An Overview of Disaster Management

Transcription

1 2nd Edition An Overview of Disaster Management Disaster Management Training Programme

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3 An Overview of Disaster Management 2nd Edition Disaster Management Training Programme 1992

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5 PART Table of Contents Foreword... 7 Introduction... 9 PART ONE: HAZARDS AND DISASTERS...13 Chapter 1:Introduction to disasters...13 The disaster problem Causal factors of disasters Chapter 2: Disaster terminology and phases Disaster terms Phases of a disaster Chapter 3:Linking disaster and development...25 Disruption of development by disasters How development may cause disasters Development opportunities afforded by disasters Chapter 4: Natural hazards...31 Characteristics of particular hazards and disasters Chapter 5: Compound and complex disasters Socio/political forces Displaced persons The role of the UN in complex emergencies Safety of relief teams in conflict zones PART TWO: DISASTER PREPAREDNESS Chapter 6 The disaster management team, roles and resources The UN Disaster Management Team Country Disaster Management Team Tasks, roles and resources of the UN Roles and resources of UNDP, UNDRO, and other UN agencies Coordination: the resident coordinator and the UN-DMT Chapter 7 Disaster preparedness Components of disaster preparedness Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters Preparedness within the United Nations Checklist of basic information required by a UN-DMT Chapter 8 Vulnerability and risk assessment

6 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management PART THREE: DISASTER REPONSE Chapter 9 Disaster reponse Aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance Chapter 10 Disaster assessment Objectives of assessment The assessment process Assessments for different disaster types How assessment data is used Chapter 11 UN reponse to disaster Principal elements and actions in response to a sudden disaster Sitreps-exchanging information with UNDRO Alert message and field sitreps The importance of coordination and information Chapter 12 Rehabilitation and reconstruction Priorities and opportunities in rehabilitation and reconstruction A case study: Zenon hurricane PART FOUR: DISASTER MITIGATION Chapter 13 Mitigation Targeting mitigation where it has most effect Actions to reduce risk The menu of mitigation actions Classification of mitigation measures Timing for mitigation Chapter 14 UN assistance to mitigation Disaster mitigation as a development theme Appraising disaster mitigation needs, policies, and capacity Sources of information: needs for technical expertise Project identification and formulation Disaster risk appraisal of all projects in hazardous areas Disaster risk reduction planning checklist Appendix GA Resolution 46/182, Strengthening of the Coordination of Humanitarian Emergency Assistance of the United Nations 6

7 PART Foreword to the 2nd edition The informal name for this text has been the Foundation Module. The information it includes is regarded as the foundation for the much of the UNDP/ UNDRO Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP). This training module describes the components of disaster management and their context within the overall framework of United Nations agencies actively involved in disaster and emergency issues. This training module has been produced for the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Training Programme by the University of Wisconsin Disaster Management Center. The Technical Operational Partners for the DMTP provided valuable advice on the format and content. The principal sources for the content include the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Manual and six complementary training modules prepared for the DMTP. Intertect Training Services has edited the material and prepared the educational components. For those of you familiar with the first edition, you will see many changes in the second edition. It has been significantly reorganized. The chapters which focus on the UN have been moved adjacent to chapters on related topics instead of being collected together in the former Part 4. The chapter on Natural Hazards has been condensed. Each hazard type is described in a one-page summary. More extensive coverage is now available in the companion module, Introduction to Hazards. A new chapter on Compound and Complex Emergencies has been added, highlighting this topic as an issue that has recently emerged into our collective consciousness. Many other chapters have been modified or rewritten with new exercises and illustrations added. 7

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9 PART Introduction to this training module Purpose and scope An Overview of Disaster Management is designed to introduce the subject of disaster management to an audience of UN organization professionals who form disaster management teams, as well as to government counterpart agencies, NGOs, and donors. The training is designed to increase the audience s awareness of the nature and management of disasters. This should lead to better performance in disaster preparedness and response. By questioning the inevitability of disasters, we hope you can begin to see mitigation of disasters as a component of development, and disasters as opportunities to further development goals. In this course we take a broad view of disasters. We will not try to separate out problems rooted in environmental degradation as a distinct set of responsibilities. It also includes emergencies which encompass the need to provide assistance to large populations displaced by the forces of civil conflict or other emergencies. Mush of the course s content is based on the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Manual and follows its principles, procedures, and terminology. Overall learning objectives The overall objectives of this training module aim to! create interest in disaster management! stimulate motivation! link the learning to your work activities! relate the learning to your values and attitudes about disaster management We hope this will be achieved through your reading of this text and completing the suggested exercises. Specifically, you should be able to do the following:! describe the relationship among hazard, vulnerability and disasters! describe the basic concepts, aims, and elements of disaster and emergency management! describe the range of available preparedness/mitigation measures, consider their appropriateness, opportunities, limitations and modalities of implementation through development activities! clarify the purpose, function and means of response of the UN agencies involved in the emergency scenario and particularly that of the UN Disaster Management Team. Q. Before you go on, write down two or three key reasons why you are studying this course on disaster management. A. Compare your reasons with those of others that are on the following page. 9

10 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management Importance of training for disaster management Why are disasters and disaster management training of concern to country governments, to the UN and, in particular, to UNDP and UNDRO? How can governments and UNDP justify adding disaster management to their long lists of competing priorities? There are several answers to these questions.! Government are increasingly requesting UN agencies to in-country coordinate all UN post-disaster assistance and sometimes all international assistance. Therefore, governments and the UN need better communication about their mutual needs and capabilities.! Disasters are a growing problem. They will become of increasing concern to governments and an increasing part of the UN s principal activities. In disaster-prone countries UNDP s country programmes are inevitably affected by disasters. Projects are set back or suffer delays as a country recovers from the consequences of a disaster.! Disasters are non-routine events that require non-routine responses. Government and development agencies in general cannot rely on normal procedures to implement appropriate responses. They need to learn and practice special skills and attitudes.! Disasters are closely linked with at least four other priorities for which UNDP has accepted either a direct or supportive role: displaced persons, refugees and returnees, women in development, and environmental protection. The issues of all these subjects overlap significantly. A training programme in one will support the professional development of UNDP staff in all.! UNDRO has an established international mandate in this area. It is to coordinate activities promoting preparedness and mitigation as well as the response to disasters. UNDRO s interests are represented in the field by UNDP. It is incumbent upon both agencies to promote a marked increase of awareness and competence in disasters, and to involve other concerned UN agencies.! In their role as Resident coordinators, UNDP Res Reps and field office staff need to train with their sister agencies in the procedures of implementing a coordinated and appropriate disaster response.! The world community takes considerable interest in disasters. Governments and the UN system have high profiles in these events which are observed closely by the media. UN agencies and governments must prove their competence in order to project a positive image of providing appropriate support. 10

11 PART Training methods This module is intended for two audiences, the self-study learner and the participant in a training workshop. The following training methods are planned for use in workshops and are simulated in the written module. For the self-study learner the text is as close to a tutor as can be managed in print. Workshop training methods include " group discussions " simulations/role plays " supplementary handouts " videos " review sessions " self-assessment exercises You are invited to use this text as a workbook. In addition to note-taking in the margins, you will be given the opportunity to stop and examine your learning along the way through questions included in the text. Write down your answers to these questions before proceeding to ensure that you have captured key points of the text. This text is divided into four parts. Part One describes what hazards are, why they become disasters, and how they affect development. Part Two identifies the scope of disaster management, what your role may be in it, and focuses on preparedness aspects. Part Three accepts that some disasters will occur and examines how to respond to them. Part Four presents disaster mitigation as a set of activities that reduce the risk and impact of disasters. This training module is complemented by two short videos, The UN and disaster response, and Disaster mitigation: how to lessen the damage through proper development. You would benefit from making arrangements to view these videos and from reviewing the accompanying discussion questions. 11

12 PART PART 1 HAZARDS AND DISASTERS After reading the material and completing the exercises you should be able to:! define the key terms of disaster management! describe the causes of disaster vulnerability! reproduce the disaster management continuum diagram! identify the most important hazards and how they affect society! distinguish between natural and human made hazards! identify at least two ways that development can lead directly to a disaster! describe at least four ways that disasters disrupt development LEARNING OBJECTIVES! CHAPTER 1 Introduction to disasters Q. How do you define hazard and disaster? A. Write your ideas in the following space, then compare your definitions with those provided in the text. 13

13 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management Before going any further we should establish a common understanding of the terms hazard and disaster. Definition of hazard A hazard is a rare or extreme event in the natural or human-made environment that adversely affects human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a disaster. Definition of disaster A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of affected society to copy using only its own resources. Disasters are often classified according to their speed of onset (sudden or slow), or according to their cause (natural or man-made). Definition of natural phenomena This part of the module will focus on the above two terms but we need to examine them in relation to another term: natural phenomena. Natural phenomena are extreme climatological, hydrological, or geological, processes that do not pose any threat to persons or property. A massive earthquake in an unpopulated area, for example, is a natural phenomena, not a hazard. So is the annual flood along the Nile, an essential element to the well being of its neighbouring inhabitants. Definition of emergency Another term closely related to disaster and used throughout this module is emergency. A disaster might be regarded as a particular type (or sub-set) of an emergency. Disaster suggests an intense time period and level of urgency. Whereas a disaster is bound by a specific period in which lives and essential property are immediately at risk, an emergency can encompass a more general period in which! there is a clear and marked deterioration in the coping abilities of a group or community, or! coping abilities are only sustained by unusual initiatives by the group or community or by external intervention. The disaster problem This section will describe certain phenomena leading to disasters and emergencies: disaster trends, where they occur and who is most affected by them. From the outset it is worth reminding ourselves that disasters and emergencies are all too often regarded as aberrant events, divorced from normal life. In reality, however, the opposite is true. Disasters and emergencies are fundamental reflections of normal life. They are consequences of the ways societies structure themselves, economically and socially; the ways that societies and states interact; and the ways that relationships between the decision makers are sustained. Hence a flood or an earthquake is not a disaster in and of itself. 14

14 PART CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 todisasters The disaster stems from the fact that certain communities or groups are forced to settle in areas susceptible to the impact of a raging river or a volcanic eruption. It is essential to make a distinction between hazards and disasters, and to recognize that the effect of the former upon the latter is essentially a measure of the society s vulnerability. The following diagram illustrates this combination of opposing forces. Vulnerability is seen as the progression of three stages: 1. Underlying causes: a deep-rooted set of factors within a society that together form and maintain vulnerability. 2. Dynamic pressures: a translating process that channels the effects of a negative cause into unsafe conditions; this process may be due to a lack of basic services or provision or it may result from a series of macro-forces 3. Unsafe conditions: the vulnerable context where people and property are exposed to the risk of disaster; the fragile physical environment is one element; other factors include an unstable economy and low income levels. Figure 1.1 The Disaster Crunch Model This material has been drawn from the first chapter of the forthcoming book: At Risk- Vulnerability and Disasters, by Piers Blaikie, Terry Cannon, Ian Davis and Ben Wisner (Harper Collins, London and New York) Causal factors of disasters The magnitude of each disaster, measured in deaths, damage, or costs for a given developing country increases with the increased marginalization of the population. This is caused by a high birthrate, problems of land tenure and economic opportunity, and the lack or misallocation of resources to meet the basic human needs of an expanding population. As the population increases, the best land in both rural and urban areas is taken up, and those seeking land for farming or housing are forced to accept inadequate land. These offer less productivity and a smaller measure of physical or economic safety. The following section considers each of these issues. 15

15 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management Photo credit: UNHCR/ M. Vanappelghem Poverty The most important single influence on the impact of a disaster is poverty. All other factors could be lessened if the affected population were not also limited by poverty. Virtually all disaster studies show that the wealthiest of the population either survive the disaster unaffected or are able to recover quickly. Across the broad spectrum of disasters, poverty generally makes people vulnerable to the impact of hazards. Poverty explains why people in urban areas are forced to live on hills that are prone to landslides, or why people settle near volcanos or rivers that invariably flood their banks. Poverty explains why droughts claim poor peasant farmers as victims an rarely the wealthy, and why famines more other than not are the result of a lack of purchasing power to buy food rather than an absence of food. Increasingly, poverty also explains why many people are forced to move from their homes to other parts of their countries or even across borders to survive. Such crisis-induced migration poses considerable challenges both in terms of immediate assistance to the displaced and of longer-term development. Population growth There is an obvious connection between the increase in losses from a disaster and the increase in population. If there are more people and structures where a disaster strikes, then it is likely there will be more of an impact. The growth of population has been so spectacular that it is inevitable that more people will be affected by disaster because more will be forced to live and work in unsafe areas. Increasing numbers of people will be competing for a limited amount of resources (such as, employment opportunities, and land) which can lead to conflict. This conflict may result in crisis-induced migration. Such growth occurs predominantly in developing countries, resulting in various contributors to disasters. Figure. 1.2 Population growth Source: Thomas Merrick, et. al., World Population in Transition, Population Bulletin, Vol. 42, No.2 (1986). 16

16 PART CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 to disasters Rapid urbanization Rapid population growth and migration are related to the major phenomenon of rapid urbanization. This process is also accelerated in developing countries. It is characterized by the rural poor or civilians in an area of conflict moving to metropolitan areas in search of economic opportunities and security. These massive numbers of urban poor increasingly find fewer options for availability of safe and desirable places to build their houses. Here again, competition for scare resources, an inevitable consequence of rapid urbanization, can lead to human-made disasters. Figure 1.3 Population projections for some disaster-prone cities Many landslides or flooding disasters are closely linked to rapid and unchecked urbanization which forces low-income families to settle on the slopes of steep hillsides or ravines, or along the banks of flood-prone rivers. Many earthquake victims in urban areas have been impoverished families whose sites have failed rather than their houses, usually through landslides onto the house or out from under it. Figure 1.4 As population continues to grow, settlements spread to marginal and even unsafe areas. unstable slope river river 17

17 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management Transitions in cultural practices Many of the inevitable changes that occur in all societies lead to an increase in the societies vulnerability to disasters. Obviously, all societies are constantly changing and in a continual state of transition. These transitions are often extremely disruptive and uneven, leaving gaps in social coping mechanisms and technology. These transitions include nomadic populations that become sedentary rural people who move to urban areas, and both rural and urban people who move from one economic level to another. More broadly, these examples are typical of a shift from non-industrialized to industrializing societies. One example of the impact of these transitions is the introduction of new construction materials and building designs in a society that is accustomed to traditional materials and designs. This often results in new materials being used incorrectly. In disaster prone areas, inadequate new construction techniques may lead to houses that cannot withstand earthquakes or wind storms (see the following figure). Compounding this problem is the new community where the disaster survivors find themselves may not have a social support system or network to assist in the relief and recovery from the disaster. The traditional coping mechanisms may not exist in the new setting and the population becomes increasingly dependent on outside interveners to help in this process. Conflicting as well as transitional cultural practices can also lead to civil conflict, for example, as a result of communal violence triggered by religious differences. Figure 1.5 New house badly built using modern materials. Environmental degradation Many disasters are either caused or exacerbated by environmental degradation. Deforestation leads to rapid rain run off, which contributes to flooding. The destruction of mangrove swamps decreases a coast line s ability to resist tropical winds and storm surges. 18

18 PART CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 to disasters The creation of drought conditions and the relative severity and length of time the drought lasts is mainly a natural phenomena. Drought conditions may be exacerbated by: poor cropping patterns, overgrazing, the stripping of topsoil, poor conservation techniques, depletion of both the surface and subsurface water supply, and,to an extent, unchecked urbanization. Figure 1.6 Deforestation for development Lack of awareness and information Disasters can also happen because people vulnerable to them simply didn t know how to get out of harm s way or to take protective measures. This ignorance may not necessarily be a function of poverty, but a lack of awareness of what measures can be taken to build safe structures on safe locations. Perhaps some people did not know about safe evacuation routes and procedures. Other populations may not know where to turn for assistance in times of acute distress. Nevertheless, this point should not be taken as a justification for ignoring the coping mechanisms of the majority of people affected by disasters. In most disaster-prone societies, there is a wealth of understanding about disaster threats and responses. This understanding should be incorporated into any efforts to provide external assistance. War and civil strife In this text war and civil strife are regarded as hazards, that is, extreme events that produce disasters. War and civil strife often result in displaced people, a target population of this training programme. The causal factors of war and civil strife include competition for scarce resources, religious or ethnic intolerance, and ideological differences. Many of these are also byproducts of the preceding six causal factors of disasters. 19

19 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management Q. Of the seven causal factors of disasters discussed above, how would you rank them for the region in which you live? A. List the most serious contributor first

20 PART 1 CHAPTER 2 Disaster terminology and phases! CHAPTER 2 Disaster terminolo minology and phases Disaster terms Some terminology of disaster management has already been introduced in this module. A brief glossary follows to highlight some of these working definitions. This glossary lists the disaster management terms as used in the Third Draft of A list of Disaster Management related terms with their definitions to be included in an internationally agreed multilingual glossary prepared by UNDRO, and in the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual. However, consensus does not exist among all disaster management practitioners or academicians regarding these definitions. A standardized and universally accepted glossary would obviously be desirable, but is not likely to exist within the next few years. Consequently, the following definitions represent one effort toward developing a consensus. Users of the DMTP training materials are encouraged to adopt these working definitions for the sake of uniformity and to be tolerant of other groups definitions. Q. Can you think of an example of how to use each of these terms? Write your example in the space below each definition. Disaster management is the body of policy and administrative decisions and operational activities which pertain to the various stages of a disaster at all levels. A. Disaster management Human-made disasters are disasters or emergency situations where the principal, direct cause(s) are identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise. Apart from technological and ecological disasters, this mainly involves situations in which civilian populations suffer casualties, losses of property, basic services and means of livelihood as a result of war or civil strife, for example. Human-made disasters/emergencies can be of the rapid or slow onset types, and in the case of internal conflict, can lead to complex emergencies as well. A. Human-made disaster An even broader definition of human-made disaster acknowledges that all disasters are caused by humans because they have chosen, for whatever reason, to be where natural phenomena occurs that result in adverse impacts on people. A. 21

21 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management Risk Risk is the expected losses (lives lost, persons injured, damage to property and disruption of economic activity) due to a particular hazard. Risk is the product of hazard and vulnerability. A. Vulnerability Vulnerability is the degree of loss (for example, from 0 to 100 percent) resulting from a potentially damaging phenomenon. A. The following terms are key to understanding slow onset disasters and their impact on populations. Population displacements Population displacements are usually associated with crisis-induced mass migration in which large numbers of people are forced to leave their homes to seek alternative means of survival. Such mass movements normally result from the effects of conflict, severe food shortages or collapse of economic support systems. A. Complex emergencies Figure 2.1. Rapid onset disaster management continuum Complex emergencies are a form of human-made emergency in which the cause of the emergency as well as the assistance to the afflicted are bound by intense levels of political considerations. This sort of emergency is normally associated with the problems of displaced people during times of civil conflict or with people in need caught in areas of conflict. A. Phases of a disaster Disasters can be viewed as a series of phases on a time continuum. Identifying and understanding these phases helps to describe disaster related needs and to conceptualize appropriate disaster management activities. Rapid onset disasters The definitions below correspond to the time sequence following the occurrence of a rapid onset disaster. See Figure

22 PART 1 CHAPTER 2 Disaster terminology and phases The relief phase is the period immediately following the occurrence of a sudden disaster (or the late discovery of a neglected/deteriorated slow-onset situation) when exceptional measures have to be taken to search and find the survivors as well as meet their basic needs for shelter, water, food and medical care. A. Relief phase Rehabilitation is the operations and decisions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring a stricken community to its former living conditions, while encouraging and facilitating the necessary adjustments to the changes caused by the disaster. A. Rehabilitation Reconstruction is the actions taken to reestablish a community after a period of rehabilitation subsequent to a disaster. Actions would include construction of permanent housing, full restoration of all services, and complete resumption of the pre-disaster state. A. Reconstruction Mitigation is the collective term used to encompass all actions taken prior to the occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster measures) including preparedness and long-term risk reduction measures. (Mitigation has been used by some institutions or authors in a narrower sense, excluding preparedness.) A. Mitigation Preparedness consists of activities designed to minimize loss of life and damage, organize the temporary removal of people and property from a threatened location, and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation. A. Preparedness Slow onset disasters The sequence of a disaster continuum for slow onset disasters is similar in framework but has important distinctions. The following terms and definitions reflect those additions or modifications. See Figure 2.2. Figure 2.2. Slow onset disaster management continuum 23

23 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management Early warning Early warning is the process of monitoring situations in communities or areas known to be vulnerable to slow onset hazards. For example, famine early warning may be reflected in such indicators as drought, livestock sales, or changes in economic conditions. The purpose of early warning are to enable remedial measures to be initiated and to provide more timely and effective relief including through disaster preparedness actions. A. Emergency phase The emergency phase is the period during which extraordinary measures have to be taken. Special emergency procedures and authorities may be applied to support human needs, sustain livelihoods, and protect property to avoid the onset of disaster. This phase can encompass pre-disaster, disaster alert, disaster relief and recovery periods. An emergency phase may be quite extensive, as in a slow onset disaster such as a famine. It can also be relatively short-lived, as after an earthquake. A. Rehabilitation Rehabilitation is the action taken after a slow onset disaster where attention must be given to the issues of resettlement or returnee programmes, particularly for people who have been displaced for reasons arising out of conflict or economic collapse. A. Q. Test your recall of the two disaster continuum diagrams. Label each circles below with the phases of a rapid onset and slow onset disaster. A. Rapid onset disaster Slow onset disaster 24

24 ! CHAPTER 3 Linking disasters s and development elopment 1 PART 1 CHAPTER 3 Linking disaster and development Introduction This training module provides a new conceptualization of the relationship between disasters and development. This new conceptualization has been growing in the development community over the last few years and is a major philosophical underpinning of the United Nations Disaster Management Training Programme. Rarely a week goes by when a major disaster is not reported in the media a disaster that results in death and destruction a disaster that frequently wipes out years of development programming and sets the slow course of improvement in third world countries further behind, wasting precious resources. For a long time the cause and effect relationship between disasters and social and economic development was ignored. Ministries of Planning and Finance and other development planners did not concern themselves with disasters. At best, development planners hoped that disasters would not occur and, if they did, were most effectively handled by relief from donor countries and relief organizations. Development programs were not assessed in the context of disasters, neither from the effect of the disaster on the development programs nor from the point of whether the development programs increased either the likelihood of a disaster or increased the potential damaging effects of a disaster. Disasters were seen in the context of emergency response not as a part of long term development programming. When a disaster did occur, the response was directed to emergency needs and cleaning up. Communities under disaster distress were seen as unlikely places to institute development. The post-disaster environment was seen as too turbulent to promote institutional changes aimed at promoting long term development. Sources for this chapter are Disasters and Development, a UNDP/UNDRO training module prepared by R.S. Stephenson and Disasters and Development: a study in institution-building prepared for UNDP by INTERTECT, January Figure 3.1 This figure charts aspects of a community s development and vulnerability to disaster. It shows the various orientations with which you may analyze the field of development and disaster vulnerability. The field is divided into positive and negative aspects of the disaster/ development relationship by the vertical axis. The right half reflects the positive or optimistic side of the relationship and the left side of the diagram deals with the negative aspects of the relationship. The statement in each quadrant sums up the basic concept derived from the overlap of the two realms. 25

25 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management 1 The growing body of knowledge on the relationships between disasters and development indicates four basic themes. The themes presented in the preceeding figure may be expanded as follows: 1. Disasters set back development programming destroying years of development initiatives. - Infrastructure improvement e.g. transport and utility systems are destroyed by a flood. 2. Rebuilding after a disaster provides significant opportunities to initiate development programs. - A self-help housing program to rebuild housing destroyed by an earthquake teaches new skills, strengthens community pride and leadership and retains development dollars that otherwise would be exported to large construction companies. 3. Development programs can increase an area s susceptibility to disasters. - A major increase in livestock development leads to overgrazing, which contributes to desertification and increases vulnerability to famine. 4. Development programs can be designed to decrease the susceptibility to disasters and their negative consequences. - Housing projects constructed under building codes designed to withstand high winds result in less destruction during the next tropical storm. Decision-makers who ignore these relationships between disasters and development do a disservice to the people who place their trust in them. Increasingly, around the world, forward thinking Ministries of Planning and Finance with the support of United Nations and Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) officials are assessing development projects in the context of disaster mitigation and are designing disaster recovery programs with long term development needs in mind. Disruption of development by disasters Disasters can seriously disrupt development initiatives in several ways, including: " Loss of resources " Interruption of programs " Impact on investment climate " Impact on the non-formal sector " Political destabilization 26

26 PART 1 CHAPTER 3 Linking disaster and development Loss of resources Development resources are lost when a disaster wipes out the products of investment it shortens the life of development investments. The disasters affect development through: " Impact on capital stock and inventory " Loss of production and provision of services due to disruption and increased cost of goods and services " The secondary effects of the disaster include inflation, balance of payment problems, increase in fiscal expenditure, decreases in monetary reserves " Other indirect losses, for example: the impact on a country s debt position could be that as the debt service burden increases, the country has less resources available to invest in productive enterprises " The outcome of these losses of resources include: loss of economic growth, delays to development programs, cancellation of programmes, and disincentives to new investment " There may also be a shift in skilled human resources toward high visibility recovery activity a diversion from long-term to short-term needs. Interruption of programs Disasters interrupt ongoing programs and divert resources from originally planned uses. Impact on investment climate Disasters, especially when they have occurred repeatedly within a short period of time, have a negative impact on the incentive for further investment. Investors need a climate of stability and certainty to be encouraged to risk their money. The disaster further clouds the investment picture when it has caused loss of employment, thereby depressing market demand, and resulting in a stagnation which limits overall growth. Impact on non-formal sector Disasters have special negative impacts on the non-formal sector where approximate costs of disasters are often underestimated. Disasters depress the non-formal economy through the direct costs of lost equipment and housing (which often also serves as business sites). The indirect costs of disasters include lost employment, and lost income. Sometimes the importation of relief items creates disincentives to producers. Political destabilization The stress to a country caused by a disaster often results in the destabilization of the government. This may occur for several reasons. For example, the government may have mismanaged the disaster relief and recovery, leading to discontent on the part of affected communities. Or the survivors may have had unmet expectation which, for whatever reason, translate into some form of protest. The government could also become the scapegoat for problems beyond its control, again leading to its possible downfall. In fact, it is very common for a government to collapse or be overthrown within two or three years of a major disaster. 27

27 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management 1 Q. Recall the most recent disaster with which you are familiar. Based on that experience, respond to the following. A. 1. Identify a facility critical to the local economy that was knocked out of service. 2. Name one development project that was interrupted. 3. Identify one case of an investment that was withdrawn or reduced because of the disaster. 4. Identify one case of non-formal sector employment that was lost because disaster relief displaced the need for it. 5. Describe and example of how the government may have been destabilized by the disaster. How development may cause disasters The side effects of well-meaning development efforts sometimes have disastrous consequences. Development projects implemented without taking into account existing environmental hazards may increase vulnerability to natural disasters. For example, projects designed to increase employment opportunities, and thus income, usually attract additional population growth. Low-income people may then have to seek housing in areas previously avoided, on hillsides or in floodplains. The costs of relief assistance after a landslide or flood can easily outweigh the benefits to the economy of more jobs. Similarly, development projects may lead to negative political consequences that increase the vulnerability to civil conflict. Some types of development projects commence without fully assessing their impact on the environment. This can occur even in programmes resulting from a disaster, such as reconstruction projects that increase demand for wood to fortify houses. The resulting deforestation can then bring increased vulnerability to mudslides and possibly long-term environmental changes. Development projects may even consciously force a choice between reducing disaster vulnerability and economic vulnerability. A project s design may require a trade-off between the two and force a decision between the lesser of two evils. 28

28 PART 1 CHAPTER 3 Linking disaster and development Q. Can you describe how development can contribute to vulnerability based on the following examples of negative consequences? A. Watershed erosion Deforestation Loss of biological diversity Lack of soil and land management Air and water pollution Inadequate urban sanitation and waste disposal Marine and coastal zone development Development opportunities afforded by disasters Despite an increasing disaster awareness in the international community, and the recognition of the importance of developing coherent plans for relief activities, it often takes the actual or imminent occurrence of a large-scale destructive event to stimulate individual governments to think about a developmental approach. Thus, a disaster can serve as a catalyst for introducing mitigation activities. Few development workers realize the opportunities that disasters can provide in the development field. Disasters often create a political and economic atmosphere wherein extensive changes can be made more rapidly than under normal circumstances. For example, in the aftermath of a disaster, there may be major opportunities to execute land reform programmes, to improve the overall housing stock, to create new jobs and job skills, and to expand and modernize the economic base of the community-opportunities that would not otherwise be possible. The collective will to take action is an advantage that should not be wasted. Disasters can also highlight high-risk areas where action must be taken before another disaster strikes. The realization of vulnerability can motivate policy-makers and the public to participate in mitigation activities. Disasters may also serve to highlight the fact that the country is seriously under-developed. They can thus bring in funding and the attention of donor communities to apply to long-term development needs. (Henderson, 1990) See table on the next page for examples of answers to this question. 29

29 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management 1 DISASTER AND ECONOMICS Table 3.1 Examples of development leading to disasters or increased vulnerability From Disasters and Development: A Study in Institution Building, Intertect, January,

30 ! CHAPTER 4 Natur tural hazards PART 1 CHAPTER 4 Natural hazards In earlier chapters, the discussion about disasters and emergencies resulting from natural and human-made hazards has been developed in general terms. However, each hazard has its own characteristics. To understand the significance and implications of a particular type of disaster we must have a basic understanding about the nature, causes and effects of each hazard type. The list of hazard types is very long. Many occur infrequently or impact a very small population. Other hazards, such as severe snowstorms, often occur in areas that are prepared to deal with them and seldom become disasters. However, from the perspective of a disaster victim it is not particularly useful to distinguish between minor and major disasters. Some disasters are now of limited interest to the international community. These include avalanches, fog, frost, hail, lightning, snowstorms, and tornadoes. The international interest is less for these hazards because their impacts affect relatively few people and the countries in which they normally occur have sufficient resources and systems in place to respond without external assistance. There are several hazard types for which there is widespread concern. They can be categorized as follows: Sudden onset hazards (geological and climatic hazards) earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides Slow onset hazards (environmental hazards) drought, famine, environmental degradation, desertification, deforestation, pest infestation Industrial/technological system failures/accidents, spillages, explosions, fires Wars and civil strife armed agression, insurgency, terrorism, and other actions leading to displaced persons and refugees Epidemics-water and/or food borne diseases, person-to-person diseases (contact and respiratory spread), vector-borne diseases and complications from wounds These hazard types are highlighted in this training material. The international community has an interest in them because they frequently affect large populations and the need for outside assistance is evident. Many disasters are themselves international events and have an impact on entire regions. A brief description of each hazard type is presented below. It will be your responsibility to determine which hazards are of concern to your country and then to read the material about them. 31

31 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management 2 Q. Which hazards are of concern to your country? A. List the most important hazards in order of their severity of impact Now learn more about each of these hazards in the material that follows. Geological Hazards Earthquakes Tsunamis Volcanic eruptions Landslides Climatic Hazards Tropical cyclones Floods Drought Environmental Hazards Environmental pollution Deforestation Desertification Pest Infestation Epidemics Industrial Accidents Characteristics of particular hazards and disasters 1 This section provides an indication of the general characteristics of each of the hazard types listed and the kinds of counter-disaster measures which may be required. You should note that disasters have collateral or indirect effects that may endure even after a particular type of disaster has been directly addressed. The problem of displaced people after a sudden onset disaster, such as a cyclone, may continue well after immediate relief, recovery and even rehabilitation programmes have been implemented. Such collateral impact can turn a seemingly rapid onset disaster into a continuing emergency situation. 1 The following material on hazards and population displacements is drawn from the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual. 32

32 PART 1 CHAPTER 4 Natural hazards A further issue that must be borne in mind concerns the consequence of a sudden onset disaster when relief assistance is stymied because civil conflict makes access impossible. In other words, the perverse permutations are many. Nevertheless, the basic characteristics of certain types of disasters and emergencies and appropriate response measures can be structured as follows:! Causal phenomena! Typical effects! General characteristics! Possible risk reduction measures! Predictability! Specific preparedness measures! Factors contributing to vulnerability! Typical post-disaster needs Different types of disasters have characteristic effects while retaining unique aspects. Risk reduction and preparedness measures, and emergency and postdisaster response can all be facilitated by some rules of thumb as outlined in this section but must also be tailored to the specificity of local conditions. Remember: (a) where different types of disaster occur in combination e.g. floods accompanying tropical storms the combined effects must be considered; and where one disaster leads to another (for example a famine leading to civil strife) the compound effects must be anticipated (b) the severity of the actual impact on the society depends on human and organization factors as well as natural and topographical ones. Legend Figure 4.1 World map of selected hazards # Volcanic eruptions # Land areas affected by tropical cyclones # Shorelines exposed to tsunami waves # Desertification likely or active # Seismic belts 33

33 An Over ervie view of Disaster Management 2 Earthquak thquakes Causal phenomena General characteristics and effects Predictability Factors contributing to vulnerability Typical adverse effects Possible risk reduction measures Specific preparedness measures Typical post-disaster needs Impact assessment tools Slippage of crustal rock along a fault or area of strain and rebound to new alignment. Shaking of earth caused by waves on and below the earth s surface causing: Surface faulting Aftershocks Tsunamis Tremors, vibrations Liquefaction Landslides Probability of occurrence can be determined but not exact timing. Forecasting is based on monitoring of seismic activity, historical incidence, and observations. Location of settlements in seismic areas. Structures which are not resistant to ground motion. Dense collections of buildings with high occupancy. Lack of access to information about earthquake risks. Physical damage Damage or loss of structures or infrastructure. Fires, dam failures, landslides, flooding may occur. Casualties Often high, particularly near epicenter or in highly populated areas or where buildings not resistant. Public health Fracture injuries most widespread problem. Secondary threats due to flooding, contaminated water supply, or breakdown in sanitary conditions. Water supply Severe problems likely due to damage of water systems, pollution of open wells and changes in water table. Hazard mapping Public awareness programs and training Assessing and reducing structural vulnerability Land use control or zoning, building codes Insurance Earthquake warning and preparedness programs Search and rescue Emergency medical assistance Damage needs and assessment survey Relief assistance Repair and reconstruction Economic recovery Earthquake scales (Modified Mercalli, MSK), earthquake damage and usability forms. 34

34 PART 1 CHAPTER 4 Natural hazards Tsunamis Causal phenomena General characteristics Predictability Factors contributing to vulnerability Typical adverse effects Possible risk reduction measures Specific preparedness measures Typical post-disaster needs Impact assessment tools Fault movement on sea floor, accompanied by an earthquake A landslide occurring underwater or above the sea, then plunging into the water. Volcanic activity either underwater or near the shore. Tsunami waves are barely perceptible in deep water and may measure 160 km between wave crests May consist of ten or more wave crests Move up to 800 km per hour in deep water of ocean, diminishing in speed as the wave approaches shore May strike shore in crashing waves or may inundate the land Flooding effect depends on shape of shoreline and tides Tsunami Warning System in Pacific monitors seismic activity and declares watches and warnings. Waves generated by local earthquakes may strike nearby shores within minutes and warnings to public may not be possible. Location of settlements in low lying coastal regions Lack of tsunami resistant buildings Lack of timely warning systems and evacuation plans Unawareness of public to destructive forces of tsunamis Physical damage The force of water can raze everything in its path but the majority of damage to structure and infrastructure results form flooding. Withdrawal of the wave form shore scours out sediment and can collapse ports and buildings and batter boats. Casualties and public health Deaths occur principally by drowning and injuries from battering by debris. Water supply Contamination by salt water and debris or sewage may make clean drinking water unavailable. Crops and food supplies Harvests, food stocks, livestock farm implements and fishing boats may be lost. Land may be rendered infertile due to salt water incursion. Protection of buildings along coast, houses on stilts Building barriers such as breakwaters Hazard mapping, planning evacuation routes Establish warning systems Community education Warning and evacuation; search and rescue; medical assistance; conduct disaster assessment, provide food, water and shelter Aerial surveys of coastal areas, damage surveys, evaluation of warning systems and evacuation plans. 35