ), and fem. active participles all end in something.

33 CONTRACTED VERBS AND THEIR PARTICIPLES Refresh your memory about the two types of contracted verbs we have met, those endings which contract from (Unit 4, p.13) and those which contract from (Unit 5, p.16). Right so you will remember that they behave a bit differently. Here is what they do when they form their participles: type verbs: The masc. active participles which ended in something for ordinary verbs change their endings to something; in other words, the vowel is just lengthened. So, the ones/men loving would be The fem. active participles which ended in something change their endings to something. So, the ones/women loving would be type verbs: These change their masc. active participle endings to something. So, the ones/men loving would be The fem. active participles just end in something, like ordinary non-contracted verbs as laid out in the chart above on page 27.. So, the ones/women loving would be UNIT 8 ASSESSMENT TRANSLATION Copy and translate these sentences.

34 Unit 9: from here to infinity! (joke); being in the know (another joke); some real Greek drama (no joke) THE INFINITVE You will remember from Latin that the infinitive is the easiest bit of any verb to remember or recognise, because (in its present form) it just means, to X, (X being whatever the verb is). It is a teeny-tiny bit more complex in Greek, however, because as we have seen, there are three sorts of active verbs: ordinary (like ) middle (like) contracted( like and ), and each of the three have there own particular ending for their infinitives. Happily, they are easy to recognise. As usual a hyphen is used to show you which is the stem and which the ending: ORDINARY ACTIVE INFINITIVE: to stop MIDDLE INFINITIVE: to go CONTRACTED INFINITIVE (stem): to conquer CONTRACTED INFINITIVE (stem): to love! note that the CONTRACTED INFINITIVE (stem) ending is in fact exactly the same as the ordinary active infinitive. VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE One of the simplest and most used constructions in both Greek and English is a verb + infinitive, as in, she wants to X! two much-used Greek verbs, and don t look much like normal verbs: that is because they are called impersonal. They both mean, must or it s necessary, and the person who must do something is put in the ACCUSATIVE case. e.g., I must fight/it is necessary for me to fight. (you will recognise as being in the accusative case.) RECORD VOCAB 16 must, it is necessary I seem I wish, want I wish, want (as in planning something) I appear, seem therefore (like always second word) COPY AND TRANSLATE! GETTING TO KNOW YOU The verb to know is fabulously irregular, and you need to get to know it well, because it is such a common everyday word you won t get far in Greek without out it. It causes trouble, because

35 it s a shape shifter: the stem seems not to stay the same all the way through, as it does with ordinary regular verbs. Have a look at this: INFINITIVE: to know - from which you would reasonably conclude that, despite the irregular ending (neither or that when you come to the present tense, it would begin Not a bit of it! If anything in Greek will make you go coo! and your eyes pop, this will: PRESENT TENSE I know you know (s.) he/she/it knows we know you know (pl.) they know PARTICIPLE (masc.) the stem is (fem.) knowing RECORD VOCAB 17 Record the whole of the verb to know as set out above. stem man stem woman nothing WHO KNOWS WHAT? Here s a puzzler! Try and sort out who knows what in this madness by translating it! UNIT 9 ASSESSMENT TRANSLATION: AT LAST SOME REAL GREEK DRAMA! We have got here at last the real thing. (Well, at least a taster.) If you glance back at the Introduction on page 2 and re-read it, you will notice that drama an invention of the Greeks, and still with us to this day in the theatre, on TV and on film already gets a mention. This is because the three great dramatists, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, together with the comic dramatist Aristophanes, are considered to be one of the great glories of western European civilisation. Indeed, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides are the only playwrights in the world to be compared with Shakespeare and they lived two thousand years before him! We will talk about drama in more detail later on, but in the first of our two extracts features a few lines from a drama by Sophocles called Philoctetes - written when he was 87! Philoctetes is the story of a Greek hero, a star archer, who is abandoned on an island because he has been bitten on the foot by a poisonous snake, and his cries of pain and the terrible smell from the wound distract and upset the rest of his comrades as they sail to the Trojan War. But years later a prophecy reveals that the Greeks will never take Troy without him, so Odysseus and the young man Neoptolemus go back to fetch him

36 RECORD VOCAB 18 terrible, awful behind come along! /go! /run! well then child, boy, slave (Latin, puer) O child! ouch! in front how? son, boy (see page 12, definite article, for Ah! with you NEOPTOLEMUS FINDS PHILOCTETES No need to copy, but translate, then act out in pairs these actual lines from the drama. One of you will need to be a good screamer!, Neoptolemus then asks him what the matter is, but Philoctetes does not really want to talk about it. Then - Neoptolemus then asks him why he s screaming.,, If things in Sophocles are serious and tragic and very short on laughs, the comic dramatist Aristophanes is a different kettle of fish altogether. His comedies poke fun at men, women and the gods, and are often very rude! Here are a couple of lines from one of his most famous comedies called Frogs. In this scene the rather cowardly god Dionysus has gone down to the underworld with his human slave Xanthias (never mind why it s a bit complicated!) - and even though he s a god and nothing can actually harm him, he is still terrified of all the monsters down there. They are creeping along together hoping not to be noticed, when suddenly Xanthias hears a sudden and scary noise IN THE UNDERWORLD Once again no need to copy, but translate, then act out in pairs these actual lines from the comedy. One of you will need to be good at trembling!

37 Unit 10: being moody and possessive This unit comes with a bit of a health warning: it is a BIG one! But like all big jumps you make in whatever you are doing, if you can get safely over to the other side you have achieved something, and deserve a big pat on the back and a box of chocolates. (Which you can then hand over to the teacher.) So far, we have met three sorts of verbs, all of them in the present tense: ordinary ones like middle ones like and contracted ones like or All the endings you have laboriously learned for them are said to be INDICATIVE endings, because they indicate (get it?) something that is actually happening. So far so good But what about possibility, where things may or may not happen, could happen, or should happen? Clearly there is a difference between saying, I am stopping and I may stop. The correct grammatical term for this is MOOD: where something is definitely happening, we say the mood is indicative, that is, everything you have learnt so far; but if it is uncertain, that if it may happen, we call the mood SUBJUNCTIVE. At this point bright students will be going, uh-oh, guessing that a different mood will require different endings to the verbs, and guess what those bright students are spot on! But the good news is this: the subjunctive endings are not really very different at all from the normal indicative ones they just lengthen the vowel, so that or becomes becomes. Before we take a look at those endings precisely, here are three very useful phrases which act as markers, indicating that the verb following them will be in the subjunctive: if someone in order that whoever! note that here does not mean who, but someone. You can tell this, because it does not have the accent. That is why you were introduced to a few words with accents earlier on to help you distinguish them from words which look identical, but have different meanings. So let s see the subjunctive in action. If we take an ordinary indicative ending, say (he/she says), here is the subjunctive version: Thus: if someone says/may say in order that he/she/someone may say whoever says/may say! if you want to be negative with your verb (if someone doesn t say) you will notice that the Greeks did not usual the usual form of not but instead used RECORD VOCAB 19 if someone in order that whoever not

38 GETTING TO KNOW YOUR PRESENT MOOD Choose one example each of an ordinary verb and a middle verb that you know and like don t pick a contracted one then copy out their present tenses, adding these subjunctive endings onto their stems, so you have made your own subjunctive chart: Present subjunctive of I you (s.) he/she/it we you (pl.) they Present subjunctive middle of I you (s.) he/she/it we you (pl.) they One thing more: yes, you guessed it, the present subjunctive of the verb to be. Look at it carefully, and you should get a pleasant surprise! Present subjunctive of (I am) I may be you (s.) may be he/she/it may be we may be you (pl.) may be they may be SIX OF THE BEST Translate the following: ANOTHER CASE So, you ve been moody; time to get possessive! This is nothing new really, as it will be well familiar to you from Latin: the GENITIVE case, meaning of, expressing possession. (You will remember that when you look up any Latin noun in a dictionary or vocab, it gives it in the basic nominative, and also the genitive two bits of useful information for the price of one, so to speak. Well it s the same in Greek.)

39 DEFINITE ARTICLE (the) GENITIVES: (masc. s.), (fem. s.), (both plur.) examples of these, showing different genitive noun endings: the son of the father/the god the words of the woman/of life the words of the fathers/women - this is why from now on when you record a noun you will also write down its genitive ending, like this: life PERSONAL POSSESSIONS You have already learned the nom. and acc. of the personal pronouns (p.17); here now are the genitives added to the list. Write them down carefully. NOMINATIVE ACCUSATIVE GENITIVE I me of me/my/mine you (s.) you of you/your/yours we us of us/, our/ ours you (pl). you of you/your/yours RECORD VOCAB 20 life human/man command letter lord woman I guard, keep UNIT 10 ASSESSMENT TRANSLATION Finish the translation which has been started for you: I am trying which gives all as it will show how to get how to swimalso, I should add this: as for your letter,

40 Unit 11: word stuff (2) After a tough unit wrestling with the subjunctive, it s time for another bit of R&R so, no new grammar to make your head ache in this unit! Homer the supreme poet. GETTING POLITICAL As a general rule, if there is one thing that separates children from adults, it s which of them is interested in politics; it s a fair bet that politics is definitely a grown-up thing! And it s easy to see why: boring long-winded talk using difficult words, middle-aged unattractive men in suits never answering the question directly that s put to them on TV, and even if you understand what they re banging on about you have to be 18 before you can vote them in or out of office! But here s your chance to blind others with your knowledge, because many of the important words to do with politics are derived from Greek, which is interesting to us. For example, the next time you hear someone talking about the country s aristocracy to mean rich posh people living in large mansions

41 or country houses, you can quietly point out or just think to yourself that the origins of the word aristocracy come from two simple Greek ones: (best), and (I rule), so that the true meaning of aristocracy is simply, the rule of the best, and of course best does not necessarily mean richest or most posh! (It could mean, for example, the kindest, or most intelligent, or most honourable). So, when you know that means people, it s easy to work out the root meaning of democracy the rule of the people; Muslim countries are theocracies, and you should be able to work out what that means, as you know both of the words which make it up. Two others you might come across are plutocracy wealth), and autocracy self). What kind of a leader is an autocratic one? Another very common word found on the end of words to do with politics also means rule, Once you know that means alone/single, you can work out what monarchy is, and as you already know who the are, an oligarchy is easy for you to understand. The word politics itself comes from one of the most important words in all Greek, which has a very special and precise meaning: city-state. The difference between a city-state and a city (like Exeter) is this: a city belongs to a country, and is bound by the rules of that country, so that whether you are in Bristol, Exeter, London or any other British city you will find the same laws in all of them; but a Greek city-state was like a separate little country within Greece, with different laws, customs and habits from other city-states. One last political word: law. There are many words in English ending in nomy, all of which mean the law of something. Guess what are, and what English word comes from it. BEGINNINGS AND ENDINGS First, let s get our terminology right: the bit that s added to the beginning of a word is called a prefix, and the bit that s stuck on the end is called the suffix. Words can have one or the other or both. For example, take the word turn: if we add the prefix re- to it, we get another word, return. Or if we add the suffix er to the verb make, we turn it into a noun, maker. The word unusually is made of the base word usual with the prefix un- and the suffix ly added to it. Right; now let s go Greek! A very common prefix in both Greek and English is the first letter of the alphabet, used in both languages to mean not. For example, what is an atheist? (What is an amoral person? What are your views if you are apolitical? Here s a very interesting one you could show off to your science teacher with, (if you have one); before they discovered how to split the atom in the last century it used to be believed by scientists that an atom was the smallest particle there was, and couldn t be cut into smaller pieces. Well, the Greek for cut is someans originally, something which can t be cut. Clever, eh? Two very common suffixes you will come across a good deal in Greek are and means something-ed; for example, the word means I make/do, so means something done. The suffix means er in English, so is a maker or doer, in this case of words, specifically a poet. BEING DRAMATIC The Greeks gave us many of the most important things in our culture, but probably nothing more lasting or significant than drama which, like so much else, was their invention. Once upon a time, at important moments in Greek life, like religious ceremonies (birth, marriage, death, thanksgiving to a god) or perhaps just for public entertainment, a group of singers would gather together called a chorus and sing a song together. Perhaps sometimes it was a long one, and told a story. Then, legend has it that a singer in a chorus called Thespis stepped forward and sang on his own, playing the part of a character they were singing about; in other words, he became the world s first actor. (To this day, actors are still called thespians.) However, it takes two to tango, and two to make drama as well, and it wasn t until a writer called Aeschylus got another singer to step forward that what we call drama was born. By using masks the two actors could become other characters as well, so the drama could have a bigger cast. The two most popular forms of drama were tragedy and comedy, and were sung and danced in theatres built outside against a sloping hill, where it was easier and more natural to build a semi-circul

42 ar stone area for the audience to sit. The Greeks had a very different attitude to drama from ours; to them, is was always linked with a religious festival, and was produced as a competition, where dramatists put on four dramas in a day: three serious tragedies drawn usually from myths, followed by a wild rude cheeky extravaganza called a Satyr play where everyone could let their hair down on stage. At the end of the competition which could last a week the winner was voted for, and received a prize. Another odd thing: dramatists wrote either tragedies and satyr plays, or just comedies but never, it seems, all of them; they did not like to mix categories. No one knows why. The remains of an ancient Greek theatre. ( Turn back to page 2 for another picture.) Now let s look at the words that lie behind drama. Drama is well, The word literally means, something done. Comedy is from meaning something like party song. Tragedy is a very strange one, meaning something to do with goat song! goatsong This has puzzled many people down the ages; perhaps as drama was part of a religious festival celebrating the god Dionysus, goats were sacrificed, and the name stuck. But no one knows for sure The chorus - - was the all-singing, all-dancing group on stage for the whole performance between people who commented on the story and action as the drama unfolded, singing both the audience and the actors on stage. They danced and sang in the playing-space called the from which of course we get our word orchestra, now meaning something rather

43 different. Now, ask yourself, what is a hypocrite? Perhaps you can see a connection between this word (which we use in English with a rather unpleasant sense) with the Greek for actor, At the heart of any tragedy was always a hero - - and the story of the drama was usually based on an ancient myth, (Cue brilliant joke: a myth is a female moth.) And lastly, the word theatre itself comes from the Greek meaning a watching-place. Obvious, really.

44 Unit 12: getting neutered (ouch!), and going back in time So far all the nouns and adjectives you have met have been either masculine or feminine, but of course you will know that there is a third gender which is neither, called neuter. (We also use this word in English as a verb, to neuter, meaning to cut off well, let s just say those special bits which make a boy a boy! If you take the cat or dog to the vet to be neutered it s not a trip they are going to forget!) Anyway, Lots of important words are of the neuter gender, and of course the definite article (being an adjective of sorts) has neuter endings as well. In fact you have already seen them, though we have not really used them yet; turn back to page 25 and there they are. (You also met the Greek for child in the Philoctetes drama on page 30.) The only thing missing from that list is the genitive case in the sing. and plur., which is added here: Neuter definite article: NOMINATIVE SING. (subject) ACCUSATIVE SING. (object) NOMINATIVE PLUR. ACCUSATIVE PLUR. GENITIVE SING. (of) GENITIVE PLUR. Bright students will immediately spot the problem ahead: how do we tell the difference between nominative and accusative if they look they same, if you can t tell which is the subject and which is the object? Well, as so often with Greek and Latin, common sense helps a lot; if, for example, using two common Greek neuter nouns, the book), the child), we read it is obvious that it means the child loves the book, not the book loves the child. RECORD VOCAB 21 - all the neuter nouns below have been given in both s. and pl. to help you recognise their endings. book (nom. + acc.) books (nom. + acc.) devil, demon, divine sign (nom. + acc.) devils, demon, divine sign (nom. + acc.) work, deed (nom. + acc.) works, deeds (nom. + acc.) small child, slave (nom. + acc.) small children, slaves (nom. + acc.) mob (nom. + acc.) mobs (nom. + acc.) child, son, young man (nom. + acc.) children, sons, young men (nom. + acc.) end, aim, purpose (nom. + acc.) ends, aims, purposes (nom. + acc.) I order life

45 this (neut. s.) TRANSLATION Because in sentence 4 you can t tell which the subject is and which is the object (as the nom. and acc. case endings look the same) it can therefore be translated in two different ways. Do both! TIME TO TIME TRAVEL: GOING BACK INTO THE PAST We can t for ever read things just in the present tense; life would be dull that way. Time to go back into the past, and see how things were There are a number of different past tenses (was x-ing, x-ed, have/has x-ed, had x-ed) but for starters, here are the two most common ones: imperfect indicative, meaning, I was x-ing, and the aorist indicative, meaning I x-ed. IMPERFECT INDICATIVE OF I am) I was you were (s.) he/she/it was we were you were (pl.) they were AORIST INDICATIVE OF ACTIVE VERBS endings note that the first person s. (I) is the same ending as the third person pl. (they). Only the context of the sentence or story will tell you which is intended. AORIST INDICATIVE ACTIVE I came, went)! note that this very irregular verb s stem changes from to in its past tenses. I went) you went (s. he/she/it went we went you went (pl.) they went

46 RECORD VOCAB 22 - Copy out the IMPERFECT tense of I am) - Copy out the endings of the AORIST MIDDLE tense I said, spoke I saw (present tense I found them (masc. acc.pl.) nor! note the difference between imperative (tell!) with its accent and (he/she told). UNIT 12 ASSESSMENT TRANSLATION

47 Unit 13: straight down the middle, and your last case THE AORIST TENSE CONTINUED: MIDDLE VOICE Before you take a look at aorist middle endings, just refresh your memory over the present middle ones: I you (s.) he/she/it we you (pl.) they Right: now compare these with the past tense version, the aorist: I you (s.) he/she/it we you (pl.) they not a great deal of difference, is there? (In fact you should notice that the 1 st and 2 nd person plurals are both the same). RECORD VOCAB 23 Record the following aorist middle verbs, then choose one and write it out in full, using the endings above. I became, happened, was born, was made I heard, enquired I asked I arrived! note that you have met before: it comes from You may wonder how we get from the stem in the present ( to the aorist stem (but just accept for the moment that it is very irregular. There are odder things waiting in the pipeline! Fussier students may be also wanting to ask, why show us the aorist of middle verbs before giving us practice in the aorist of ordinary everyday active ones, like or Surely they must just go according to the aorist active endings chart on page 39? - Unfortunately, it s not as easy as that; but have patience! There are good reasons for this: all will be revealed MIX AND MATCH Cut up thirty small vocabulary cards in pairs, and on fifteen of them write the following Greek verbs, and on the other fifteen these English translations. Mix them up, then match them up!

48 they became you arrived (pl.) I/they said we heard/ enquired they asked he/she asked you saw (s.) you became (s.) I enquired he/she arrived we came they heard/ enquired he/she found we became he/she asked YOUR LAST CASE: THE DATIVE You are very likely to have met the dative case already in Latin, but just in case you haven t, (or have just forgotten), this is the case ending which means to or for. Star students with Latin cases under their belt will be puzzling over the title of this section, Your Last Case: you will have ticked off so far on this course the nominative, the occasionally used vocative, accusative and genitive cases as done and dusted, but when we add the dative to this list, doesn t this leave the ablative (by/with/from)? Well, here s the good news: Greek doesn t bother with the ablative it uses prepositions instead in front of nouns and adjectives so there is one set of case endings less to learn! Can you work out dative singular and plural endings, masc. fem. and neut. from these examples? Socrates spoke to the student Socrates spoke to the students Socrates spoke to the woman Socrates spoke to the women Socrates spoke to the child Socrates spoke to the children Your conclusions? Exactly! is the masc. and neut. dative singular, with for the plurals. dative fem. singular is withthe plural. You Are now ready to review your complete definite article chart, knowing all cases the most important basic tool in ancient Greek. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE (the) COMPLETE CHART masc. fem. neut. NOMINATIVE (subject) ACCUSATIVE (object) Sing. GENITIVE (of) DATIVE (to, for) NOMINATIVE Plur. ACCUSATIVE GENITIVE DATIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS (I, you, we) Now the dative case has been introduced, we can now complete a proper chart for the basic personal pronouns. Note carefully the datives, which is the onl y case you have not met before for these very common words:

49 I/me you we/us NOMINATIVE (subject) ACCUSATIVE (object) Sing. GENITIVE (of) DATIVE (to, for) NOMINATIVE Plur. ACCUSATIVE GENITIVE DATIVE VERBS THAT LOVE THE DATIVE Just as in Latin, some very common verbs put their objects not into the normal accusative case, but into the dative instead. So, in Greek, you don t fight X, you fight to X; you don t obey X, you obey to X; you don t believe X, you believe to X. (Can you think of any English verbs which are very often followed by to?) These little beauties are listed in Vocab 24 below. A TYPICAL GREEK IDIOM (No, idiom - not idiot!) All languages have idioms, that is, simple everyday phrases which native speakers understand naturally, and just take for granted without thinking about them, but which look and sound odd to foreigners learning that language. English is particularly rich in them: for example, if you wanted to be polite on meeting someone, you might say, how do you do? But if you think about how odd it is to say this to someone - especially if you ve never met them before - you will understand why it will seem odd to a foreigner: how do you what?, they might be tempted to ask; fly a kite? Bake a Christmas cake? Well, Greek has a lot of idioms too, and one very common one is used to express possession. In Greek, you say I have by using the dative case, making it to me there is. e.g., I have the book. The words literally translated mean, there is to me the book. Another example: the man had the child. Literally, there was the child to the man. You will meet this construction all the time in Greek. RECORD VOCAB 24 - Before all else, record the definite article chart above and make sure you have learnt it by heart. - Now do the same to the personal pronoun chart above. (+dat.)- in in the city I announce I speak I drink (+dat.) I believe, have faith in (+dat.) I fight, I fight with, I fight against (+dat.) I obey, I trust UNIT 13 ASSESSMENT TRANSLATION (1)

50 TIME OUT WITH THALES (fl. circa 600 BC) Bust of Thales Before we introduce the final piece of translation in this, the last language unit of Part 1 of this course - (the final Unit, 16, is the third Word stuff, and like the others has no new language or grammar in it) - let us take some time out to look at the world s first known philosopher, Thales. The Greeks of course invented what we call philosophy - the word actually comes from (I love) and (wisdom) - and starts from a series of questions about human beings and their place in the world and why we are like we are, and then goes on to ask what it means to be good or brave or virtuous, and how it is that we know that we know anything for certain about the things we believe. The first man to ask such questions was the original absent- minded professor called Thales - he once fell down a hole in the road because he was staring at the stars as he walked along, and was teased by his slave girl who said to him, you spend so much time looking up at the sky you can t see the simplest thing in front of you! - and he was in reality as much as what we would call today a scientist rather than a philosopher. (If you want a handy distinction between the two, you could say that scientists ask questions about the physical world - what is a volcano, and how does it work? - and philosophers ask the same questions about the non-physical one - what is Goodness, and how can I become a good person? ) Here are some interesting facts about him and what he discovered or believed: - He predicted a total eclipse of the sun which frightened everyone out of their wits and even put a stop to a local war; - He measured the height of the pyramids in Egypt by comparing the length of the shadows they cast using an object whose height he already knew; - He was the first person to divide the year into 365 days, which we still have now; - His favourite saying was, water is the most beautiful thing in the world. He believed - rightly, as it turns out - that every living thing contains moisture, and he thought that water was the soul of the world; - He thought the world was like a giant raft, floating on water; - He thought everything had a soul; - He refused to get married. His mother constantly asked him when he was going to, and he always replied, it s too soon to. Then one day when she asked him he replied, it s too late.

51 - Finally, Thales is reported to have said that he had been born with three great pieces of luck - which leads to our final translation piece. Once you have recorded these four new words, you will be able to translate what he said: first third wild beast next My three great pieces of luck: The School at Athens - Raphael s picture of the most famous of all Greek philosophers, Plato.

52 Unit 14: word stuff (3) -ologies and other suffixes How many English words can you think of which end in the suffix -ology, like, for example, geology? Probably many, though the actual number is probably many times more than the list you can come up with. Try it now, and see how many you can produce! So - where does the ending come from? The answer is from the basic word which is perhaps the most pregnant word in the Greek language: it has many, many meanings, of which reason, reasoned explanation are just two. Look at these nouns and work out what English word we get from them when we add the suffix -ology to them: life), (soul), (old), land), god), (stem of bird), universe), (time). The suffix -scope is also very common in English, and this one derives from I examine. Try these: chest), (around), (far off), (inside), (season), (ring). While you re at it, what about -graphy I write, describe)?try land), again - and there are many more. And what about words ending in -phony, from (voice)? (Think Beethoven on the phone ) Not that we always attach Greek suffixes to English stems to make our words; sometimes we produce a hybrid by tacking them on to Latin words. Well known examples using the suffix -ology include sociology (socius, ally, associate), cartology (carta, map), criminology (crimen, crime, charge). What s in a name? A very great deal, is the answer to that! Names matter much more than we realise; they have to fit with our imaginations. Try thinking of the most beautiful, talented and drop-dead gorgeous Hollywood actor or actress; now imagine that their names are Griselda Gubbins or Bert Purkiss; not so wonderful seeming now, are they? In fact one of the best of the early Simpsons cartoons was based on this idea: Homer changes his name to the much cooler sounding Max Power, and becomes temporarily popular and successful as a result. In fact in real life, pop stars and film stars are very often told to choose better names than their real ones to fit the image they want to create. In other walks of life, people give their names to particular things they are associated with; for example, Mr Bunsen invented the Bunsen burner, certain frozen foods were first sold by Mr Birdseye, and jeans - this will surprise you probably, because you will be thinking of America - were first made in Italy, in Genoa. Many Greek names seem to fit just right, and are still used or recognisable today. For example: supported the whole world on his shoulders. Because the first maps showed him doing this, they took their name from him. a prophetess - someone who could see into the future --was cursed by the gods because she turned down the god Apollo. Her fate was never to be believed. Nowadays when we call someone a Cassandra we use the word to mean a pessimist, someone who looks into the future and only sees the dark or unpleasant side of things. - the good ship Titanic is named after the Titans, the original race of giants who ruled the world before being overthrown by young Zeus. They were big and strong, thus the adjective titanic. is of course the mountain where the gods chose to live, so the adjective Olympic has come to suggest things associated with the highest level, godlike achievement, a long way away. - the Romans changed his name to Hercules - was the demi-god (half mortal, half divine) who was so strong he could perform the most amazing feats of strength, skill and endurance. He famously carried out twelve so-called impossible Labours or Tasks, and because of this, we get the adjective Herculean, meaning a massive amount of difficulty or effort. Like many Greek gods and goddesses, he ended up as a constellation in the heavens.

53 Hercules in the heavens. Congratulations! You have now completed the first part of the ancient Greek course, and you will receive a signed Certificate confirming this. We hope you have enjoyed meeting this unique and beautiful language and the fascinating people who first spoke and wrote it. Of course it has been hard - there s nothing tougher than ancient Greek! - but let us finish with two famous old Greek proverbs: well begun is half done), and ( beautiful things are hard).